Optical Mineralogy

Minerals in Cross-Polarised Light

Interaction of polarised light with minerals:

LAB TS-1:
Double refraction
Relief
Colour and pleochroism
Other properties that can be observed in PPL

LAB TS-2:
Isotropy and anisotropy
Birefringence and interference
Extinction angle
Sign of elongation
 Polarisation

plane polarised light

(single vibration direction)

unpolarised light
(all possible vibration directions)

Nesse, 2000; Fig. 7.4

 Polarisation by selective absorption

polarising film

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.13

 Cross-polarisation (crossed Nicols or XN)

analyser
passes

absorbed
polariser

analyser mounted
above sample
at 90o to polariser

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 1.13

 Polarisation in the petrographic microscope

what happens
upper polarising filter (analyser) here???
LAB TS-2
what happens
here???
mineral sample (thin section)
LAB TS-1 plane polarised light (PPL)

lower polarising filter (polariser)

unpolarised light

light source
 Isotropy and Anisotropy

opaque materials: do not transmit light (even in thin section)

transparent materials: transmit light (given thin enough section)

isotropic: V and n identical in all directions

incident PPL passes through mineral
with vibration direction unchanged

PPL
anisotropic: V and n vary with direction
incident PPL split into slow and fast rays
vibrating in different directions

PPL
 Isotropy and Anisotropy

isotropic materials: V and n identical in all directions

in crystalline materials, this requires isometric symmetry!
transparent non-crystalline materials (e.g. glass) are also isotropic

anisotropic materials: V and n vary with direction

in non-isometric crystals, variation of V and n
is related to symmetry

uniaxial: hexagonal, tetragonal systems

biaxial: orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic systems
 Isotropy and Anisotropy
analyser: upper polarising filter; mounted at 90o to polariser
only light vibrating // analyser can pass through

analyser analyser analyser

light not transmitted

PPL
PPL PPL
isotropic minerals: anisotropic minerals:
opaque minerals: transparent in PPL transparent in PPL
look black in PPL PPL retains its PPL split into 2 rays
original orientation with different
polariser: lower polarising filter vibration directions
 Isotropy and Anisotropy
analyser: upper polarising filter; mounted at 90o to polariser
only light vibrating // analyser can pass through
what happens here? what happens here? what happens here?
analyser analyser analyser

light not transmitted

PPL
PPL PPL
isotropic minerals: anisotropic minerals:
opaque minerals: transparent in PPL transparent in PPL
look black in PPL PPL retains its PPL split into 2 rays
original orientation with different
polariser: lower polarising filter vibration directions
 Isotropy and Anisotropy
analyser: upper polarising filter; mounted at 90o to polariser
only light vibrating // analyser can pass through
some light transmitted:
mineral still looks black mineral goes black
interference colours
analyser analyser analyser

light not transmitted

PPL
PPL PPL
isotropic minerals: anisotropic minerals:
opaque minerals: transparent in PPL transparent in PPL
look black in PPL PPL retains its PPL split into 2 rays
original orientation with different
polariser: lower polarising filter vibration directions
 Interference
vibration
direction

propagation
direction

plane polarised light: vibrations confined to a single plane

normal to propagation direction

PPL viewed normal to propagation direction

 Interference
plane polarised light: vibrations confined to a single plane
normal to propagation direction

PPL viewed normal to propagation direction

double refraction: splits PPL into two rays (fast, slow) vibrating
normal to each other and to the propagation direction

different V controlled by nslow and nfast

orientation controlled by crystallographic
orientation of mineral grain

the two rays are therefore out of phase

when they emerge from the crystal
 Interference
double refraction: splits PPL into two rays (fast, slow) vibrating
normal to each other and to the propagation direction

different V controlled by nslow and nfast

orientation controlled by crystallographic
orientation of mineral grain

the two rays are therefore out of phase

when they emerge from the crystal

The phase difference (retardation, D) depends on:

• the thickness of the section
• the wavelength(s) of the light
• the difference in refractive index (birefringence, d)
between the two rays
 Retardation

D retardation two rays are

out of phase (D)
D  dns  n f  dd when they emerge
from crystal

d thickness
ns n of slow ray
d
nf n of fast ray

d  birefringence incident PPL

split into slow
= ns – nf and fast rays

Nesse, 2000; Fig. 7.14

 Interference
double refraction: splits PPL into two rays (fast, slow) vibrating
normal to each other and to the propagation direction

different V controlled by nslow and nfast

orientation controlled by crystallographic
orientation of mineral grain

the two rays are therefore out of phase

when they emerge from the crystal
The phase difference (retardation, D) depends on:
• the thickness of the section
• the wavelength(s) of the light
• the difference in refractive index (birefringence, d)
between the two rays
If the two rays are recombined, they will interfere
 Polarisation in the petrographic microscope

interference
upper polarising filter (analyser) what happens
fast and slow rays here???
out of phase LAB TS-2
mineral sample (thin section)
plane polarised light (PPL)

lower polarising filter (polariser)

unpolarised light
light source
 Interference
analyser: mounted at 90o to polariser
only light vibrating // analyser can pass through
 Interference
analyser: mounted at 90o to polariser
only light vibrating // analyser can pass through
isotropic minerals: all emergent light vibrates // lower polariser
no light passes through analyser
anisotropic minerals: two emergent rays (slow & fast) vibrating
in different directions
analyser recombines these into a single ray
resolved // vibration direction
 Interference
analyser: mounted at 90o to polariser
only light vibrating // analyser can pass through
isotropic minerals: all emergent light vibrates // lower polariser
no light passes through analyser
anisotropic minerals: two emergent rays (slow & fast) vibrating
in different directions
analyser recombines these into a single ray
resolved // vibration direction
resultant //
analyser

polariser direction analyser direction some light passes

 Interference
analyser: mounted at 90o to polariser
only light vibrating // analyser can pass through
isotropic minerals: all emergent light vibrates // lower polariser
no light passes through analyser
anisotropic minerals: two emergent rays (slow & fast) vibrating
in different directions
analyser recombines these into a single ray
resolved // vibration direction

When fast and slow rays are recombined, they interfere:

for constant thickness (30 mm section)
interference is proportional to birefringence (d)
 Interference

first second third fourth

order order order order where fast and slow
rays vibrate at 90o
to each other,

constructive interference
occurs at ½ l
constructive

destructive

destructive interference
occurs at i l
(where i is an integer)

result: a series of light

monochromatic light (single l) and dark bands
 Interference

first second third fourth

order order order order where fast and slow
rays vibrate at 90o
to each other,

constructive interference
occurs at ½ l
constructive

destructive

destructive interference
occurs at i l
(where i is an integer)

what happens for

monochromatic light (single l) polychromatic light?
 Interference
polychromatic light

dispersion of different l
produces a spectrum of
monochromatic light (single l) interference colours
 Retardation

interference colour observed

D retardation depends on D(retardation):
D  dns  n f  dd
thickness of section
birefringence of mineral
d thickness
ns n of slow ray
nf n of fast ray for constant thickness
(30 mm standard section)
d  birefringence interference is proportional
= ns – nf to birefringence (d)
 Interference Colour Chart

birefringence (d)
thickness of section

30 mm
(0.03 mm)
d = 0.009 d = 0.025

first order second order third order

 Interference
maximum birefringence is one diagnostic property of
anistropic minerals
observed only in sections that simultaneously display
the maximum and minimum refractive indices

e.g., augite (cpx): nmax = 1.724 nmin = 1.700, d = 0.024

other orientations of the crystal display d < dmax

therefore lower interference colours

typical thin section contains many crystals with different

orientations relative to the plane of the section

only the maximum interference colour observed is diagnostic

 Interference Colour Chart

birefringence (d)
thickness of section

30 mm
(0.03 mm)
d = 0.009 d = 0.025

first order second order third order

 Extinction angle

components cancel:
no light transmitted

extinction

components add:
some light transmitted
amount depends on orientation
of crystal relative to analyser

colour changes
Nesse, 2000; Fig. 7.15
as stage is rotated
 Extinction angle

What happens when fast or slow ray is oriented // polariser?

transmitted
not
transmitted
not
transmitted

polariser direction polariser direction analyser direction

general case special case: no light

vibration // polariser transmitted:
mineral extinct
 Extinction angle
maximum angle between some prominent feature of crystal
(e.g. cleavage, long axis, prominent face)
and extinction position (where mineral appears dark)
is called the extinction angle

at maximum d
extinction at 45o to
extinction
position

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 5.9

anisotropic minerals go extinct with every 90o rotation

(every time either slow or fast ray is // polariser)
only the maximum angle observed is diagnostic
 Extinction angle
maximum angle between some prominent feature of crystal
(e.g. cleavage, long axis, prominent face)
and extinction position (where mineral appears dark)
is called the extinction angle

at maximum d
extinction at 45o to
extinction
position

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 5.9

extinction can be described as:

parallel, inclined, or symmetrical
with respect to a specific reference feature
Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

interference colour observed

D  dns  n f  dd depends on:
thickness of section (d)
retardation
birefringence of mineral (d)
for constant thickness (30 mm standard section)
interference is proportional to birefringence (d)

What happens if we change the thickness by inserting

a slice of another mineral in the light path?
Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

interference colour observed

D  dns  n f  dd depends on:
thickness of section (d)
retardation
birefringence of mineral (d)
for constant thickness (30 mm standard section)
interference is proportional to birefringence (d)

What happens if we change the thickness by inserting

a slice of another mineral in the light path?

1. D increases D and dchange in specific ways

2. d changes depending on optical properties
and thickness of inserted mineral
Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

What happens if we change the thickness by inserting

a slice of another mineral in the light path?

sensitive tint plate: quartz (gypsum or mica also used)

1. cut so that thickness adds exactly 1l to D(~ 550 nm)

2. oriented so that vibration directions are known

(fast // length of plate, slow at 90o)
Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

What happens if we change the thickness by inserting

a slice of another mineral in the light path?

sensitive tint plate: quartz (gypsum or mica also used)

1. cut so that thickness adds exactly 1l to D (~ 550 nm)

maximum d changes so that:
1st order  2nd order; 2nd order  3rd order, etc.

2. oriented so that vibration directions are known

(fast // length of plate, slow at 90o)
Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

What happens if we change the thickness by inserting

a slice of another mineral in the light path?

sensitive tint plate: quartz (gypsum or mica also used)

1. cut so that thickness adds exactly 1l to D (~ 550 nm)

maximum d changes so that:
1st order  2nd order; 2nd order  3rd order, etc.

2. oriented so that vibration directions are known

(fast // length of plate, slow at 90o)
when sample fast ray // length of plate: d increases
when sample slow ray // length of plate: d decreases
 Interference Colour Chart

birefringence (d)

no tint
thickness of section

plate
30 mm
(0.03 mm)

amount added or subtracted (1l)

first order second order third order

 Interference Colour Chart

birefringence (d)

no tint tint plate

thickness of section

plate in place
30 mm
(0.03 mm)
1st order  2nd order

amount added or subtracted (1l)

first order second order third order

effect of tint plate with fast ray // fast ray of sample
 Interference Colour Chart

birefringence (d)
tint plate no tint
thickness of section

in place plate
30 mm
(0.03 mm)

high 1st order  low 1st order

amount added or subtracted (1l)

first order second order third order

effect of tint plate with fast ray // slow ray of sample
Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

fast // fast
constructive interference
colour increases
fast

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 5.12

fast // slow
destructive interference
colour decreases
Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

mineral at extinction:
fast and slow rays
// cross-hairs
but which is which??

1. rotate sample 45o

2. insert tint plate

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 5.13

 Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

mineral at extinction:
fast and slow rays
// cross-hairs
but which is which??

1. rotate sample 45o

2. insert tint plate

colours increase
sample fast // plate fast
(q = fast; p = slow)

1st order 2nd order

Nesse, 2004; Fig. 5.14
Retardation – use of sensitive tint plate (STP)

This test can be used to determine:

sign of elongation (length fast (-ve) vs

length slow (+ve))

pleochroic scheme (which colours correspond

to fast and slow rays)

optic sign (from interference figures:

Labs TS-3, TS-4)

crystallographic preferred orientation (resulting

from magmatic flow or ductile deformation)