THE TOOLS OF

HISTORY

H 0 5 0 –
P H I L O S O P H Y O F
H I S T O R Y
 RECAP
• Definition of History and Philosophy of History

• Two concerns of Philosophy of History

• Thinking and Reading Like a Historian

 Concepts of Historical Understanding
 Historical Explanation
 Historical Causation
 Historical Objectivity
 Historical Fact and Truth
 Historical Interpretation
Objectives:
1.Explain what historiography is.
2.Distinguish the ‘traditional’ approach from
the ‘new’ approach when doing /writing
history.
3.Expound why these theories and concepts
were the central topics when doing /writing
history.
Activity: Crowdsourcing
• Can you name examples of controversial historical events in the
Philippines?
Activity:
Crowdsourcing
• Assassination of Antonio Luna
Analysis
1.Why did you choose the said topics?
2.Who was/were the author/s you know who write
these topics?
3.Were there available documents written about
these topics?
4.If you were like these historians, would you like to
write the same topic/s?
Assigned Readings
• Black, J. and Macraild, D. 2017. “Chapter
3 – Varieties of History (ii), Chapter 4 –
Approaches to History and Chapter 5 –
Theories and Concepts” in Studying
History 4th ed. UK: MacMillan Publishers
Limited.
Historiography
• Conal Furay and Michael Salevouris (2015) defined historiography as
“the study of the way history has been and is written – the
history of historical writing … when you study ‘historiography’
you do not study the events of the past directly, but the
changing interpretations of those events in the works of
individual historians” (255).

• it is the study of the history and methodology of history's

discipline (Daniel 2012)

• “the writing of history” – sum total of history written about a

particular person, period or event
Historiography
• it should involve thinking about the particular ways in which
the relevant specialist historians have conceptualized,
researched, and written about the subject at hand (Donnely and
Norton 2011, 16)

How does their work differ from one another’s? At what point does it converge?
How do we explain their arrival at contending interpretations, and how do we
cope with their lack of agreement?
Historical Method
• techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary sources
and other evidence to research and then write histories in the form of
accounts of the past (Edwards 2013, 1)

Criticism
Collection Presentati
of the
of data on of Facts
Data
 Collection of Data Through Primary and
Secondary Sources
• The technique of data collection is called heuristics. Heuristic is a
word driven from the Greek word heuriskein, which means ‘to find.’ The
term implies techniques of finding material or related to the collection
of data.

• The researcher should know the exact places of localities where the
documents are lying. Documents are essential for any research work.
Collection of
Data Through
Primary and
Secondary
Sources
 Collection of Data Through Primary and
Secondary Sources
• Galgano, Arndt, and Hyser (2008, 20) called the systematic
identification and collection of all relevant print and online materials
necessary to conduct scholarly research on a particular topic as a
research trail.

• The research trail is a multi-step process that proceeds from locating

the most general guides to historical materials to the more specific
works that lead to identifying primary and secondary sources about the
paper topic.
 Collection of Data Through Primary and
Secondary Sources
• The research trail has four purposes:

1. It helps the historian become familiar with the major reference works
in history.
2. It enables researchers to compile lusts of materials for a specific
research project. This is especially important since it helps researchers
to understand better what has already been written about the topic
and how their own work might consider new questions or add nuances.
3. It provides a working list of materials to be read and analyzed for the
project and rationale for their selection over others.
4. It offers information that helps narrow the research topic and frame
new questions.
Collection of Data Through Primary and
Secondary Sources

Author, title, city of publication, publisher,

and year of publication – as well as how the
particular references that provided the
sources are organized. In addition, a
comment about what materials they provide
and some assessment of their value will be
useful as the research advances. It is also
wise to list the URL source and page
(uniform resource locator) for online
materials.
 Collection of Data Through Primary and
Secondary Sources
• Primary Sources

Primary sources are those very close or contemporary to the event or

period under study. They are raw materials of history. They broadly
include archaeological and written material. Archaeological sources
include tombs, old buildings, old settlement sites, and ruins, and
monuments. Written materials include travelogues, chronicles, edicts,
charters, official.
• Two kinds of primary sources:

o Intentional sources – Sources were produced with the intent of being preserved for the future
(government documents, church records, autobiographies, or memoirs)
o Unintentional Sources – private or correspondence not originally meant for posterity but
which later are deposited in archives and libraries
 Collection of Data Through Primary and
Secondary Sources
• Primary Sources

• Categories of Primary Sources: 

 Unpublished – only found in one particular location such as an archive or a special

collections section of a research library, or a particular local library or historical
society; materials do not circulate thus, the historian must visit the facilities to view
these documents
 Published – widely available at archives, research libraries, public libraries, and
websites
 Edited or Selected – widely available but edited or selected collections of the
writings; the editor organized the writings in a special way (theme or
chronologically)
 Collection of Data Through Primary and
Secondary Sources
• Secondary Sources

The testimony of someone who was not present at the time of the happening of
the event.
• Many important clues about a secondary work may be found in the prefatory or introductory
materials. Here, historians can find explicit assertions of the thesis. The preface and
introduction provide hints about the author’s:

 point of view (preferences based on the sources used, who is the author, when he or she
lived, what his or her values are, under what conditions the secondary work was written,
and the author’s relationship to the topic),
 use of sources (concerning the significance of different sources used by an author)
 theoretical approach (theory can shape new questions to be tested against evidence
and provide a structure for understanding an event or trend in a new way).
Criticism of the Data
• Historical writing depends on the accuracy and observation, and
veracity of the other people's reports. The accuracy and authenticity
are ascertained by the process of scientific investigation into the
acceptability of data. This is called analytical operation or the
analysis and verification of the authenticity of the collected data.
Moreover, a researcher must analyze the validity of the data supporting
his thesis. This testing is called criticism. After ascertaining the source
materials' availability, the researcher is to find out the reliability of each
source before he uses it for writing the historical work.
Criticism
of the
Data
Criticism of the Data
• External Criticism

• External criticism is aimed at preventing the use of false evidence. In external

criticism, the scholar examines whether records are forged or distorted. It
examines whether a particular document or an artifact is genuine or not.

• External criticism analyzes the authorship of documents, handwriting, dates,

the question of genuineness, purity, etc.
• the object of external criticism is to trace the original text with its essential
requisites, such as the date and place of its composition, and establishes the
authenticity of the text. It tries to know the external things about the text and not its
contents.
Criticism of the Data
• Internal Criticism

• Internal criticism is applied to examine the credibility of a document,

whether the contents given in it are believable or not. The internal value of the
document must be analyzed. Internal criticism aims to penetrate the contents,
analyze the text internally, and find out the historical facts contained in it. The
internal criticism is the establishment of the credibility of the collected data.
• A research scholar must analyze the source reasonably. Thus internal criticism
deals with the contents of the documents, their probability, author’s veracity,
etc
Synthesis of the Facts
• Historical synthesis is concerned with joining, grouping, arranging,
explaining, and interpreting the data.

• To arrange the isolated facts into a new form and put different things
together to present a new and systematic composition for the readers.

The researcher has the responsibility to utilize the various kinds of materials so
that historical facts come into the light. There should be a presentation of facts in
the most interesting and understandable way.
Synthesis of the Facts
• Three important elements:
1. Contingency or elements of chance or luck in a historical event.
2. The second one is related to necessity, i.e., cause and effects in historical
events and plays a vital role in history development.
3. Logic is essential in synthesis. Historians use logic or order in historical
synthesis. It is believed that there is some idea or logic behind every action of
a person, and without it, he would not be able to act.
Synthesis of the Facts
 While grouping the facts, the following must to be considered:

 No facts are to be underestimated.

 Much care should be needed while grouping facts so that no useful fact is left.
It may be remembered that sometimes a small fact can be the beginning of an
important event.

 It must be appropriately studied whether a specific personality was in proper

order, and his influence should also be adequately traced on the course of
events.

 The periods should be clearly divided, and there must be a chronological

sequence in them. It should be clear that one sequence should lead to another.
Synthesis of the Facts
 Arrangements of facts can be made in the following manner for the
convenience of the study:

a. Geographical: it is based on reference to places.

b. Chronological: it is based on reference to dates of happening.
c. Topical: it is based on reference to the contents.
d. Individual: it is based on reference to persons.
e. Institutional: it is based on reference to establishments and the like
(Padmanabhan and Gafoor 2011, 164-165).
Referencing
• Process of acknowledging historians, writers, or sources you have
relied on for information and evidence. References are integrated into your
own writing, either within the text, as footnotes (at the bottom of the page), or
as endnotes (at the end of your piece). Academics and students use referencing
across many subjects and disciplines, not only history (Galgano, Arndt and
Hyser 2008).
Referencing
• Why is it important?

1. Referencing is evidence that validates your own argument.

2. Referencing is evidence of effective research.
3. Referencing acknowledges the work of others.
Referencing
•Today, the 17th edition of The Chicago Manual of Style is the
specific format style used by a researcher when writing his/her research.
See link: https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html

•Two of the most common referencing systems are named for prominent
universities: Oxford (UK) and Harvard (US).  
 Referencing
The Oxford method (Notes-Bibliography) is also known as ‘documentary
note referencing” or simply ‘footnoting.” The main feature of Oxford
referencing is its use of footnotes at the bottom of each page. A section of your
text uses quotes, ideas, or information from another source. A small superscript
number (like this1) is added at the phrase's tail, sentence, or paragraph. If you
have used more than one source, then multiple superscript numbers can be used
(like this1,2). Each of these superscript numbers refers to a numbered citation, n at
the bottom of the page.
______________________

1. Jones, S., Oxford Referencing for Beginners, Academic Books: London, 2002, p. 12.

2. Smith, W., Referencing the Easy Way, Columbia Books: New York, 2007, p. 33.

 
Referencing
Referencing
• Footnotes assist the audience in following the thoughts and processes questions posed
by fellow scholars to shape their arguments.

• Why do researchers footnote?

 As citation footnote, inform the audience where the author found the evidence that
support a particular argument or case.
 Indicate that the historian/researcher examined the original materials and used them
fully to substantiate an argument
 Provide the audiences the ability to locate, analyse and corroborate the evidence used
in the paper, and enable them to determine the validity of the conclusions reached.

•
Referencing
• Ibid., op. cit. and loc. cit. are three Latin abbreviations that
often appear in Oxford referencing. They allow you to refer
to the same source multiple times, without needing a full
citation for each reference.
Ibid.
• Ibid. (short for the Latin ibidem, meaning “found in the same place”) is used
where a reference to one source immediately follows a reference to the same
source. Ibid. must be written or typed in italics and be followed by a
period. Ibid. can be used alone (if the reference is from the same page) or it can
be used with a different page number.

 For example:

1. Brown, Alexander, The History of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1975,

p.94.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid. p.156.
Op. cit.
• Op. cit. (short for the Latin opere citato, meaning “work cited”) is used to refer
to a work already cited in footnotes. While ibid. refers to the immediately
preceding citation, op. cit. refers to an earlier citation. It should be used after the
author’s surname. Like ibid., op. cit. should be italicised and contain two periods.

For example:

1. Brown, Alexander, The History of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1975,

p.22.
2. White, John, Nazi Germany in Focus. New York: Imprint Books, 1992, p.104.
3. Brown, op. cit., p.81.
• 
Loc. cit.
• Loc. cit. (short for the loco citato, meaning “located in the work cited”) refers to
the same page of an earlier reference. It can be used on its own (to refer to the
previous citation) or with the author’s surname (to refer to an earlier citation).

For example:

 
1. Brown, Alexander, The History of Nazi Germany. London: Brown Books, 1975,
p.103.
2. Loc. cit.
3. White, John, Nazi Germany in Focus. New York: Imprint Books, 1992, p.221.
4. Brown, loc. cit.
Referencing
• The Harvard method of referencing (Author-Date) uses in-text citations
rather than superscript numbering. In the Harvard system, references are
added in parentheses within the text, immediately after the relevant statement
or quotation. Harvard references are usually very brief, listing just the author’s
surname and the date of publication. A page number is sometimes added,
when referring to a specific quote or piece of information.
Annotated Bibliography
• An annotation is a brief note following each citation listed on an
annotated bibliography. The goal is to briefly summarize the source
and/or explain why it is important to the topic. They are typically
concise paragraph, but might longer if you are summarizing and
evaluating.
Annotated Bibliography Styles
a. Combined Informative/Evaluative Style. This style is recommended as it
combines all the styles to provide a complete view of a source. The annotation
should explain the source's value for the overall research topic by providing a
summary combined with an analysis of the source.
b. Informative Style. Similar to an abstract, this style focuses on the summarizing of
the source. The annotation should identify the hypothesis, results, and conclusions
presented by the source.
c. Evaluative Style. The style analyzes and critically evaluates the source. The
annotation should comment on the source’s strengths, weaknesses, and how it
relates to the overall research topic.
d. Indicative Style. This style identifies the main theme and lists the significant topics
included in the source. Usually no specific details are given beyond the topic list.

• 
Annotated Bibliography
Name:
Name of Assigned
Assessment
Historian: • In your assigned historian, list
down 3 to 5 of his written works
 Tips: No need to read the entire book/article.
Look for information like:
and provide a short annotation
Introductions/conclusions
using the 17th Edition Chicago
1. Preface/Foreword
Abstracts
Book reviews Manual of Style.
Websites
2. Table of contents
First and last paragraphs Tips: No need to read the entire book/article. Look
  for information like:

3. Introductions/conclusions
Preface/Foreword
Abstracts
4. Book reviews
Websites
Table of contents

5.  
First and last paragraphs
s