Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 1

Chapter Ten
Vectors and Motion in Space
10.1 Cartesian (Rectangular) Coordinates and Vectors in Space
Cartesian Coordinates
To locate points in space, we use three mutually perpendicular
coordinate axes, arranged in the figure.


O y
x
( A right-handed coordinate frame)
The axes shown here make a right-handed coordinate frame. If your
fingers curl from the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis, your
thumb points along the positive z-axis.
 Ⅶ
Ⅳ
xoy plane

VIII
x
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

Coordinate Planes and Octants

The plane determined by the x-axis and y-axis is the xy-plane.
The plane determined by the y-axis and z-axis is the yz-plane.
The plane determined by the x-axis and y-axis is the xz-plane,
Ⅲ
yoz plane

o
z
zox

Ⅴ
plane

The three coordinate planes divide space into eight cells called
Ⅱ
Ⅰ
2

octants. The octant in which the point coordinates are all positive is called
the first octant.
)
Cartesian Coordinates

x
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

The Cartesian coordinates ( x, y, z ) of a point P in space are the

numbers at which the planes through P perpendicular to the axes cut the
axes. Cartesian coordinates for space are also called rectangular
coordinates because the axes that define them meet at right angles.

C ( x , o, z )
z

R(0,0, z )

P ( x ,0,0)


A( x , y ,0)

Points on the z-axis have coordinates of the form (0, 0, z ) .

B(0, y , z )

M ( x , y, z )
y
Q(0, y ,0)

Points on the x-axis have coordinates of the form ( x , 0, 0) .

Points on the y-axis have coordinates of the form (0, y, 0) .

The points on the xy-plane have the coordinates of the form ( x, y, 0) .

The standard equation for the xy-plane is z  0 .

The points on the yz-plane have the coordinates of the form (0, y, z ) .
The standard equation for the xy-plane is x  0 .
The points on the xz-plane have the coordinates of the form ( x, 0, z ) .

The standard equation for the xz-plane is y  0 .

Three coordinate planes meets at the origin (0, 0, 0) .

3
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 4

Distance Formula：
Given two points P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) in space, the distance
between the two points is given by

d ( P1 , P2 )  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z2  z1 ) 2
z R
 P2
P1 Q


N
P
y
o

2 2 2
x d 2  P1 P  PN  NP2 ,

Example: Find the distance between two points (2,1,5) and ( 2,3,0) .
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 5

Examples: (Interpreting Equations and Inequalities Geometrically)

(1) x  c1 , where c1 is a constant.

O y

(2) y  c2 , where c2 is a constant.

O
y

(3) z  c3 , where c3 is a constant.

z

O
y

x
) (5) z  0,

(5) x  0,
x

x
x  0,
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

(4) z  0 . The half-space consisting of the points on and above the xy-
palne.
y  0 . The second quadrant of the xy-palne.

y  0, z  0 . The first octant.

y

(6) 1  z  1 . The slab between the planes z  1 and z  1 .

(7) y  1, z  2 . The line in which the planes y  1 and z  2 intersect.

Alternatively, the line through the points (0, -2, 2) parallel to the x-axis.

(8) x 2  y 2  4 and z  3 .
z

O
(0,2,1)

y
6
) (9) y  x 2 and z  1 .
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

A circle of radius 2 centered at (0,0, 3) in the plane z  3 .

A parabola in the plane z  1 .

z

O
y
7
)
Vectors in Space

E
A

O
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

Scalars: numbers, used to determine the magnitudes of things.

F
B

P
D

In the figure above, the four arrows have the same length and
direction. They represent the same vector. We write
   
AB  CD  OP  EF
8

Scalars are used to measure time, lengths, temperature, and distances, etc.
Vectors: used to determine a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction. Vectors are used to represent forces, displacements, velocities,
and accelerations in space.
Vectors in space are directed line segments. Two such vectors are
equal if they have the same length and direction.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 9

Definition: (Component Form of a Vector)

Position vector: If P is a point in space, then the vector with initial point
(0, 0, 0) and terminal point P is called the position vector of point P. This

vector is denoted by OP .

If v is a vector in space equal to a vector with initial point (0, 0, 0)

and terminal point (v1 , v2 , v 3 ) , then the component form of v is

v  v1 , v2 , v 3  . This is also the position vector of the point (v1 , v2 , v 3 ) .

Given the points P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) , the position vector

 
v  v1 , v2 , v 3  equivalent to P1 P2 is
 
v  P1 P2  x2  x1 , y2  y1 , z2  z1 


z v  x2  x1 , y2  y1 , z2  z1 

O
y

x
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 10

Two vectors  v1 , v2 , v3  and  u1 , u2 , u3  are equal

if and only if
v1  u1 , v2  u2 and v3  u3 .

 
The magnitude or length of the vector v  P1 P2 is

v  v12  v 2 2  v3 2  ( x2  x1 )2  ( y2  y1 )2  ( z2  z1 )2

Zero Vector and Unit Vectors

The zero vector is the vector with length 0.

0  0,0,0  .
The zero vector is the only vector with no specific direction.
A unit vector is a vector of length 1.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 11

Vector Algebra Operations

Two principal operations:
vector addition and scalar multiplication.
Definitions (Vector Addition and Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar)
 
Let u  u1 , u2 , u3  , v  v1 , v2 , v 3  be vectors with k a scalar (real
number).
Addition:
 
u  v  u1 , u2 , u3    v1 , v2 , v 3 
 u1  v1 , u2  v2 , u3  v3 
Scalar Multiplication:

ku  ku1 , ku2 , ku3  ,
 
(1)u   u1 ,  u2 ,  u3   u
) x

x
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

Geometric interpretation of vector addition

(Triangle Law)

(Parallelogram Law)
y
y
12
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 13

Geometric interpretation of the product of a scalar and a vector



u
u

0.5u
The difference of two vectors
   
u  v  u  ( v )
 
u  v  u1 , u2 , u3    v1 , v 2 , v 3 
 u1  v1 , u2  v2 , u3  v3 

Properties of Vector Operations

  
Let u , v w be vectors and a, b be scalars.
u 1.

3.

8.

9.
   
uv vu
     
  
u0 u

 
5. 0u  0
 
6. 1u  u

 
4. u  (  u)  0


7. a (bu)  (ab) u
  
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

2. ( u  v )  w  v  ( u  w )


a (u  v )  au  av
 
(a  b)u  au  bu


Example: Performing Operations on Vectors

14
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 15

Standard Unit Vectors

The vectors represented by the directed line segments from the origin to
the points (1,0,0) , (0,1,0) , and (0,0,1) are the standard unit vectors and
  
are denoted by i  1, 0, 0  , j  0, 1, 0  , and k  0, 0, 1 


Any vector v  a, b, c  in space can be written as a linear
combination of the three standard unit vectors as follows:

v  a , b, c 
 a , 0, 0    0, b, 0    0, 0, c 
 a  1, 0, 0   b  0, 1, 0   c  0, 0, 1 
  
 a i  b j  ck

The position vector r of a point P ( x , y , z ) can be written as
   
v  x i  y j  zk

The vector P1 P2  x2  x1 , y2  y1 , z2  z1  can be written as
   
P1 P2  ( x2  x1 )i  ( y2  y1 ) j  ( z2  z1 )k

With standard unit vector, we can write the operations of vectors in the
following way.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 16

       
Let u  u1 i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1 i  v2 j  v3 k , a be a scalar, then
    
u  v  ( u1  v1 )i  (u2  v 2 )j  ( u3  v 3 )k
    
u  v  ( u1  v1 )i  ( u2  v 2 )j  ( u3  v 3 )k
   
au  (au1 )i  (au2 )j  (au3 )k
   
u  u1 i  u2 j  u3 k  u12  u2 2  u3 2

Length and direction


 v 
If v is a nonzero vector, then  is a unit vector in the direction of v .
v


  v 
The equation v  v  expresses v as a product of its length and
v

direction.
   
Example: If a velocity vector v  i  2j  3k , then
 1  2  3 
v  14( i j k) .
14 14 14

14 is the length of v .(speed)
1  2  3  
The unit vector i j k is the direction of v .
14 14 14
(The direction in which the object is moving.)
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 17

Equations of Spheres in Space

If a sphere of radius a is centered at the point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) , then a

point P ( x , y , z ) lies on the sphere if and only if P0 P  a or

( x  x0 ) 2  ( y  y 0 ) 2  ( z  z 0 ) 2  a 2
The equation above is called the standard equation for the sphere of
radius a and center P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) .

Example: Finding the center and radius of a sphere.

x 2  y 2  z 2  3 x  4z  1  0 .
The method used here is the method of completing the square.
) Midpoints

x
2
,
2

O
,
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

The coordinates of the midpoint of a line segment joining points

P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) are found by averaging.

z
)

y
18

The midpoint M of the line segment joining points P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and

P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) is the point

M(
x1  x2 y1  y2 z1  z2
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 19

10.2 Dot Product and Cross Product

Definition Dot product (Inner product)

  
The dot product (or inner product) uv of vectors u and v is the
number
   
uv  u v cos
 
where  is the angle between u and v .
       
Let u  u1 i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1 i  v2 j  v3 k be two nonzero vectors.
By the cosine law, we have
2 2  2
u  v  uv u v  u v  u3v3
cos     1 1 2 2 .
uv uv
So we obtain the following.
       
If u  u1 i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1 i  v2 j  v3 k , then
   
uv  u v cos  u1v1  u2v 2  u3v 3
 
The angle  between two nonzero vectors u and v is given by
 
uv
  cos 1  
u v
) 1.

5.
  

   

3. u(v  w )  uv  uw

 
4. uu  u

0u  0
2

Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

Properties of the Dot Product

If u , v w are any vectors and c is a scalar, then
 
uv  v u
2. (cu)v  u(cv )  c (uv )
      

Definition Perpendicular (Orthogonal) Vectors



perpendicular to any vectors.

if and only if


Two nonzero vectors u and v are perpendicular (orthogonal) if the

angle between the two vectors is


2
20

. We define that the zero vector is

By the definition of inner product and the definition above, we obtain

the following.


Vectors u and v are orthogonal (perpendicular)


uv  0 .
) Vector Projections



v



Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space

uv  v


vector orthogonal to v



| u | cos    u 
|v |
 


Vector projection of u onto v :

|v |

Example Finding the vector projection



v

 


u v 
projvu  (| u | cos )   (  2 )v
|v | |v |
Scalar component of u in the direction of v :




the scalar component of u in the direction of v .


 
The vector projection of u  PQ onto a nonzero vector v  PS is the

vector PR determined by dropping a perpendicular from Q to the line
PS. The notation for this vector is

proj u (Vector projection of u onto v )

  



21

Find the vector projection of u  6i  3j  2k onto v  i  2j  2k and



Express a vector u as a sum of a vector parallel to a vector v and a

 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 22

   
u  projv u  ( u  projv u)
 


The first term in the sum is parallel to the vector v , the second term in

the sum is orthogonal to the vector v .

Example
   
A force F  2i  j  3k N is applied to a spacecraft with velocity vector
    
v  3i  j . Express F as a sum of a vector parallel to v and a vector

orthogonal to v .
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 23

The Cross Product (Vector Product) of Two Vectors in Space

   
Let u and v be two nonzero vectors. If u and v are not parallel,

they determine a plane. We select a unit vector n perpendicular to the
plane by the right-hand rule.

The right-hand rule means that we choose n to be the unit vector
(normal vector) that points in the direction your right thumb points when
 
your fingers curl through the angle  from u to v .
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 24

Definition Vector (Cross) Product

    
u  v  ( u v sin )n
Remark: (1) The vector u  v is orthogonal to both u and v .
   
(2) u , v and u  v are right-handed. This means that when you
 
curl your fingers through the angle  from u to v , your thumb point in
 
the direction of u  v .
(3) Since the sines of 0 and  are both zero, it makes sense to
define the cross product of two parallel nonzero vectors to be zero
   
(4) If one or both of u and v are zero, we also define u  v to
be zero.

The Test for Parallel Vectors

    
Two nonzero vectors u and v are parallel if and only if u  v  0

Properties of the Cross Product

  
If u , v and w are any vectors and r , s are scalars, then
   
1. ( ru)  ( sv )  ( rs )( u  v )
      
2. u  (v  w )  u  v  u  w
      
3. (v  w )  u  v  u  w  u
   
4. u  v   v  u
  
5. 0  u  0
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 25

Cross Products of standard unit vectors

              
i  j=  j  i=k , j  k  k  j  i , k  i   i  k  j
      
i  i  j j  k  k  0 .
Determinant Formula for u  v
       
u  u1 i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1 i  v2 j  v3 k
  u2 u3  u3 u1  u1 u2 
u v  i j k
v2 v3 v3 v1 v1 v2
  
i j k
 u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3

Example: Finding vectors perpendicular to a plane

Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane determined by three points
P (1, 1,0), Q(2,1, 1) , and R( 1,1, 2) .

 
u  v is the area of a parallelogram
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 26

Example: Find the area of the triangle with vertices P (1, 1,0),

Q(2,1, 1) , and R( 1,1, 2) .

 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 27

Triple Scalar or Box Product

     
The product ( u  v )w is called the triple scalar product of u , v , and w
( in that order).
       
( u  v )w  u  v w cos , where  is the angle between u  v and

w.
  
The number ( u  v )w is the volume of parallelepiped determined by
  
u , v , and w .

Triple scalar product in terms of components

           
u  u1 i  u2 j  u3 k , v  v1 i  v 2 j  v3 k , w  w1 i  w2 j  w3 k

u1 u2 u3
  
( u  v )w  v1 v2 v3
w1 w2 w3
Example Find the volume of the box (parallelepiped) determined by
         
u  i  2j  k , v  2i+3k , w  7j  4k .
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 28

10.3 Lines and Planes in Space

Equations for Lines in Space
In space, a line is determined by a point and a vector giving the
direction of the line.

Suppose that L is a line in space passing through a point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 )

   
parallel to a vector v  v1 i  v 2 j  v3 k .
 
Then L is a set of all points P ( x , y , z ) for which P0 P is parallel to v .
 
Thus P0 P  tv for some scalar parameter t.
 
If r ( t ) is the position vector of a point P ( x , y , z ) on the line and r0 is

the position vector of a point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) , then we have the following

vector form for the equation of a line in space.
  
r ( t )  r0  tv , (   t   ) ,

Vector equation for a line


A vector equation for the line L through P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) parallel to v is
  
r ( t )  r0  tv , (   t   ) ,
 
where r is the position vector of a point P ( x , y , z ) on L and r0 is the
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 29

position vector of a point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) ,

Using component form of vectors, we have the following.

Parametric equations for a line

The standard parametrization of the line through P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) parallel
   
to v  v1 i  v2 j  v3 k is

x  x0  tv1 , y  y0  tv 2 , z  z0  tv 3 , (   t   )
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 30

Examples
1. Find parametric equations for the line through ( 2,0,4) parallel to
   
v  2i  4 j  2k .

2. Parametrize the line joining the points P ( 3, 2, 3) and

Q(1, 1,4) .
To parametrize a line segment joining two points, we first parametrize
the line through the points. We then find the t-values for the endpoints
and restrict t to lie in the closed interval bounded by these values. The
line equation together with this added restriction parametrize the segment.
3. Parametrize the line segment joining the points P ( 3, 2, 3) and

Q(1, 1,4) .
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 31

Interpretations of the vector form for a line

We rewrite the vector form in the following

   v
r ( t )  r0  ( t v ) 
v
Think of the line as the path of a particle starting at position

P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and moving in the direction of vector v , and the parameter

t as time, then t v is the distance moved along the line.
The position of the particle at time t is its initial position plus its rate

v
 time (distance moved) in the direction  of its straight-line motion.
v
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 32

Equations for Planes in Space

A plane in space is determined by knowing a point on the plane and
its “tilt” or orientation. The “tilt” is defined by specifying a vector that is
perpendicular or normal to the plane.
A plane is determined by a point on the plane and the normal vector
of the plane.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 33

Suppose that the plane M passes through a point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and is

   
normal to the nonzero vector n  Ai  B j  C k . Then M is the set of all
  
points P ( x , y , z ) for which P0 P is orthogonal to n . P0 P is orthogonal to

n if and only if
 
n P0 P  0 ,
i.e.,
A( x  x0 )  B( y  y0 )  C ( z  z0 )  0 .
So we obtain the following.
Equation for a plane
   
The plane through P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) normal to n  Ai  B j  C k has
 
Vector equation: n P0 P  0
Component equation: A( x  x0 )  B( y  y0 )  C ( z  z0 )  0
Component equation simplified: Ax  By  Cz  D , where
D  Ax0  By0  Cz0

Examples
(1) Find an equation for the plane through P0 ( 3,0,7) normal to
   
n  5i  2 j  k .

(2) Find an equation for the plane through A(0,0,1) , B(2,0,0) ,

C (0, 3,0) .

Definitions:
Two planes are parallel if and only if their normals are parallel.
Two planes are perpendicular if and only if their normals are
perpendicular.
Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 34
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 35

Lines of Intersection
Two planes that are not parallel intersect in a line.

 
The direction of the line of intersection is given by n1  n2 .

Examples
(1) Find a vector parallel to the line of intersection of the planes
3 x  6 y  2 z  15 and 2 x  y  2 z  5 .
(2) Find parametric equations for the line in which the planes
3 x  6 y  2 z  15 and 2 x  y  2 z  5 intersect.
(3) Find the point where the line
8
x  2t , y   2t , z  1  4
3

intersects the plane 3 x  2 y  6 z  6.

 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 36

10.4 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Cylinders
Definition: A cylinder is the surface composed of all the lines that
(1) lie parallel to a given line in space
and
(2) pass through a given plane curve. The curve is a generating
curve for the cylinder.
Remark: In solid geometry, where cylinder means circular cylinder, the
generating curves are circles, but now we allow generating curves of any
kind.

The cylinder above is composed of all lines that are parallel the
z-axis and pass through the parabola y  x 2 , z  0
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 37

Example 1 Find an equation for the cylinder made by the lines parallel
to the z-axis that passes through the parabola y  x 2 , z  0
Solution: Suppose that the point lies on the cylinder, then the point
( x , y ,0) lies on the parabola y  x 2 , z  0 , hence ( x , y , z ) satisfies

y  x2 .

Conversely, if a point ( x , y , z ) satisfies y  x 2 , then the point

P0 ( x , x 2 ,0) lies on the generating curve y  x 2 , z  0 . So

Q( x , x 2 , z ) lies on the cylinder because it lies on the line through

P0 ( x , x 2 ,0) parallel to the z-axis.

Hence, an equation for the cylinder is y  x 2 .

Remark: In the plane, the graph of y  x 2 is a parabola; but in

space, the graph of y  x 2 is a cylinder composed of lines parallel to

the z-axis and pass through the parabola y  x 2 , z  0

As in Example 1,
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 38

Any curve f ( x , y )  c in the xy-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the

z-axis whose equation is also f ( x , y )  c .

Any curve g( x , z )  c in the xz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the

y-axis whose equation is also g( x , z )  c .

Any curve h( y , z )  c in the yz-plane defines a cylinder parallel to the

x-axis whose equation is also h( y , z )  c .

Equation of a Cylinder
An equation in any two of the three Cartesian coordinates defines a
cylinder parallel to the axis of the third coordinate.

Remark: When we study surfaces, it helps us to look at the curves by

intersecting the surface with planes parallel to the coordinate planes.
These curves are called cross sections or traces.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 39

Example: The elliptical cylinder x 2  4 z 2  4 is made of lines parallel

to the y-axis and passing through the ellipse x 2  4 z 2  4 in the xz-plane.

The cross sections or traces of the cylinder in planes perpendicular to the
y-axis are ellipses congruent to the generating ellipse. The cylinder
extends along the entire y-axis.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 40

Example: The hyperbolic cylinder y 2  z 2  1 is made of lines parallel to

the x-axis and passing through the hyperbola y 2  z 2  1 in the yz-plane.

The cross sections or traces of the cylinder in planes perpendicular to the
x-axis are hyperbolas congruent to the generating hyperbola. The cylinder
extends along the entire x-axis.

y2 z2 y2 z2
Exercises: Describe the graphs of  1 ,   1 , and z  2 x 2 .
4 9 4 9
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 41

Quadric Surfaces
Definition: A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation
in x, y, and z. The most general form is
Ax 2  By 2  Cz 2  Dxy  Eyz  Fxy  Gx  Hy  Jz  K  0
where A, B, C, and so on are constants.

The equation can be simplified by translation and rotation. We will

study only the simpler equations.

The basic quadric surfaces are ellipsoids, paraboloids (elliptic

paraboloids, hyperbolic paraboloids) , elliptic cones, and hyperboloids
(hyperboloids of one sheet, hyperboloids of two sheets).
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 42

x2 y2 z2
The ellipsoid 2  2  2  1 (1)
a b c

The ellipsoid (1) cuts the coordinates at (  a ,0,0), (0,  b,0), and

(0,0,  c ) .
It lies within the rectangular box defined by the inequalities
| x | a , | y | b , and | z | c .
The surface is symmetric with respect to each of the coordinate
planes.
The curves in which the three coordinate planes cut the surface are
ellipses.
If any two of the semi-axes a, b, and c are equal, the surface is an
ellipsoid of revolution. If all three are equal, the surface is a sphere.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 43

x2 y2 z
The elliptic paraboloid 2  2  (2)
a b c

The elliptic paraboloid (2) is symmetric with respect to the planes

x  0 and y  0 .
The only intercept on the axes is the origin.
Except for the origin, the surface lies above (if c  0 ) or entirely
below ( if c  0 ) the xy-plane.
The sections cut by the coordinate planes are
c 2
x  0 : the parabola z  y
b2
c 2
y  0 : the parabola z  x
a2
z  0 : the point (0,0,0)

Each plane z  z0 above the xy-plane cuts the surface in the ellipse

x 2 y 2 z0 z  z
  , 0.
a 2 b2 c
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 44

x2 y2 z2
The elliptic cone   (3)
a 2 b2 c 2

The elliptic cone (3) is symmetric with respect to the three

coordinate planes.
The sections cut by the coordinate planes are
c
x  0 : the lines z   y
b
c
y  0 : the lines z   x
a
z  0 : the point (0,0,0)

The sections cut by planes z  z0 above and below the xy-plane are
ellipses
x 2 y 2 z02 z  z
  , 0,
a 2 b2 c 2
whose centers lie on the z-axis and whose vertices lie on the lines given
above.
If a  b , the cone is a right circular cone.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 45

x2 y2 z2
The hyperboloid of one sheet 2  2  2  1 (4)
a b c

The hyperboloid of one sheet is symmetric with respect to each of the

three coordinate planes.
The sections cut out by the coordinate planes are
y2 z2
x  0 : the hyperbola 2  2  1
b c

y  0: x2 z2
the hyperbola 2  2  1
a c
x2 y2
z  0 : the ellipse  1
a 2 b2
The plane z  z0 cuts the surface in an ellipse with center on the z-
axis and vertices on one of the hyperbolic sections above.
The surface is connected, meaning that it is possible to travel from
one point on it to any other without leaving the surface. For this reason, it
is said to have one sheet, in contrast to the hyperboloid of two sheets.
If a  b , the hyperboloid is a surface of revolution.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 46

z2 x2 y2
The hyperboloid of two sheets
2
 2  2 1 (5)
c a b

The hyperboloid of two sheets (5) is symmetric with respect to the

three coordinate planes.
The plane z  0 does not intersect the surface; in fact for a horizontal

plane to insect the surface, we must have | z | c .

The sections cut out by the coordinate planes are
z2 y2
x  0 : the hyperbola 2  2  1
c b

y  0: z2 x2
the hyperbola 2  2  1
c a
The surface is separated into two portions, one above the plane z  c
and the other below the plane z  c .

The relative positions of the hyperboloid of one sheet, elliptic cone, and
the hyperboloid of two sheets.
x2 y2 z2
Hyperboloid of one sheet:
2
 2  2 1
a b c
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 47

x2 y2 z2
Elliptic Cone:
2
 2  2 0
a b c
z2 x2 y2
Hyperboloid of two sheets:   1
c 2 a 2 b2
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 48

y2 x2 z
The hyperbolic paraboloid 2
 2  (6)
b a c

The hyperbolic paraboloid (6) has symmetry with respect to the

planes x  0 and y  0 .

The sections in x  0 and y  0 are

c 2
x  0 : the parabola z  y (opens upward from the origin)
b2
c 2
y  0 : the parabola z   x (opens downward from the origin)
a2
y x
z  0 : the lines  .
b a

Near the origin, the surface is shaped like a saddle. To a person

traveling along the surface in the yz-plane, the origin looks like a
minimum. To a person traveling in the xz-plane, the origin looks like a
maximum. Such a point is called a minimax or saddle point of a surface.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 49

10.5 Vector-Valued Functions

Space Curves
When a particle moves through space during a time interval I, we
think of the particle’s coordinates as functions defined on I:
x  f ( t ), y  g( t ), z  h(t ), t  I . (1)

The points ( x , y , z )  ( f ( t ), g ( t ), h( t )), t  I , make up the curve in

space that we call the particle’s path. The equations and interval in (1)
parametrize the curve.
A curve in space can also be represented in vector form. The vector
   
r (t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h(t )k (2)

from the origin to the particle’s position P ( f ( t ), g ( t ), h( t )) at time t is

the particle’s position vector. The functions f, g, and h are the component
functions (components) of the position vector.

We think of the particle’s path as the curve traced by r during the time
interval I.

Three computer generated graphs:

 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 50

We say that Equation

   
r (t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h(t )k

defines r as a vector function or vector-valued function of the real
variable t.

Definition: Vector valued-functions:

A vector function or vector-valued function on a domain D is a rule
that assigns a vector in the plane to each element in D. The curve traced
by a vector function is its graph.

   
The graph of r (t )  (cos t ) i  (sin t ) j  t k . (a helix)
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 51

The curve lies on the cylinder x 2  y 2  1 because

cos 2 t  sin 2 t  1 .

The curve rises as the k -component z  t increases. Each time t
increases by 2 , the curve completes one turn around the cylinder.
More helices:
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 52

Limits and Continuity

We define limits of vector functions in terms of their scalar
components.
Definition (Limit)
   
Let r ( t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h( t )k . If
lim f ( t )  L1 , lim g (t )  L2 , and lim h(t )  L3
t c t c t c


then the limit of r (t ) as t approaches c is
    
lim r (t )  L  L1 i  L2 j  L3 k ,
t c

or
    
lim r (t )  L  lim f (t ) i  lim f ( t ) j  lim f (t )k
t c x c x c x c

Definition (Continuity at a Point)

   
A vector function r ( t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h( t )k is continuous at a
point c in its domain if
 
lim r (t )  lim r (c ) .
t c t c

Component Test for Continuity at a Point

   
The vector function r ( t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h( t )k is continuous at t  c
if and only if f , g and h are continuous at t  c .
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 53

Derivatives
Definition (Derivative at a point)
   
The vector function r ( t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h( t )k has a derivative (is
differentiable) at t if f , g, and h have derivative at t. The derivative is the
vector function
  
 dr r (t  t )  r (t ) df  dg  dh 
r '(t )   lim  i j k.
dt  t  0 t dt dt dt


dr 
The vector , when different from 0 , is also a vector tangent to
dt
the curve at each point where it exists. The tangent line to the curve at a
point P ( f (a ), g (a ), h(a )) is defined to be the line through P parallel to

dr
at t  a .
dt

Definitions:

Differentiability: A vector function r is differentiable if it is

differentiable at every point of its domain. The curve traced by r is

dr
smooth if is continuous and never a zero vector.
dt
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 54

Piecewise smooth: A curve that is made up of a finite number of

smooth curves pieced together in a continuous fashion is piecewise
smooth.
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 55

Differentiation Rules for Vector Functions

  
Let u and v be differentiable vector functions of t. C is constant
vector. c any scalar, and f any differentiable scalar function.
d  
1. Constant Function Rule: C0
dt
d  d 
2. Scalar Multiple Rule: [cu (t )]  c u(t )
dt dt
d   
[ f (t )u(t )]  f '(t )u (t )  f (t )u '(t )
dt
d    
3. Sum Rule: [u(t )  v (t )]  u '(t )  v '(t )
dt
d    
4. Difference Rule: [u(t )  v (t )]  u '(t )  v '(t )
dt
d      
5. Dot Product Rule: [u (t )v (t )]  u '(t )v (t )  u(t )v '(t )
dt
d      
6. Cross Product Rule: [u(t )  v (t )]  u '(t )  v (t )  u (t )  v '(t )
dt
d  
7. Chain Rule: [u ( f (t ))]  f '(t )u '(t )
dt
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 56

Motion
Definitions (Velocity, Speed Acceleration, Direction of Motion)

If r is a position vector of a particle moving along a smooth curve in
the plane, then at any time t,

 dr
1. v (t )  is the particle’s velocity vector and is tangent to the curve.
dt
 
2. | v (t ) | , the magnitude of v , is the particle’s speed.
 
 dv d 2 r
3. a (t )   , the derivative of velocity and the second derivative
dt dt 2
of position, is the particle’s acceleration vector.

v
4.  , a unit vector, is the direction of motion.
|v |
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 57

Integrals
Definition (Indefinite Integral)

The indefinite integral of r with respect to t is the set of all
  
antiderivatives of a vector function r (t ) , denoted by  r ( t )dt . If R is

any antiderivative of r , then
  
 r ( t )dt  R( t )  C

Definition (Definite Integral)

   
If the components of r ( t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h( t )k are integrable on

[a , b] , then so is r , and the definite integral of r from a to b is

b  b  b  b 
 a
r (t )dt  (  f ( t )dt ) i  (  g (t )dt ) j  (  h(t )dt )k .
a a a
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 58

10.6 Arc Length

Definition: The length of a smooth curve
   
r ( t )  f (t ) i  g (t ) j  h( t )k , a  t  b ,
that is traced exactly once as t increases from t  a to t  b is
2 2 2
b  df   dg   dh 
L   dt    dt    dt  dt
a
     
2 2 2
b  dx   dy   dz 
  dt    dt    dt  dt
a
     
or
b 
L  v dt
a
Example: A glider is soaring upward along the helix
   
r (t )  (cos t ) i  (sin t ) j  t k .
How far does the glider travel along its path from t  0 to t  2 sec?
 Ch10 Vectors and Motion in Space 59

Assignment for Chapter 10

Section 10.1
1, 5, 9, 13, 15, 17, 19, 25, 27, 33, 35, 39, 49, 53
Section 10.2
1, 5, 7, 11, 15, 17, 19, 25, 29, 35, 41, 42, 57
Section 10.3
3, 5, 9, 13, 16, 17, 19, 21, 29, 31, 41, 47, 55
Section 10.4
13, 15, 17, 19