BILINGUAL CODE-SWITCHING AND SUB-LANGUAGES

The topic of this paper is bilingual code-switching, especially the difference

between code-switching, which occurs in speech of a bilingual person and sub-
language (sociolect), formed by phonetical, morphological, grammatical, lexical,
syntax, semantic means of both languages.

The concept of code-switching

The concept of code-switching is considered as a situation when a speaker

(code-switching is possible predominantly in an oral communication) spontaneously
mixes two or more languages.

Code in our context is considered as a linguistic variety, so code-switching

may be denoted as an alternating between linguistics varieties in the same act of
communication [4: 404].

Code-switching is stated to be intra-sentential, when it occurs in the middle

sentence, inter-sentential, when it occurs from sentence to sentence [2: 57].
Occasionally tag switching occurs when a tag phrase or a statement is taken (usually
in intra-sentential switches).

It must be mentioned that code-switching can also occur in internet

communication, “word of mouth”, especially when people interact via social
network services. Mechanism and the reasons of code-switching in instant
messaging are almost the same as in casual communicating. Moreover, when one
language has Latin alphabet and the other has Cyrillic alphabet, a person may code-
switch without changing the alphabet but transliterating.

There are different types of code-switching depending on a language level at

which it occurs.

1. Code-switching may occur in phonematic terms at phonological level, when

a bilingual alternates the rules of pronunciation of two languages.
 For example, a Russian-Ukrainian bilingual, speaking Russian, may
unwittingly pronounce the word according to the rules of Ukrainian. E.g. in the
Russian word “мирный” /mirnyj/ (meaning “peaceful”) the phoneme “и” is
pronounced /ɪ/ in Ukrainian and /i/ in Russian (transcription is given according to
the International Phonetic Alphabet). He or she may even not notice it, and it
happens quite often, especially after a speaker was immersed into the Ukrainian
environment (e. g. watched the news in Ukrainian or attended lessons), and
immediately after it speaks Russian in everyday life.

2. Code-switching may occur in terms of grammar.

A bilingual may speak using the vocabulary of one language, but grammar
rules of the other. That may concern, for instance, declension, conjugation and cases
and the ways they are produced in different languages, rules of formation of
grammatical gender, additional cases, number, tenses, moods etc.

For example, a Russian-Ukrainian bilingual, speaking Ukrainian, may speak

using Ukrainian vocabulary and rules of pronunciation, but use Russian paradigm of
declension. Let us consider cases. Rules of genitive case in both languages are
different. If we take the word of grammatical masculine gender, in Russian genitive
case is formed by adding in the process of inflection the ending “-а” /а/, but in
Ukrainian grammar pattern is much more sophisticated. One must choose between
an ending “-а” /а/ or “-у” /u/, and the decision depends on the meaning of the word.
For instance, with the lexeme indicating people, parts of a body, names of months,
days of the week, currency, cities, items of furniture, separate finite objects,
mathematical terms, one has to use the ending “-а”, while with the lexeme indicating
processes, conditions, territories, substances, materials, terms of literature, physics
and chemistry, abstract nouns, natural phenomena, emotions, one has to use the
ending “-у” /u/ (of course, it is just a part of all set of rules; ad extremum there is a
great number of rules and exceptions). This topic is considered to be one of the most
difficult in the language, so, trying to form genitive case, a person may switch to
Russian grammar and choose to produce the declension according to that paradigm.
It may happen in case one speaks too fast and do not have that moment to choose
the necessary morpheme, or in case he or she simply do not know the rules well
enough and it is easier to just code-switch.

3. Code-switching may occur in terms of lexemes at the lexical level, and that is
the most studied and frequent type of code-switching. A bilingual switches
between two languages and alternates words (word combinations) from
different languages.

For instance, a sentence “Dame una hamburguesa sin lettuce por fa vor”
(“Give me a hamburger without lettuce please”). The speaker code-switches and
choose “lettuce” for the Spanish lexeme (“lechuga”) [1: 164].

Another example can be provided from a speech of a bilingual knowing

Swahili and English. Code-switched variant is “Ulikuwa ukiongea a lot of
nonsense”. The translation is “You were talking a lot of nonsense”. Moreover, there
is a variant “Hata wengine nasikia washawekwa cell”. “Even others I heard were put
[in] cells” is translation. Let us quote an instance of Hindi-English bilingual speech.
“Life ko face kiijiye with himmat and faith in apane aap”. “Face life with courage
and faith in self” [4: 408].

4. Code-switching may occur in terms of syntax, when a person uses vocabulary

and grammar of one language, but the principles of sentence structure of the
other.

For example, this type of code-switching is not typical for Russian-Ukrainian

bilingual because of similar patterns of sentence structure in both languages, but can
occur in the speech of a bilingual knowing two languages with differences in syntax.
An English-Italian bilingual may, speaking fast or being nervous, place an adjective
after a noun in the English speech, as it is usually placed in Italian. Furthermore, it
often occurs among native speakers of Slavic languages placed into English
speaking community, when they start to communicate back their native language
and construct sentences in a Slavic language according syntax principles of English.
 For instance, in English, the adjective is placed before the noun (e.g., “I want
a green tomato”). In Spanish, the noun is placed before the adjective (e.g., “quiero
un tomate verde”). Spanish-English code-switching may emerge if the adjective is
put according to the rules of the language of the adjective [1: 165].

The concept of bilingualism

Though code-switching can occur in a speech of a monolingual person, who

studies a new language (in this situation happens rarely) or appears abruptly in the
surrounding of people speaking an unknown language or the one that is not native
for the person, code-switching tends to be common for the speech of bilinguals.

Bilingualism is stated to be an ability to communicate freely and fluently two

languages, when one person is a native speaker of two languages. Sometimes there
are also bilinguals whose language competence is not well enough to communicate
second language for particular situations and aims [5: 10]. Bilingual person rarely
has completely the same command of both languages.

Let us provide a concise overview of the bilingual phenomena. The basis of it

is the dual language system hypothesis. It claims that there are two separate systems
with two different sets of vocabulary, grammar, syntax, pronunciation rules. It
happens when a child lives and is brought up in bilingual societies and has access to
two languages. Furthermore, the phenomenon of bilingualism can be divided to
sequential (successive) and simultaneous types. Simultaneous acquisition of two
languages occurs usually in the early childhood, the process is almost the same as
acquisition of a one language. Sometimes child acquires two language system when
his or her parents are the native speakers of two different languages. It is said that
the language development of a bilingual child is similar to the one of monolingual
kid [11: 271]. People, who possess, sequential (successive) bilingualism, acquire L1
being a baby and L2 typically after achieving the age of three or older. Such
bilingualism can be divided into subtractive and additive. In case of the former type,
the volume of lexicon and language competence is decreasing in L1, and the original
language would be replaced by L2. Vice versa, additive bilingualism can be
considered as obtaining of a good command of L2 without forgetting the “primary”
L1 [6: 9].

The concept of sub-language

Let us define the term “natural sub-language” or “mixed sociolect”, which

occurs in a bilingual community due to a range of social, political and historical
reasons. Mixed sociolect is considered to be a peculiar mix of two languages. For
instance, there is a phenomenon called “syrzhyk” in Ukraine, which can be termed
as “means of two languages, artificially united and infringing the literary norms and
standards” [8: 104].

Giving it the once-over, one may confuse such type of mixed sub-language
with code switching. From outside perspective, the such a speech does look similar
to code-switching. A person use lexemes and grammar means of both languages,
alternating them spontaneously, subconsciously and beyond voluntary control, being
a native speaker of both original natural languages. However, these phenomena,
code-switching and mixed sub-language, are totally different.

Reasons of code-switching

In order to define the difference between code-switching and using of a

specific sub-language in a speech of a bilingual person, several reasons of a code-
switching must be stated:

1) Paucity of language proficiency [1: 165].

Though both languages may possess almost the same volume of vocabulary
and the bilingual can be aware and can operate the structural rules of both languages
on the same level, it generally happens that one language dominates. In such a
situation bilingual meets with a reverse to retrieve the word he or she needs and is
unable to remember what he or she needs.

A situation when both languages are of the same importance for the bilingual
and are used identically in the same realms of life is quite rare because of a range of
social and political reasons. In some countries and societies bilingualism is statutory,
for example, in Belarus (Belarusian and Russian), Belgium (Dutch, French and
German), Switzerland (French, German, Italian and Romansh). Furthermore,
sometimes bilingualism is historically established and can either accepted by society
or cause disputes and political feuds of long standing. Globalization have
encouraged mass migration, and a lot of minor bilingual societies spontaneously
appeared. When the migration is economically and politically motivated, people are
to assimilate as fast as possible and at the same time they try to retain their culture,
religion and language, preserve cultural code. For the older generation in such minor
societies the native language remains the same, but for the younger one both
languages, the one of their ancestors (L1) and the one of the surrounding (L2),
become native. They are not, of course, used in the similar volume and in the same
sectors of life. Usually L1 is spoken only at home or when surrounded by
compatriots (seldom), while L2 becomes a language of education, work and is used
more frequently to communicate with locals. After two generations descendants of
the immigrants commonly loose L1 and become monolingual [3: 2]. Similar, but not
the same situation appears when bilingualism is historically deep-rooted but is of a
controversial political, social, economic issue. Usually in such situation there are
two language in society, one is official, lawful, considered to be a language of
documentation, legislation, government, media, education, customer service, the
other is extensively used in other spheres of life. Language in such a case becomes
a means of political influence and can even cause severe tension and internal
conflicts in society.

Both in minor societies among bigger, more powerful nation and in societies,
where bilingualism is historical and wide-spread, code-switching is common and
happens more often, than among bilinguals in societies with legally stated
multilingualism. Code-switching is not very typical for balanced bilingualism
(almost similar command of both L1 and L2, ability to speak them with a native
fluency). It is a rare phenomenon among people, as most bilinguals have a preferred,
prior language, because balanced bilingualism needs the equality of two languages
in society (which happens seldom) [11: 271].

Code-switching happens because of three reasons.

Firstly, when languages are used in different spheres, a native speaker does
not possess enough vocabulary and ability to deal with grammatical, syntax,
punctuational means of a language style he or she does not frequently use, so, when
a person needs to interact with a text of style he or she is not used to, code-switching
is almost inevitable. For instance, when talking on a subject concerning history,
exact or natural sciences in Russian, Ukrainian-Russian bilingual may code-switch
to Ukrainian because of studying these courses in terms of secondary and higher
education and never talking on these topics in Russian. Thus, one may code-switch
terms or nominations of the countries which do not exist more. As an example, the
bilingual, mentioning Austria-Hungary, would rather say Ukrainian variant
“Австро-Угорщина” then Russian “Австро-Венгрия”.

Secondly, bilinguals may use both languages in different ways. For example,
Ukrainian-Russian bilinguals deal well with writing in Ukrainian, but speaking in
Russian (because of using Russian in everyday communication and Ukrainian
during the educational process or at work). When changing the type of language
usage, different code-switching occurs. Thus, while speaking Ukrainian, lexis and
rules of declension can be taken from Russian. Vice versa, when writing in Russian,
the rules of orthography and grammar may be kept Ukrainian.

Thirdly, the difference between using L1 and L2 lies not only in the area or
way of usage. Language dominance may also be a reason of code-switching, when
L1 has a prior status and used much more, than L2. In such a case L1 is accessed
much faster because of being habitual and operated more frequent, so the language
neural networks are more developed [3: 167].

2) Absence of a necessary lexeme, which bears the semantic of a concept

person is talking about
 The well-known fact is that lexical structure of languages may differ much
and do not cover the same volume of concepts. Thus, when speaking a language,
bilingual code-switches. Such a lexeme cannot be considered to be a borrowing,
because it is spontaneous and does not remain in further speech.

For example, there is a word “кохання” /kokhannya/ in Ukrainian language,

which can be translated as “love” but bearing narrower semantics, meaning romantic
relationships. The other word, “любов” /lyubov/, which is also translated as “love”,
bears wider semantics and means intense emotional attachment to somebody or
something. It can be used to describe not only romantic relationships, but also to
express the emotions concerning family, friends, motherland, nature or even
hobbies. There is only one analogue in Russian, “любовь” /lyubov'/, bearing all the
mentioned meanings. Therefore, when a bilingual is speaking in Russian and wants
to specify the concept of “love”, note, that he or she is talking especially about the
romantic love, he or she code-switches and uses the Ukrainian word.

Particular attention must be paid to code-switching of phraseological units.

Phraseological units are fixed expressions, stable multiword units, which possess
fully or partly figurative meaning [12: 19]. Phraseological unit is a separate semantic
unit, which meaning is not based on the meanings of the detached words which form
the phraseme, so, it has its own, independent meaning. Stability of a phraseme is
also an important feature, which must be taken into consideration when studying
phraseme code-switching. Phraseme is stable because of its cohesion at the structural
level and meaning, including stylistic elements. Native speakers use such
expressions subconsciously, while when language is somehow secondary for its user
time and intellectual effort may be needed. The form and the meaning of phraseme
is located in mental lexicon in long-term memory. There are phraseological units
typical for both in formal and informal context, and also many of them are used in
slang. They are unique for different languages and depend on the cultural and
historical context, appearing in the language by the process of lexicalization, so
separate language elements are transformed into the stable phraseological unit.
 Phraseological units occur (as well as other units of the language) due to the
process when people of different societies understand the most diverse phenomena
of reality, natural, sociocultural and spiritual worldviews. Their meaning is not
mainly to fix some phenomena of reality but to express our attitude to them (positive
or negative, approving or disapproving), which makes our speech more expressive
and emotional. For instance, when a person says “I did not like it, I paid through the
nose”, it would be much more emotional than saying “I did not like it, I paid too
much”. Let us consider another example: “He was totally talking through one's hat”
sounds livelier and in more affective tone than “He was speaking without regard for
facts”.

That is why code-switching of phrasemes may occur: a bilingual may want to

express that level of emotions and express that peculiar, specific meaning and use
the phraseological unit from another language. It may be code-switched in two ways.

Firstly, one may just take some phraseme without any translation. For
example, speaking in Ukrainian one may use a phraseological unit from Russian,
when there is no phraseological analogue. Thereby, a phraseological unit “битый
час” /bityy chas/ meaning “one solid hour” or “for a long time” has strong emotional
and stylistic shade of meaning and may be used being angry or in highly strung,
high-wrought state, but there is no analogue of similar meaning shade in Ukrainian,
so the bilingual telling in Ukrainian how much he or she was waiting, would rather
code-switch.

Secondly, phrasemes may be code-switched by translating the words which

form the unit. That is quite typical for similar languages of the same language group.
For instance, Ukrainian unit “прихилити небо” /prikhiliti nebo/, which can
verbatim et literatim translated as “to incline the sky”, means “to make everything
for somebody, even what seems impossible”. There is no analogue in Russian so
speaking the latter the bilingual may translate the lexemes, keeping the same
meaning.

3) Fatigue, weariness of a speaker or experience of strong emotions

 Such type of a code-switching often occurs not only in a bilingual speech, but
in a speech of a person who interacts with different languages while studying or
working. For example, translators and interpreters after a long work keep bearing in
mind the languages of work and, thus, while communicating, alternate the grammar
rules and lexemes.

Bilinguals may also code-switch when experiencing strong emotions. It may

be proposed that bilinguals may code-switch when wanting to distance themselves
from some embarrassing and disturbing topics. Therapists working with bilingual
clients note that the clients switched to L1 talking on something emotional (L1 is
considered to be connected stronger to the emotional concepts) and, vice versa,
switched to L2 when they wanted to avoid unpleasant topic [14: 282].

4) Quoting a person

When quoting, a person code-switches because it is easier and more precise

to keep the original version rather than translate the statement.

5) Establishing oneself as a member of a peculiar group

The reason for code-switching may be a desire to claim one`s membership

and differ oneself from another social units, to show one is a part of a social group.

Let us consider the instance [13: 90].

“White boy: Oh, Royston, ya goin' football on Saturday?

Black boy: Mi na go football! Who for?

White boy: Check some gyal later.

Black boy: Na. Mi na wan check gyal now.

White boy: Rassclaht! Fink ya bent'”.

First boy uses the Creole of the Black Jamaican boy to express comradely
solidarity and pass a hurdle between two different social groups.

6) Triggering hypothesis
 Code-switching may be the consequence of socio-contextual and lexical
triggering. Sometimes code-switching may occur due to the lexical triggering
hypothesis, which claims that cognate words can cause alternating lexemes of two
languages [7: 79]. Bilinguals may alternate the languages because of the presence of
trigger word. What is more, lexical triggering is not independent from socio-
interactive forces and reasons, mentioned above. Lexical and structural factors
should be always studied within a context, and the context itself can form the extent
in which these factors influence code-switching. So, lexical triggering depends on
other reasons, which facilitate code-switching and must be studied within the system
of these factors [10: 51].

Reasons of sub-language occurrence

Sociolect is usually historically deep-rooted and occurs due to political and

social reasons. A hybrid sub-language originates between two languages in a
constant mutual contact. Such a sociolect is not composed between two societies of
different languages communicating a lot, but exists within a society, which has two
languages inland and internally. Such a sociolect occurs in different countries: for
Belarus it is “trasianka” (Belarusian and Russian), for Ukraine it is “surzhyk”
(Ukrainian and Russian), for Quebec French it is “joual” (French and English).

It may be considered as a language of illiterate, ignorant people or at least of

a people without a complete knowledge and a good command of both languages, but
is also used by educated people who perfectly know both languages and
communicate the sub-languages because they are used to and because it is their
native tongue.

One must not confound such a mixed sub-language with a pidgin language,
because the latter is a simplified version of a language and develops in a situation
when two societies need to communicate somehow but do not speak the same
language, and the former is used within the one society. Pidgin language is also used
only in limited circumstances and can be only a second (additional) language, while
a hybrid sociolect is used universally apart from some special circumstances as
documents compilation and can be considered as first, native for the majority of the
speakers. When a pidgin becomes native (when its users begin to spoke it within
their families and children perceive it since birth), it transforms in a creole language,
which may be considered as full-fledged and has a stable grammar system and
lexicon [9: 2]. It is still different from a hybrid sub-language (the latter does not
usually consist a precise, clear grammar system and boundaries of a lexical system
are blurred).

Let us state the reasons society creates a mixed sub-language. While reasons
of code-switching include both extralinguistic and linguistic factors, a mixed
sociolect occurs only because of external factors, usually of political, historical,
social causes. For example, syrzhyk occurred because of coexistence of two
languages, Russian and Ukrainian, within one society, which have different social
and political status, and it roots date back to the 18th century. Many centuries of
political tension and different coexistence of two societies, Russian and Ukrainian,
within different countries of various political decisions concerning the language
issue led to syrzhyk occurrence. It can be of different forms in different regions
(Russian lexemes and grammar dominate closer to Russia; Ukrainian lexemes
dominate in the central part of Ukraine). Furthermore, it cannot be considered similar
to cockney, the accent and dialect of some London regions, which is used primarily
by working-class, because it is not about the vernacular, colloquial language versus
the literary one for upper class, but about the crossroad, sub-language between two
different languages [8: 125].

Why code-switching and hybrid sub-language are completely different

phenomena?

Having stated the definition of the concepts of code switching and mixed sub-
language, main characteristics of these phenomena and the reasons, why they occur,
we may outline four main reasons, which define that code-switching and hybrid sub-
language are completely different phenomena which need to be studied differently.
 1) Time, which is needed by bilingual either to code-switch or to speak sub-
language

The definite fact is that a person needs time to code-switch. Monolingual texts
are composed, read and understood quicker. Code-switching is a time-consuming
process, because, firstly, a person needs to grasp the fact he or she needs code-
switching and, secondly, find the analogue, switch from one language to another. L1
and L2 cannot be “switched on” simultaneously, a person definitely needs some time
to analyze the incoming acoustic signals, select the language, which means he or she
wants to use, “turn off” L1 and “turn on” L2. “Two switch mechanism” determines
which of two language systems is “on” and “off” [1: 165].

Nevertheless, a mixed sub-language is spoken, read and perceived without

any pauses, intervals or “switching”. A speech is going on fluently, perceiving of
communication acts does not involve any difficulties for both native speaker of such
a sub-language and for a person knowing both pure languages. Though both
phenomena are automatic and subliminal, when code-switching, a person
subconsciously slows down and needs time, but while using a sub-language, one
does not need more time, than speaking the pure language. Bilinguals, who spoke
not only just two natural, pristine languages, but the sub-language between them,
establishes third language system (third lexicon, set of grammar rules and syntactical
patterns), usually taking the language means of both languages, mixing them in a
peculiar way, what is crucial, not in the process of speech but when a baby obtains
his or her native sub-language (usually such a mixed sociolect is the mother tongue,
and only growing up the child learns to divide, separate both languages and use their
pure version). So, no switching occurs: bilingual constructs its speech and
communication, perceive, write and read within one language system, formed by
sociolect.

2) Predictability of the speaker`s choice

Considering code-switching, we may say that it is almost impossible to know

beforehand if a person would code-switch and which means and analogues would
he or she choose. Though the probability of code-switching phenomenon is
increasing in some particular situations, environments and in communication with
different people (for instance, cognate words may trigger the code-switching [7:
79]), it is still unpredictable and unforeseen process. However, when people are
communicating within the mixed sub-language and using its means, the participants
of such act of communication can predict which exactly lexemes, grammar and
syntactical structure would be used, because they are stable for a particular sub-
language.

For example, if we consider syrzhyk, for one of its numerous variations

Russian grammar and Ukrainian lexemes are used, for another, both grammar and
vocabulary are used Ukrainian, but words and grammar are somehow “russianized”,
e.g. Russian morphemes may be used. In such a situation one can know beforehand
which exactly means of which language would be used.

3) Formation of new lexemes, which occur only within the sub-language

The concept of code-switching includes only alternating already existing

means, which are taken from different languages and beyond the mixing are standard
for pure language. Even if some occasionalism occurs (for example, when
morphemes are alternated within a word), it is still a solitary instance, which is said
once in a speech and does not become a stable unit used by other speakers.

Nevertheless, taking into account sub-language, there are lexemes, which are
sustained and persistent, but are used only within a sub-language but not in a pure,
monolingual speech. Thus, by alternating means of two different languages,
sociolect creates new words.

As an example, syrzhyk may be taken. The word “what” is translated as “что”

(/chto/, if we read the lexeme according to the general rules of pronunciation, and
/shto/ if we read as it must be pronounced correctly, because this word is irregular
in its pronunciation) in Russian and “що” /shcho/ in Ukrainian, while in most
variants of Russian-Ukrainian sub-language the lexeme “шо” /sho/ is used. As it
may be seen, sociolect does not take either word. It connects both analogues and
simplifies the lexeme. So, in /shto/ and /shcho/ the second phoneme, /t/ and /ch/ is
omitted, so /sho/ appears. It must be noticed that this word is of an often frequency
in almost all Indo-European languages. Thus, it is used so much, that a person talking
and comprehending syrzhyk the whole childhood, continue to use lexeme “шо” even
within a monolingual speech, both Russian and Ukrainian. Moreover, the usage of
this word is not appreciated in a society, it definitely must be omitted in an official
style and beyond everyday casual communication. A person, who uses it beyond
informal context, may be considered to be unlettered, ignorant, because this lexeme
is the distinctive sign of ineptitude to talk pure language.

4) Code-switching may occur between the original language and the

sociolect

The reason, that may claim that code-switching and sub-language are different
phenomena, is the fact that code-switching may occur not only between languages,
but also between dialects of the language [4: 405], thus, between sub-language and
pure language.

That happens, of course, when the hybrid sociolect creates somehow, through
simplification, conjunction and another lexeme modification, new lexemes, which
than may be code-switched or even borrowed into an original language. In addition,
grammar or syntax sets of rules, eased or changed by sociolect, may be also code-
switched. For example, sometimes in a sub-language a particular noun is declined in
a mixed pattern (when to form different cases morphemes of different languages are
taken), a person talking an original language may code switch and decline the word
as it is declined in a sub-language. Same may occur in terms of syntax or
pronunciation. Sociolects usually possess very specific principles of pronunciation,
not just combining two standard pronunciations, but adding a special accent, which,
of course, may be code-switched and used accidently in the monolingual speech.

It can be concluded that the bilingual code-switching (spontaneous alternating

the means of two languages) and the mixed sub-language (hybrid sociolect) are
completely different phenomena, though may be quite resembling in some
situations, and must be studied in a different way.
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