DESIGN OF SHORT RANGE 8 SEATED PRIVATE JET

AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT REPORT - I

Submitted by

Devadharshini S 171AE107

Nilasri R S 171AE129

Nivitha D 171AE130

Preetha P 171AE132

DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

BANNARI AMMAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

SATHYAMANGALAM-638401

DECEMBER 2020

1
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN OF SHORT RANGE 8

SEATED PRIVATE JET” is the bonafide work of “DEVADHARSHINI S,
NILASRI R S, NIVITHA D, PREETHA P,” who carried out the project work
under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Captain Dr. KALIL RAHIMAN M Mr. VADIVELU P

Associate Professor & Head of The Department, Assistant Professor,

Aeronautical Engineering, Aeronautical Engineering,

Bannari Amman Institute of Technology Bannari Amman Institute of Technology

Sathyamangalam-638401 Sathyamangalam-638401

Submitted for the End Semester examination held on ____________________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO

- LIST OF FIGURES 7
- LIST OF TABLES 8
- LIST OF GRAPHS 9
- ABSTRACT 10

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BASIC DESIGN PROCESS 11

1.2 PHARES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN 11
1.2.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 11
1.2.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN 11
1.2.3 DETAIL DESIGN 11
1.3 THE SEVEN INTELLECTUAL PIVOT POINTS
FOR CONCEPTUAL DESIGN 12
1.3.1 REQUIREMENTS 12
1.3.2 WEIGHT OF AIRPLANE-FIRST
ESTIMATE 13
1.3.3 CRITICAL PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS 13
1.3.4 CONFIGURATION LAYOUT 13
1.3.5 BETTER WEIGHT ESTIMATE 13
1.3.6 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 13
1.3.7 OPTIMIZATION 14

2 LITERATURE SURVEY 15
3 COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET 16
4 COMPARISION GRAPHS 20
5 MEAN DESIGN PARAMETERS 28
6 WEIGHT ESTIMATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION 30
6.2 DETERMINATION OF(WF/WTO) 31
 6.3 DETERMINATION OF (WE/WTO) 33
6.4 WTO - ITERATION PROCESS 33

7 POWER PLANT SELECTION

7.1 INTRODUCTION 33

7.2 ENGINE SELECTION 34

7.3 DETAILS ABOUT THE SELECTED ENGINE 34

7.4 REDEFINED THRUST-TO-WEIGHT RATIO 35

7.5 ENGINE LOCATION 35

7.6 STRUCTURAL WEIGHT 35

7.7 REQUIRED VOLUME OF FUEL 36
8. GEOMETRY SELECTION

8.1 WING GEOMETRY SELECTION 37

8.1.1 WING AREA,SPAN,MEAN CHORD 37
8.1.2 AEROFOIL SELECTION 37
8.1.3 FLAP SELECTION 40
8.1.4 VOLUME OF FUEL ACCOMODATED
IN THE WING 40
8.1.5 TAPER RATIO 41
8.1.6 WING SWEEP 41
8.1.7 WING DIHEDRAL 43
8.1.8 WING TWISTING 43
8.1.9 WING SETTING ANGLE 43
8.1.10 WING VERTICAL LOCATION 43
8.2 FUSELAGE GEOMETRY SELECTION 47
 8.3 TAIL GEOMETRY SELECTION
8.3.1 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TAIL
VOLUME COEFFICIENT 44
8.3.2 HORIZONTAL TAIL GEOMETRY
SELECTION 45
8.3.3 VERTICAL TAIL GEOMETRY
SELECTION 46
9 LOCATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY
9.1 INTRODUCTION 48
9.2 CG CALCULATION 48
9.2.1 STRUCTURES 48
9.2.2 PROPULSION 49
9.2.3 EQUIPMENTS 49
9.2.4 FUEL 49
9.2.5 WEIGHT BUILD-UP 50
9.3 CG MOVEMENT 50
10 DRAG ESTIMATION
10.1 WETTED AREA DETERMINATION 51
10.2 DRAG POLAR 51
10.2.1 FRONTAL AREA CALCULATION 52
10.2.2 DRAG POLAR 53
10.2.3 DRAG AT VARIOUS ALTITUDE 54
11 DESIGN DETAILS
11.1 ENGINE 57
11.2 WING GEOMETRY57
 11.3 VERTICAL TAIL GEOMETRY57
11.4 HORIZONTAL TAIL GEOMETRY57
11.5 FUSELAGE GEOMETRY 58
11.6 WEIGHT OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS 58
11.7 CENTRE OF GRAVITY 58
12 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF THE DESIGNED
CARGO AIRCRAFT 59
13. CONCLUSION 60
 LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Seven intellectual pivot points for design

1.2 Aircraft Conceptual Design Process

6.1 Model mission segment

7.1 PW 2000 engine

8.1 NACA 43012 aerofoil

8.2 Sweep angle of aerofoil

9.1 CG variation chart

13.1 Three view diagram
LIST OF TABLES

3.1 Design parameters

5.1 Mean design parameters

6.1 Weight fraction determination

6.2 Weight determination

8.1 Typical values of horizontal and vertical tail

volume coefficient

8.2 Typical values of tapper ratio and

aspect ratio of HT and VT

9.1 Typical value of CG positions

9.2 CG positions of structures

9.3 CG position of propulsion

9.4 CG position of equipment

9.5 CG position of fuel

9.6 Weight build-up

10.1 Frontal area calculation

10.2 Drag polar

10.3 Drag at altitude H=0

10.4 Drag at altitude H=4km

10.5 Drag at altitude H=8km

10.6 Drag at altitude H=12km
 LIST OF GRAPHS

4.1 Maximum takeoff weight vs cruise speed

4.2 Empty weight vs cruise speed

4.3 Wing span vs cruise speed

4.4 Fuel capacity vs cruise speed

4.5 Range vs cruise speed

8.1 Cl vs Alpha

8.2 Cl vs Cd

8.3 Max Mach no vs leading edge sweep angle

10.1 Drag polar graph @ cruise, takeoff and landing

10.2 Graph between velocity,altitude and drag

 ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to design and conceptualize a 8 seater

private jet that covers a short range. These type of aircrafts, are mostly used by
private sectors for emergency travel purposes and also these type of aircrafts
attract more private buyers who look for more comfortable travel and
experience. This project involves the design of 8 seaters, private jet with short
to medium range distance coverage.
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BASIC DESIGN PROCESS:

An airplane design is both an art and a science. Airplane design is an intellectual

engineering process of creating a flying machine to

 Meet specifications established by users

 Pioneer innovative, new ideas and technology.

The design process is an intellectual activity developed via experience, by attention

paid to successful airplane designs that have been used in the past and by design procedures
and databases that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

1.2 PHASES OF AIRPLANE DESIGN:

From the time when an airplane materializes as a new thought to the time the finished
product is ready, the complete design undergoes three distinct phases in perfect sequences
which are

 Conceptual design
 Preliminary design
 Detail design

1.2.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

The design process starts with a set of specifications or much less frequently to desire
to implement pioneering. There is a concrete goal where we designers are aiming at. The first
step towards it is conceptual design. Within a fuzzy latitude, overall shape, size, weight are
determined for the potential user.

The product of the conceptual design phase is layout of airplane configuration on

paper. This drawing has flexible lines, which can be slightly changed. However, we get a
detailed account of the layout configuration at the end of this phase. The major drivers during
the conceptual design process are aerodynamics, propulsion and flight performance.

Structural and control system considerations are not dealt in detail but however they
are not dealt in detail but however they are not totally absent. The designer is influenced by
qualitative aspects. No part of the design process is carried out in total vacuum unrelated to
other parts.
1.2.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

This phase includes only minor changes to be made in the configuration layout. There
is serious control and structural system analysis and design takes place. During this phase
substantial wind tunnel testing will be carried out and major computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) calculations. At the end of the phase, the airplane configuration is frozen and defined.
The drawing process is called lofting. This process makes precise shape of outside skin of
airplane making certain all sections fit together.

The end of the phase is the decision if the airplane is to be manufactured or not. It is
no longer a critical condition where “you – bet your company” on full scale development of a
new airplane.

1.2.3 DETAIL DESIGN

This phase is literally the ‘nuts and bolts’ phase of airplane design. The aerodynamic,
propulsion, structures, performance, flight control analysis are over in the preliminary phase.
The airplane is to be fabricated and machined. The size, number and location of rivets,
fasteners are determined now. Flight simulators are developed. At the end of this phase, the
aircraft is ready to be fabricated.

1.3 THE SEVEN INTELLECTUAL

PIVOT POINTS FOR CONCEPTUAL
DESIGN:

The overall conceptual design is anchored

seven intellectual “pivot points” – seven factors
that anchor the conceptual design thought process.
They allow different, detailed thinking to reach out
in all directions from each point.

1.3.1 REQUIREMENTS

The requirements are given by the people

who are going to buy – the customers. For other
aircrafts, these requirements are usually set by the
manufacturer in full appreciation of needs of
owner. Requirements of one airplane are different
from the other. There can be no stipulated specific
standard. There must be established requirements
that serve as impinge off point for design process.
The requirements that are frequently stipulated are:

 Range
 Takeoff distance
 Stalling velocity
 Endurance
 Maximum velocity
  Rate of climb

For fighting combat, maximum turn rate and minimum turn radius

 Maximum load factor

 Service ceiling
 Cost
 Reliability and maintainability
 Maximum size.

1.3.2 WEIGHT OF AIRPLANCE – FIRST ESTIMATE

No airplane can take off the ground unless it produces a lift greater than its weight.
There should be a first estimate of gross takeoff weight. The weight estimate is the next pivot
point after the requirements. Lilienthal, Langley and Wright brothers knew more weight
means more drag. This needed an engine with greater power and hence more weight.

1.3.3 CRITICAL PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

Requirements stipulate the performance of the new aircraft. The critical parameters
are:

 Maximum lift coefficient

 Lift to drag ratio (L/D)
 Thrust to weight ratio (T/W)

Therefore the next step is to make first estimates of W/S and T/W to achieve the
performance as stipulated by requirements.

1.3.4 CONFIGURATION LAYOUT

The configuration layout is a drawing of the shape and size of the airplane as evolved
till stage. The critical performance parameters along with first weight estimate helps to draw
the configuration and approximate the size of the aircraft.

1.3.5 BETTER WEIGHT ESTIMATE

The overall size and shape of the airplane are better known now. There is now an
improved estimate of weight based on performance parameters. A more detailed estimate of
fuel is required now.

1.3.6 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS

This is the point where the configuration is judged if it can meet all original
specifications. An interactive process is initiated where the configuration is modified. The
critical performance parameters are adjusted for improving performance. In this stage, some
mature decisions should be made as the specifications or cost or unavailable technology.
Hence, some specifications might be relaxed so that others might get higher priority.

1.3.7 OPTIMIZATION

When iterative process is over, it has produced a viable airplane. This leads to
optimization. The optimization analysis is carried out may be carried out by a systematic
variation of different parameters T/W, W/S and plotting the performance o graphs which can
be found using a sizing matrix or a carpet plot from which optimum design can be found.

Fig 1.2: Aircraft Conceptual Design Process

 LITERATURE SURVEY

It is very easy to design an aircraft if we have data’s about already existing aircrafts of
similar type. It provides more satisfaction and avoids confusion while choosing some design
parameters for our aircraft. In this detailed survey some many important design drivers like
aspect ratio, wing loading, overall dimensions and engine specifications are determined for
our reference. It assists in proposing a new design and modification in our design which will
improve the performance of the proposed aircraft. This assures the performance of the aircraft
as per the design calculations and easy way of designing an aircraft within particular period
of time. So in this literature survey we have collected some 8 already existing 8 seated private
jet aircraft for our reference of design parameters. Mostly these aircrafts have similar
characteristics in many designs aspects which are shown in the comparative data sheet.
COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET
COMPARISON GRAPHS
Graph 4.1

Graph 4.2
Graph4.3

Graph4.4
Graph4.5

Graph4.6
Graph4.7

Graph4.8
Graph4.9

Graph4.10
Graph4.11

Graph4.12
Graph4.13

Graph4.14
Graph4.15

Graph4.16
Graph4.17

Graph4.18
MEAN DESIGN PARAMETERS
 WEIGHT ESTIMATION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The design take off gross weight (WTO) is the weight of the airplane at the instant it
begins its mission. It is given by,

WTO = WC + WPL + WF + WE

Where,
WTO = Overall weight of the aircraft
WC = Crew weight
WPL = Payload weight
WF = Fuel weight
WE = Empty weight

To simplify the calculation, both fuel and empty weights can be expressed as fractions
of the total takeoff weight.

According to our design, aircraft’s capacity is 8 passengers. Assuming that each

passenger weight is 80 kg with 15 kg baggage, then the payload weight is,

WPL = WPassengers+ WBaggage=8 × 95 = 760 kg

Assuming that each crew weight is 80 kg with 15 kg baggage, then

WC = 2 × 95 =190 kg

950
𝐖𝐓𝐎 =
So, 𝟏 − ()
𝐖𝐅
− ()
𝐖𝐄
𝐖𝐓 𝐖𝐓
𝐎 𝐎

Now WTO can be determined if (WF/WTO) and (WE/WTO) can be estimated.

6.2 DETERMINATION OF (WF/WTO)

6.2.1 MISSION SEGMENT WEIGHT FRACTIONS

The overall weight fraction

𝑊5 𝑊5 𝑊4 𝑊3 𝑊2 𝑊1
𝑊0 = 𝑊4 × 𝑊3 ×𝑊2 ×𝑊1 ×𝑊0

Weight
Segment Phase Calculation
fraction

𝑊1
0-1 Warm up 𝑊0 From historical data (Raymer’s book)
& take off
= 0.970
𝑊2
1-2 Climb =0.985 From historical data (Raymer’s book)
𝑊1

From Breguet range equation

𝑉∞ 𝐶𝐿 𝑊2
𝑅= × × 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝐶𝑡 𝐶𝐷 𝑊3
Where,
𝑊3
2-3 Cruise =0.9998 R =3173.3
𝑊2
V∞ =235.4

Ct =2.22*10^-4

CL/CD=15

(Ct & CL/CD values are referred from Raymer’s book)

From Breguet endurance equation

1 𝐶𝐿 𝑊3
𝐸= × × 𝑙𝑛 ( )
3-4 Loiter 𝑊4
𝐶𝑡 𝐶𝐷 𝑊4
𝑊3 =0.97

Where,

E =10 min
 Ct =2.22*10^-4

CL/CD=15

(Ct& CL/CD values are referred from Raymer’s book)

𝑊5
4-5 Landing =0.995 From historical data (Raymer’s book)
𝑊4

Therefore, the overall weight fraction is

𝑊5 𝑊5 𝑊4 𝑊3 𝑊2 𝑊1
= × × × × = 0.7096
𝑊0 𝑊4 𝑊3 𝑊2 𝑊1 𝑊0

6.2.2 FUEL-FRACTION ESTIMATION

The mission fuel fraction must therefore be equal to (1-W 5/W0). If we assume,
typically, a 6% allowance for reserve and trapped fuel, the total fuel fraction can be estimated
as

𝑊𝐹 𝑊5
= 1.06 (1 − )= 0.308
𝑊𝑇𝑂 𝑊0

6.3 DETERMINATION OF (WE/WTO)

From Raymer’s book, the Empty weight fraction

𝑊𝐸
=𝐴×𝑊 𝐶
×𝐾 =1.02(Wto)^-0.06 x1
𝑊𝑇𝑂 𝑇𝑂 𝑣𝑠
Where,
A & C values are from historical data
Kvs= Variable sweep constant = 1.04 if variable sweep
=1.00 if fixed sweep

6.4 WTO - ITERATION PROCESS

950
𝐖𝐓𝐎 =
𝟏 − (𝟎. 𝟎56392) − (1.02(𝑾𝒕𝒐)^ − 0.06)

Iteration WTO (Guess) WE/WTO WTO

1. 19000 0.587365 20567.761
 2. 20001 0.5855586 21999.987

3. 19948 0.5631268 21864.247

4. 19950 0.5631234 22500.021

5. 22500 0.548111 22500.000

Results:

WTO= 22500 lbs WE= 2240 lbs WF=1102.30425 lbs

 POWER PLANT SELECTION

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The most important part of the propulsion system is the engine. To choose an engine,
several existing engines with the power necessary for the mission were examined and the one
that was the most efficient was chosen. Existing engines were studied because they would
require no development costs and the methods for servicing them as well as their
performance characteristics are well known.

7.2 ENGINE SELECTION

T/W directly affects the performance of the aircraft. An aircraft with a higher T/W
will accelerate more quickly, climb more rapidly, reach a higher maximum speed and sustain
higher turn rates. On the other hand large engine will consume more fuel throughout the
mission. Generally T/W is not constant. The weight of the aircraft varies during flight as fuel
is burned. Also, the engine’s thrust varies with altitude and velocity.

From the mean design parameters, we know that thrust weight ratio

𝑇
𝑊𝑇0 =0.14288

Overall weight of aircraft from weight estimation WTO= 22500 lbs

Therefore T=3215 pounds force, for this thrust we have to find the engine with
the considerations of thrust required values at various altitudes, maneuverings and
angles of attack.

7.3 DETAILS ABOUT THE SELECTED ENGINE

 Pratty& Whitney PW535E1

The PW535E1 has a T-stage, mounted on the LP shaft behind the fan, to increase

overall pressure ratio and core flow. It entered service in September 2000. It is a
medium thrust turbofan engine designed specifically for business jet applications. Dual
Spool, axial flow, medium bypass turbofan. The 2-stage axial and single stage
centrifugal high pressure compressor is driven by a single stage high pressure turbine.
The integrally bladed fan and single boost stage low pressure compressor is driven by a
2- stage low pressure turbine. Reverse flow annular combustion chamber. The
PW535B, PW535E and PW535E1 are controlled by a dual channel FADEC

Fig 7.1 PW 535E1 engine

7.3.1 SPECIFICATION

 Type: Turbofan
 Bypass ratio 2.25
 Length: 1.679 m
 Diameter: 1.082 m
 Dry weight: 317 kg

7.3.2 TECHNICAL DATA

 Compressor: 1 stage fan, 1 stage LP, 1 stage HP

 Combustor: Annular
 Turbine: 1 stage HP, 2 stage LP
 Fuel type: Jet-A Aviation Kerosene
 Maximum thrust: 1547 daN
7.4REDEFINED THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO

𝑇 22500
= = 0.14288
𝑊𝑇0 3215

7.5 ENGINE LOCATION

The type of engine mounting and its location plays a major role in deciding the
overall drag of the airplane and stability. A conventional wing mounted engine is chosen for
periodic maintenance and to increase the stability. The engines are attached to the back side
of the fuselage (Nacelles implantation). Less yaw, shorter landing gear and ease of
disembarking once arrived less pylon interference are some of the major factor that is
considered for this placement. The other reason for choosing a wing mounted engine is it add
aesthetic value which is important for private jets.

7.6 STRUCTURAL WEIGHT

𝑊𝐸𝑀𝑃𝑇𝑌 = 𝑊𝐸𝑁𝐺𝐼𝑁𝐸 + 𝑊𝑆𝑇𝑅𝑈𝐶𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐴𝐿

𝑊𝑆𝑇𝑅𝑈𝐶𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐴𝐿 = 𝑊𝐸𝑀𝑃𝑇𝑌 − 𝑊𝐸𝑁𝐺𝐼𝑁𝐸

𝑊𝑆𝑇𝑅𝑈𝐶𝑇𝑈𝑅𝐴𝐿 =21398 – (4 ∗ 2240) = 12438 lbs

7.7REQUIRED VOLUME OF THE FUEL

From previous analysis, WF =1102 lbs

Density of the fuel = 719 kg/m3
Volume of the fuel = mass of the fuel / density of the fuel
= 1102 / 719
= 3.34 m3

GEOMETRY SELECTION

8.1 WING GEOMETRY SELECTION

 The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the Wing loading
(W/S), Aspect Ratio (b2/S), Taper ratio (λ) and the Sweepback angle at quarter chord
(Λqc).

 The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is used to find the
Wing area S (from W/S).The value of S also enables us to calculate the Wingspan b
(using the Aspect ratio). The root chord can now be found using taper ratio. The wing
 geometry design involves choosing the following parameters.
 Airfoil selection
 Aspect ratio
 Sweep
 Taper ratio
 Twist
 Incidence
 Dihedral
 Vertical location (Wing position on fuselage)

8.1.1WING AREA, SPAN AND MEAN CHORD

 Wing loading (W/S) = 463.216 kg/m2(from historical

data)

 Wing reference area (S) = WTO/463.216= 22.03 m2

 Aspect Ratio (AR) =9 (from historical data - Table 4.1)
2
𝐴𝑅 = 𝑏
𝑆
𝑏 2 = 𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝑆 =9 *237.16
𝑏 =46.2
 Wing reference area (S) = b *
Ĉ Ĉ = S / b =5.134

8.1.2AEROFOIL SELECTION

The aerofoil, in many aspects, is the heart of the airplane. The aerofoil affects the
cruise speed, take-off and landing distances, stall speed, handling qualities (especially near
stall), and overall aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of flight.
 As a first approximation, it can be assumed that the wing lift co-efficient (C L), equals
the aerofoil lift co-efficient (Cl). In level flight, the lift must be equal to weight, so the
required design lift co-efficient can be found as follows:

𝑊 = 𝐿 = 𝑄𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 𝐶𝐿 ≅ 𝑄𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 𝐶𝑙
1 𝑊 1 ∗ 463.216 ∗
𝐶𝑙 = ∗( ) 9.81
𝑄 =
𝑆 = 0.3
5203.48
𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒

Where,

Wing loading (W/S) = 463.216 kg/m2 (from historical

data) Wing reference area (S) = 22.03 m2
Dynamic pressure at cruise condition (𝑄𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒) = 0.5 * ρalt * Valt2 = 8096

The airfoil can be selected based on the cruising Reynolds number (Re) as follows,
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 × 𝜌𝑎𝑙𝑡 × 𝐶
𝑅𝑒 =
µ 𝑎𝑙𝑡

From standard air table at altitude 10668m,𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 217 K and 𝜌𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 0.379 kg/m 2

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = M×√(𝛶𝑅𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑡)= 0.7×√(1.4 × 287 × 217 = 206.696 m/s

µ 𝑇𝑎𝑙 217 0.75
× ( )0.75 = 17.5 × 10−5 × ( =1.415 × 10−4
=µ )
𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑇0 288.0

206.696 × 0.379×6.696
So, 𝑅𝑒 = 1.415×10−4 = 3.70× 106

From Internet, the apt airfoil for Reynold’s Number 3.70× 106and design lift co-efficient is
chosen as
8.1.3 FLAP SELECTION

The landing velocity depends upon the deceleration and landing distance. Landing
distance has been estimated as per CAR regulations and chosen as 1829 meter runway. The
deceleration is usually taken as 0.2g and 0.25g if reverse thrust is applied.

 CAR field length = SL = Runway length * 0.6 = 1097.3m

 From kinematic equations V2 = U2 + 2aS (During landing V is 0, a is negative and U

is touchdown velocity)

 VT= ( 2 a * SL)0.5 = (2*0.2*9.81*1097.3)0.5=65.61 m/s

 Stall Speed (VS) = VT/1.3 = 50.47 m/s

 Therefore, Takeoff velocity (VTO) = 1.2 * VS = 60.58m/s

 CLmax required = 2W / (ρ * S * V S2) =0.3

 ΔCLreq = CLmax required - CLmax available = 0.196

The available CL is only XXXX whereas the required is YYYY for S L=237.16ft. The
remaining CL is compensated by the use of flaps. From the flap data book the split flaps for
the 12% (t/c) is considered. The ΔCL value is corrected by ZZZZ, since only part flap is used

For t/c is 12%& flap chord = 0.3C

At maximum flap deflection (δf) = 60 degrees, ΔCL = 0.92(for full span)
ΔCL,part span = 0.92 *0.6 = 0.5
 Total CL,available = 0.5

The total CL,available is adequate for this airplane.

8.1.4 VOLUME OF FUEL ACCOMMODATED IN WING

𝑡
( ) = 0.17
𝑐 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑡
From selected aerofoil ( = 0.12
)
𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
 VF, wing = 65.87m3

8.1.5 TAPER RATIO

Wing taper ratio λ is the ratio between the tip chord and the centre line root chord. Most
wings of low sweep have a taper ratio of about 0.4 – 0.5. Most swept wings have a taper ratio
of about 0.2 – 0.3. Taper ratio affects the lift distribution along the span of the wing.

The taper ratio can be defined as,

tip chord
λ=root chord

And the value for the taper ratio in general from design book is0.3
2S
So, C root chord = 2×237.16
b(1+𝛌) = 46.2(1+0.3) =7.81 ft.

And, C tip chord = λ× C root chord = 2.33 ft.

2 2
Mean Aerodynamic Chord 𝐶̅ = 1+λ+λ
3 × C root chord×( )= 5.58 ft.
(1+λ)

Span wise location of 𝐶̅(Ȳ) = 𝑏 ∗ [1+2𝜆] = 9.476m

( )
6 1+𝜆

Typically, wing aerodynamic centre will be at 0.25𝐶̅ for subsonic and 0.4𝐶̅ for
supersonic wings.

8.1.6 WING SWEEP

Wing sweep is primarily used to reduce the adverse effect of transonic and supersonic
flows. At supersonic speeds the loss of lift associated with supersonic flow can be reduced by
sweeping the leading edge after the Mach cone angle. Wing sweep also improves the roll and
yaw stability.
From historical trend, Sweep angle of leading edge of the wing (ΔLE) is

1−𝜆
tan ∆𝐿𝐸 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛∆𝐶/4 +
𝐴𝑅 ∗ (1 + 𝜆)
So, ΔC/4 = 32.1degree

8.1.7DIHEDRAL
 The Dihedral is the angle of the wing with respect to the horizontal when seen in the
front view. Dihedral of the wing affects the lateral stability of the airplane. Since there is no
simple technique for arriving at the dihedral angle that takes all the considerations into effect
we need to initially choose a dihedral angle based on data collected. Hence we choose a
reasonable value for the dihedral as
𝛤 = 5o

(As of now, the dihedral angle is assumed to be 5 degrees, but it may be subject to change
in the stability analysis.)

8.1.8 WING TWISTING

Wing twist is used to prevent tip stall and to revise the lift distribution to approximate
an ellipse. We have assumed a linear twist of -1o.

8.1.9 WING SETTING ANGLE (WING INCIDENCE)

The wing incidence angle is the pitch angle of the wing with respect to the fuselage. If
the wing is untwisted, the incidence is simply the angle between the fuselage axis and the
wing’s air foil chord lines. If the wing is twisted, the incidence is defined with respect to
some arbitrarily chosen span wise location of the wing, usually the root of the exposed wing
where it intersects the fuselage. Wing incidence angle is chosen to minimize drag at some
operating condition, usually cruise. The incidence angle is chosen such that when the wing is
at the correct angle of attack for the selected design condition, the fuselage is at the angle of
attack for minimum drag. The wing incidence angle chosen for our aircraft is XX degree.

8.1.10 WING VERTICAL LOCATION (WING POSITION)

The location of the wing in the fuselage (along the vertical axis) is very
important. Each configuration (Low, High and mid) has its own advantages but in this design,
the Low-wing offers significant advantages such as

 Uninterrupted Passenger’s cabin.

 Placement of Landing gear in the wing structure itself.
 Location of the engine on a low-wing makes Engine-overhaul easier.
 Permits usage of the Wing carry through box which alone can admit the amount of
fuel that we require to carry.
 Landing gear usually becomes high in such wing configurations and therefore,
provides greater ground clearance ad reduces the amount of fuselage upsweep that is
to be provided.
 Low wing affects the flow over the horizontal tail to minimum extent.

8.2 TAIL GEOMETRY SELECTION

Tails provide for trim, stability, and control. Trim refers to the generation of a lift
force that, by acting through some tail moment arm about the center of gravity, balances
some other moment produced by the aircraft.
 For the horizontal tail, trim primarily refers to the balancing of the moment created by
the wing. An aft horizontal tail typically has a negative incidence angle of about 2-3 deg to
balance the wing pitching moment. As the wing pitching moment varies under different flight
conditions, the horizontal tail incidence is usually adjustable through a range of about 3 deg
up and down.
For the vertical tail, the generation of a trim force is normally not required because the
aircraft is usually left-right symmetric and does not create any unbalanced yawing moment.
The vertical tail of a multi-engine aircraft must be capable of providing a sufficient trim force
in the event of an engine failure.
The surface areas required for all types of tails are directly proportional to the
aircraft's wing area, so the tail areas cannot be selected until the initial estimate of aircraft
takeoff gross weight has been made. The initial estimation of tail area is made using the "tail
volume coefficient" method.

8.2.1 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TAIL VOLUME COEFFICIENT

𝑳𝑯𝑻 × 𝑺𝑯𝑻
 CHT =
𝑪𝑾 × 𝑺𝑾
Where,
𝐶𝐻𝑇 -Horizontal tail volume coefficient
𝐿𝐻𝑇 - Horizontal tail arm moment
𝑆𝐻𝑇 - Horizontal tail area
𝑆𝑊 -Wing area
𝐶𝑊 -Wing mean chord

From design book,𝐻𝑇 is 53% of the fuselage length,

𝐿𝐻𝑇 = 0.53×𝐿𝐹𝑈
= 0.25×101.48
= 53.78 m.
For our design,
 𝑆𝑊 = 416.17 m2
𝐶𝑊 = 6.371m.

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer,

CHT
=
𝐿𝐻𝑇× 𝑆𝐻𝑇 = 1,
𝐶𝑊 × 𝑆𝑊
𝐶𝑊 × 𝑆𝑊 × 𝐶𝐻𝑇
Therefore, SHT =
𝐿𝐻𝑇

SHT =
6.371×300×1 = 35.26 m2
53.78

And,

𝐿 ×𝑆
 𝐂𝐕𝐓 = 𝑏𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇
𝑊 × 𝑆𝑊

Where,

LVT -Vertical tail arm moment

SVT –Vertical tail area
CVT -Vertical tail volume coefficient
bW -Wing span
SW -Wing area
Since, 𝐿𝑉𝑇 is 53% of the fuselage length,
𝐿𝑉𝑇 = 0.53×𝐿𝐹𝑈
= 0.53×101.48
= 53.78 m.
For our design,
𝑆𝑊 = 416.17m2
𝑏𝑊 = 65.32 m

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer,

𝐶𝑉𝑇 = 0.09

So,

𝑆𝑉𝑇 𝑏𝑊 × 𝑆𝑊 × 𝐶𝑉𝑇
= 𝐿𝑉𝑇

46.2×237.16×0.09
= 53.78

= 60ft2

8.2.2 HORIZONTAL TAIL GEOMETRY SELECTION

 Airfoil chosen : NACA 0012

 Volume ratio (VHT) : 1
  Tail arm (lHT) :53.78 m
 Tail area (SHT) :35.26 m2

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer,

 Aspect ratio (AR) : 4.35

𝑏2
𝐴𝑅 = 𝐻𝑇 = 4.35
𝑆𝐻𝑇
𝑏2 = 𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝑆𝐻𝑇 = 347.99
𝐻𝑇
𝑏𝐻𝑇 = 12.38𝑚
 Span (bHT) : 12.38 m
SHT= b * Cmean
 Mean chord (Cmean) :1.62 m
 Taper ratio (λ) :0.4
λ = Ct/Cr = 0.4................................................................(8̊̊̊.2.2.1)
SHT = b * (Ct+Cr)/2 ………………………… (8̊̊.2.2.2) ̊

Solving equation (8.2.2.1) and (8.2.2.2), we get

 Root chord (Cr) :2.318 m
 Tip chord (Ct) :0.927 m
 Sweep Angle :30.55 degree (From historical data)
2
 Mean Aerodynamic Chord 𝐶̅ = 1+λ+λ
2
3 × C root chord×( ) = 1.045m
(1+λ)

 Span wise location of 𝐶̅ (Ȳ) = 𝑏 1+2𝜆

( )∗[ ] = 10.562𝑚
6 1+𝜆

8.2.3 VERTICAL TAIL GEOMETRY SELECTION

 Airfoil chosen : NACA 0010

 Volume ratio (VVT) :0.09
 Tail arm (lVT) :35.798 m
 Tail area (SVT) :52.09 m2

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer,

 Aspect ratio (AR) : 1.9

2
𝑏𝑉𝑇
𝐴𝑅 = = 3.24
𝑆𝑉𝑇
2
𝑏𝑉𝑇 = 𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝑆𝑉𝑇
𝑏𝑉𝑇 = 4.236𝑚
 Span (bVT) : 4.236
m
SVT= b * Cmean

 Mean chord (Cmean) :1.31 m

 Taper ratio (λ) : 0.4
λ = Ct/Cr = 0.4................................................................(8̊̊̊.2.3.1)
S = b * (Ct+Cr)/2
VT ………………………… (8̊̊.2.3.2) ̊

Solving equation (8.2.3.1) and (8.2.3.2), we get

 Root chord (Cr) : 1.798 m
 Tip chord (Ct) :0.814 m
 Sweep Angle :48.5degree (From historical data)
2
 Mean Aerodynamic Chord 𝐶̅ = 1+λ+λ
2
3 × C root chord×( ) = 1.375m
(1+λ)

 Span wise location of 𝐶̅ (Ȳ) =

𝑏 1+2𝜆
∗[ ] = 0.9077m
 GEOMETRY SELECTION
8.3 WING GEOMETRY SELECTION
 The geometry of the wing is a function of four parameters, namely the Wing loading
(W/S), Aspect Ratio (b2/S), Taper ratio (λ) and the Sweepback angle at quarter chord
(Λqc).

 The Take-off Weight that was estimated in the previous analysis is used to find the
Wing area S (from W/S). The value of S also enables us to calculate the Wingspan b
(using the Aspect ratio). The root chord can now be found using taper ratio. The wing
geometry design involves choosing the following parameters.
 Airfoil selection
 Aspect ratio
 Sweep
 Taper ratio
 Twist
 Incidence
 Dihedral
 Vertical location (Wing position on fuselage)

8.1.1WING AREA, SPAN AND MEAN CHORD

 Wing loading (W/S) = 463.216 kg/m2(from historical

data)

 Wing reference area (S) = WTO/463.216= 22.03 m2

 Aspect Ratio (AR) =9 (from historical data - Table 4.1)
2
𝐴𝑅 = b
𝑆
𝑏2 = 𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝑆 =9 *237.16
𝑏 =46.2
 Wing reference area (S) = b *
Ĉ Ĉ = S / b =5.134

8.1.2AEROFOIL SELECTION

The aerofoil, in many aspects, is the heart of the airplane. The aerofoil affects the
cruise speed, take-off and landing distances, stall speed, handling qualities (especially near
stall), and overall aerodynamic efficiency during all phases of flight.
 As a first approximation, it can be assumed that the wing lift co-efficient (C L), equals
the aerofoil lift co-efficient (Cl). In level flight, the lift must be equal to weight, so the
required design lift co-efficient can be found as follows:

𝑊 = 𝐿 = 𝑄𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 𝐶𝐿 ≅ 𝑄𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒 ∗ 𝑆 ∗ 𝐶𝑙
1 𝑊 1 ∗ 463.216 ∗
𝐶𝑙 = ∗( ) 9.81
𝑄 =
𝑆 = 0.3
5203.48
𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒

Where,

Wing loading (W/S) = 463.216 kg/m2 (from historical

data) Wing reference area (S) = 22.03 m2
Dynamic pressure at cruise condition (𝑄𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑖𝑠𝑒) = 0.5 * ρalt * Valt2 = 8096

The airfoil can be selected based on the cruising Reynolds number (Re) as follows,
𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 × 𝜌𝑎𝑙𝑡 × 𝐶
𝑅𝑒 =
µ 𝑎𝑙𝑡

From standard air table at altitude 10668m,𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 217 K and 𝜌𝑎𝑙𝑡 = 0.379 kg/m 2

𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑡 = M×√(𝛶𝑅𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑡)= 0.7×√(1.4 × 287 × 217 = 206.696 m/s

µ 𝑇𝑎𝑙 217 0.75
× ( )0.75 = 17.5 × 10−5 × ( =1.415 × 10−4
=µ )
𝑎𝑙𝑡 𝑇0 288.0

206.696 × 0.379×6.696
So, 𝑅𝑒 = 1.415×10−4 = 3.70× 106

From Internet, the apt airfoil for Reynold’s Number 3.70× 106and design lift co-efficient is
chosen as
8.1.11 FLAP SELECTION

The landing velocity depends upon the deceleration and landing distance. Landing
distance has been estimated as per CAR regulations and chosen as 1829 meter runway. The
deceleration is usually taken as 0.2g and 0.25g if reverse thrust is applied.

 CAR field length = SL = Runway length * 0.6 = 1097.3m

 From kinematic equations V2 = U2 + 2aS (During landing V is 0, a is negative and U

is touchdown velocity)

 VT= ( 2 a * SL)0.5 = (2*0.2*9.81*1097.3)0.5=65.61 m/s

 Stall Speed (VS) = VT/1.3 = 50.47 m/s

 Therefore, Takeoff velocity (VTO) = 1.2 * VS = 60.58m/s

 CLmax required = 2W / (ρ * S * V S2) =0.3

 ΔCLreq = CLmax required - CLmax available = 0.196

The available CL is only XXXX whereas the required is YYYY for S L=237.16ft. The
remaining CL is compensated by the use of flaps. From the flap data book the split flaps for
the 12% (t/c) is considered. The ΔCL value is corrected by ZZZZ, since only part flap is used

For t/c is 12%& flap chord = 0.3C

At maximum flap deflection (δf) = 60 degrees, ΔCL = 0.92(for full span)
ΔCL,part span = 0.92 *0.6 = 0.5
 Total CL,available = 0.5

The total CL,available is adequate for this airplane.

8.1.12 VOLUME OF FUEL ACCOMMODATED IN WING

𝑡
( ) = 0.17
𝑐 𝑂𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
𝑡
From selected aerofoil ( = 0.12
)
𝑐 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
 VF, wing = 65.87m3

8.1.13 TAPER RATIO

Wing taper ratio λ is the ratio between the tip chord and the centre line root chord. Most
wings of low sweep have a taper ratio of about 0.4 – 0.5. Most swept wings have a taper ratio
of about 0.2 – 0.3. Taper ratio affects the lift distribution along the span of the wing.

The taper ratio can be defined as,

tip chord
λ=root chord

And the value for the taper ratio in general from design book is0.3
2S
So, C root chord = 2×237.16
b(1+𝛌) = 46.2(1+0.3) =7.81 ft.

And, C tip chord = λ× C root chord = 2.33 ft.

2 2
Mean Aerodynamic Chord 𝐶̅ = 1+λ+λ
3 × C root chord×( )= 5.58 ft.
(1+λ)

Span wise location of 𝐶̅(Ȳ) = 𝑏 ∗ [1+2𝜆] = 9.476m

( )
6 1+𝜆

Typically, wing aerodynamic centre will be at 0.25𝐶̅ for subsonic and 0.4𝐶̅ for
supersonic wings.

8.1.14 WING SWEEP

Wing sweep is primarily used to reduce the adverse effect of transonic and supersonic
flows. At supersonic speeds the loss of lift associated with supersonic flow can be reduced by
sweeping the leading edge after the Mach cone angle. Wing sweep also improves the roll and
yaw stability.
From historical trend, Sweep angle of leading edge of the wing (ΔLE) is

1−𝜆
tan ∆𝐿𝐸 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛∆𝐶/4 +
𝐴𝑅 ∗ (1 + 𝜆)
So, ΔC/4 = 32.1degree

8.1.15 DIHEDRAL
 The Dihedral is the angle of the wing with respect to the horizontal when seen in the
front view. Dihedral of the wing affects the lateral stability of the airplane. Since there is no
simple technique for arriving at the dihedral angle that takes all the considerations into effect
we need to initially choose a dihedral angle based on data collected. Hence we choose a
reasonable value for the dihedral as
𝛤 = 5o

(As of now, the dihedral angle is assumed to be 5 degrees, but it may be subject to change
in the stability analysis.)

8.1.16 WING TWISTING

Wing twist is used to prevent tip stall and to revise the lift distribution to approximate
an ellipse. We have assumed a linear twist of -1o.

8.1.17 WING SETTING ANGLE (WING INCIDENCE)

The wing incidence angle is the pitch angle of the wing with respect to the fuselage. If
the wing is untwisted, the incidence is simply the angle between the fuselage axis and the
wing’s air foil chord lines. If the wing is twisted, the incidence is defined with respect to
some arbitrarily chosen span wise location of the wing, usually the root of the exposed wing
where it intersects the fuselage. Wing incidence angle is chosen to minimize drag at some
operating condition, usually cruise. The incidence angle is chosen such that when the wing is
at the correct angle of attack for the selected design condition, the fuselage is at the angle of
attack for minimum drag. The wing incidence angle chosen for our aircraft is XX degree.

8.1.18 WING VERTICAL LOCATION (WING POSITION)

The location of the wing in the fuselage (along the vertical axis) is very
important. Each configuration (Low, High and mid) has its own advantages but in this design,
the Low-wing offers significant advantages such as

 Uninterrupted Passenger’s cabin.

 Placement of Landing gear in the wing structure itself.
 Location of the engine on a low-wing makes Engine-overhaul easier.
 Permits usage of the Wing carry through box which alone can admit the amount of
fuel that we require to carry.
 Landing gear usually becomes high in such wing configurations and therefore,
provides greater ground clearance ad reduces the amount of fuselage upsweep that is
to be provided.
 Low wing affects the flow over the horizontal tail to minimum extent.

8.4 TAIL GEOMETRY SELECTION

Tails provide for trim, stability, and control. Trim refers to the generation of a lift
force that, by acting through some tail moment arm about the center of gravity, balances
some other moment produced by the aircraft.
 For the horizontal tail, trim primarily refers to the balancing of the moment created by
the wing. An aft horizontal tail typically has a negative incidence angle of about 2-3 deg to
balance the wing pitching moment. As the wing pitching moment varies under different flight
conditions, the horizontal tail incidence is usually adjustable through a range of about 3 deg
up and down.
For the vertical tail, the generation of a trim force is normally not required because the
aircraft is usually left-right symmetric and does not create any unbalanced yawing moment.
The vertical tail of a multi-engine aircraft must be capable of providing a sufficient trim force
in the event of an engine failure.
The surface areas required for all types of tails are directly proportional to the
aircraft's wing area, so the tail areas cannot be selected until the initial estimate of aircraft
takeoff gross weight has been made. The initial estimation of tail area is made using the "tail
volume coefficient" method.

8.2.1 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TAIL VOLUME COEFFICIENT

Where,
 𝑳𝑯𝑻 × 𝑺𝑯𝑻
 CHT =
𝑪𝑾 × 𝑺𝑾

𝐶𝐻𝑇 -Horizontal tail volume coefficient

𝐿𝐻𝑇 - Horizontal tail arm moment
𝑆𝐻𝑇 - Horizontal tail area
𝑆𝑊 -Wing area
𝐶𝑊 -Wing mean chord

From design book,𝐻𝑇 is 53% of the fuselage length,

𝐿𝐻𝑇 = 0.53×𝐿𝐹𝑈
= 0.25×101.48
= 53.78 m.
For our design,
 𝑆𝑊 = 416.17 m2
𝐶𝑊 = 6.371m.

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer,

CHT
=
𝐿𝐻𝑇× 𝑆𝐻𝑇 = 1,
𝐶𝑊 × 𝑆𝑊
𝐶𝑊 × 𝑆𝑊 × 𝐶𝐻𝑇
Therefore, SHT =
𝐿𝐻𝑇

SHT =
6.371×300×1 = 35.26 m2
53.78

And,

𝐿 ×𝑆
 𝐂𝐕𝐓 = 𝑏𝑉𝑇 𝑉𝑇
𝑊 × 𝑆𝑊

Where,

LVT -Vertical tail arm moment

SVT –Vertical tail area
CVT -Vertical tail volume coefficient
bW -Wing span
SW -Wing area
Since, 𝐿𝑉𝑇 is 53% of the fuselage length,
𝐿𝑉𝑇 = 0.53×𝐿𝐹𝑈
= 0.53×101.48
= 53.78 m.
For our design,
𝑆𝑊 = 416.17m2
𝑏𝑊 = 65.32 m

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer,

𝐶𝑉𝑇 = 0.09

So,

𝑆𝑉𝑇 𝑏𝑊 × 𝑆𝑊 × 𝐶𝑉𝑇
= 𝐿𝑉𝑇
 46.2×237.16×0.09
= 53.78

= 60ft2
fuselage length,
From design book,𝐻𝑇 is 53% of the 𝐿𝐻𝑇 = 0.53×𝐿𝐹𝑈

8.2.4 V- TAIL GEOMETRY SELECTION

 Airfoil chosen : NACA 0010

 Volume ratio (VVT) :0.09
 Tail arm (lVT) :35.798 m
 Tail area (SVT) :52.09 m2

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer,

 Aspect ratio (AR) : 1.9

2
𝑏𝑉𝑇
𝐴𝑅 = = 3.24
𝑆𝑉𝑇
2
𝑏𝑉𝑇 = 𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝑆𝑉𝑇
𝑏𝑉𝑇 = 4.236𝑚
 Span (bVT) : 4.236
m
SVT= b * Cmean

 Mean chord (Cmean) :1.31 m

 Taper ratio (λ) : 0.4
λ = Ct/Cr = 0.4................................................................(8̊̊̊.2.3.1)
S = b * (Ct+Cr)/2
VT ………………………… (8̊̊.2.3.2) ̊

Solving equation (8.2.3.1) and (8.2.3.2), we get

 Root chord (Cr) : 1.798 m
 Tip chord (Ct) :0.814 m
 Sweep Angle :48.5degree (From historical data)
2
 Mean Aerodynamic Chord 𝐶̅ = 1+λ+λ
2
3 × C root chord×( ) = 1.375m
(1+λ)

 Span wise location of 𝐶̅ (Ȳ) =

𝑏 1+2𝜆
∗[ ] = 0.9077m
 LOCATION OFCENTRE OF GRAVITY

9.1 INTRODUCTION
An aircraft is a rigid (assumed) system comprising of many more components with all
these components to be in the air medium. To have a stable aircraft system and easily
controllable, its centre of gravity should be positioned in an appropriate manner. So the
weights in the aircraft should be distributed such that it has a defined c.g position, which is
critical. Also the weight distribution should be such that on certain situations where some
components may be consumed or even removed, its c.g. movement should be in a
controllable manner so that is not compromised. One important condition is that when fully
loaded, the c.g. is at 30 % of mean aerodynamic chord and in different situations such as
landing, with or without payload, the c.g. movement should be restricted within 25% of mean
aerodynamic chord and 35% of mean aerodynamic chord.

Maximum takeoff weight,

WTO = W crew + W payload + W fuel + W empty
Wempty = W structure + W engine + W equipment

Once the weight was established, the internal configuration of the aircraft was
determined. The purpose of the internal configuration is to provide approximate locations of
internal components for the calculation of the center of gravity.

9.2 CG CALCULATION

9.2.1. STRUCTURES

Parts Weights, kg % Wempty XCG , m

Main wing 19951.47 22.2 15
Horizontal tail 5985.44 7.28 80.61
Vertical tail 3990.29 4.5 80.61
Fuselage 19951.47 23.18 11.9
Main landing gears 6983.0145 5.18 16
Nose landing gear 2992.7 2.84 7.5
Total 59854.38 65.18 30.27

9.2.2 PROPULSION

Parts Weights, kg % Wempty XCG , m

Dry engine 12877.606 16.93 15
Fuel system in wing 836.702 1.1 16
Fuel system in 105000 2.5 12.5
fuselage
Total 118714.308 20.53 14.5

9.2.3 EQUIPMENTS

Parts Weights, kg % Wempty XCG , m

Flight controls 2951.276 4.6 8.5

Instruments 2943.670 7.0 9.3
Hydraulics 798.670 1.2 11
Electricals 863.563 4.1 7.6
Avionics 2715.478 6.3 8.6
Furnishing 517.234 1.3 9.0
Air-conditioning 372.712 0.7 4.0
Total 19951.47 25.2 58.2

9.2.4 FUEL

Parts Weights, kg XCG , m

Wing fuel tank 2773 7.5
Fuselage fuel tank 105000 12.5
Tail fuel tank 785 6.4
 Total 108558 26.4

9.2.5 WEIGHT BUILD-UP

Component Weights, lbs % Wempty XCG ,

feet
Structure 21438 49 29.458
Propulsion 2240 22 38.45
Equipments 2872 29 25.725
Fuel 5295 29 27.56
Payloads 1676 16 31.91
Crew 419 4 1.90
Total 33940 149 154.999
Total (without fuel) 28645 120 127.439
Total (without
26550 100 93.629
payloads and fuel)

9.3 CG MOVEMENT

The CG must remain within the specified limits as fuel is burned and whether or not
the weapons or expended. It is permissible to sequence the fuel tanks, selecting to burn fuel
from different tanks at different times to keep the CG within the limits. However, an
automated fuel-management system must be used, and that imposes additional cost and
complexity.
DRAG ESTIMATION
 DRAG ESTIMATION

In the design of an aircraft, it is a crucial step to determine the drag of the aircraft
since it directly affects the power required and the performance is sensitive to the drag of the
aircraft. Drag due to all components is to be considered.

All parts of the aircraft contribute towards drag, which should be carefully reduced
by proper selection and design. From experience and experimental work some approximation
has been done for the calculation of fuselage drag and other parts. The various components
of drag are
1. Parasite drag
2. Induced drag
3. Interference drag
4. Drag due to compressibility correction

CDtotal =CDo+ CDi+ CDint+ΔCDcomp

The zero lift drag of the aircraft can be estimated from the formula,

Where, the drag co-efficient for various components like fuselage, power plant etc…
were obtained from the book “Fluid dynamic drag” by S.F.Hoerner.

10.2.1 FRONTAL AREA METHOD - CALCULATION

 For fuselage
π
𝑠𝜋𝑓= f
d2
4

Π denotes its frontal area calculation for Business Jet Aircraft is 8.5,
From Airplane Design Part II by Dr.Johnroskam, lf
df
From wing design calculation Lf = 108.5m,
Now, d = 108.5 = 12.8m,
f 8.5
π π×12.82
𝑠𝜋𝑓= f
= = 128.6 m2
d2 4
4

 For wing
sπw=𝑡𝑤 × 𝑏𝑤
𝑠𝜋𝑤 = 0.8562×50 = 42.81 m2

 For horizontal tail

sπht = 𝑡ht×𝑏ht
= 15.96x 0.47
 = 7.5 m2

 For vertical tail

𝑠𝜋𝑣𝑡= 𝑏vt×tvt = 6.85 × 0.46= 3.15 m2.

 Engine area2
𝜋𝑑e
𝑠𝜋𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 = * Number of engines
4
= 109m2

 Undercarriage
sπu = 1.1×sπengine
= 1.1×109
= 120.2m2

S.No Component 𝐜𝐝𝛑 𝐬𝛑 (m2) 𝐜𝐝𝛑 × 𝐬𝛑

1 Fuselage 0.03 128.6 3.858
2 Wing 0.08 42.81 3.4248
3 Horizontal tail 0.008 7.5 0.06
4 Vertical tail 0.008 3.15 0.0252
5 Engine 0.01 109 1.09
6 1/4 flap 0.04 78 3.12
7 3/4 flap 0.035 78 2.73
8 Undercarriage 0.0504 120.2 6.05

10.2.2 DRAG POLAR

𝐂𝐃 = 𝐂𝐃𝐎+ 𝐊(𝐂𝐋)^𝟐
where,
 e = 4.61 (1 - 0.045 AR0.68 ) (cos ΔL.E )0.15 – 3.1 =0.6474
1
 K= =0.060
𝛱∗𝑒∗𝐴𝑅

 CDO is Total drag co-efficient at zero lift

 Cruise:
CDO 5 (𝐶𝐷𝛱 ∗𝑆𝛱
𝑖=0 )𝑖
𝑆𝑊
(3.858+3.4248+0.06+0.0252+1.09)
= 300
= 0.02819
 Takeoff:
CDO =∑7 (𝐶𝐷𝛱 ∗𝑆𝛱
𝑖=1 )𝑖
𝑆𝑊
 (3.858+3.4248+0.06+0.0252+1.09+3.12+2.73)
= 300

=∑
 = 0.04769
 Landing:
CDO =∑8 (𝐶𝐷𝛱 ∗𝑆𝛱
(𝐶𝐷𝛱 ∗𝑆𝛱 )8
𝑖=1 )𝑖 + 𝑆𝑊
𝑆𝑊
(3.
=
858+3.4248+0.06+0.0252+1.09+3.12+2.73+6.05)
300
= 0.0679

S. Cruise Takeoff Landing

CL 𝐂𝐃𝐭 𝐂𝐃𝐭 𝐂𝐃𝐭
No.
1 0.1 0.0288 0.04859 0.0685
2 0.2 0.03059 0.05009 0.0703
3 0.3 0.03359 0.05309 0.0733
4 0.4 0.03779 0.05729 0.0775
5 0.5 0.04319 0.06269 0.0829
6 0.55 0.04634 0.06584 0.08605
7 0.6 0.04979 0.06929 0.0895
8 0.65 0.05354 0.07304 0.09325
9 0.7 0.05759 0.07709 0.0973
10 0.75 0.06194 0.08144 0.10165
11 0.767 0.0635 0.08298 0.103197

DRAG POLAR GRAPH @ TAKEOFF, CRUISE AND LANDING

10.2.3 DRAG AT VARIOUS ALTITUDES

 At SEA LEVEL, (h=11.5)

T = 216.6 K,
ρ =0.337 kg/m3
a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4×28̊̊̊7×216.6) ^0.5 = 295.1 m/s.
2×𝑊 2×199514.7×9.81
CL = 𝜌×𝑆×𝑉^2
= 0.337×300×𝑉^2

𝑪𝑫𝑻𝑶
S.No V CDTO 𝑪𝑫𝑶 = CDT D=(( CDT
M=V/a (𝟏 − 𝑴𝟐)^𝟎. 𝟓 =1.05(
(m/s) CL x 10-3 ×W)/ CL)
𝑪𝑫𝑶 +
x 10-3 𝒌𝐂𝐋^𝟐) Newton
1. 150 1.7 0.508 21.8 25.309 0.2086 240215.9
2. 170 1.3 0.576 21.8 26.67 0.1345 202498.9
3. 180 1.2 0.609 21.8 27.508 0.1196 195071.5
4. 190 1.07 0.643 21.8 28.49 0.1020 186577.9
5. 200 0.97 0.678 21.8 29.657 0.0904 182439.9

 At h= 10 km

T = 223.3 K,
ρ = 0.414 kg/m3
a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4×28̊̊̊7× 223.3) ^0.5 = 299.5 m/s.
2×𝑊 2×199514.7×9.81
CL = 𝜌×𝑆×𝑉^2
= 0.414×300×𝑉^2

𝑪𝑫𝑻𝑶
S.No V CDTO 𝑪𝑫𝑶 = CDT D=(( CDT
M=V/a (𝟏 − 𝑴𝟐)^𝟎. 𝟓 =1.05(
(m/s) CL x 10-3 ×W)/ CL)
𝑪𝑫𝑶 +
x 10-3 𝒌𝐂𝐋^𝟐) Newton
1. 150 1.4 0.508 21.8 25.308 0.15 209778.8
2. 170 1.09 0.576 21.8 26.67 0.1028 184590.9
3. 180 0.97 0.609 21.8 27.48 0.088 177563.9
4. 190 0.87 0.644 21.8 28.49 0.0775 174351.8
5. 200 0.79 0.678 21.8 29.66 0.0704 174417.24
  At h= 9 km

T = 229.7 K,
ρ = 0.467 kg/m3
a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4×28̊̊̊7× 229.7 ) ^0.5 =303.8̊̊̊ m/s.
2×𝑊 2×199514.7×9.81
CL = 𝜌×𝑆×𝑉^2
= 0.467×300×𝑉^2

𝑪𝑫𝑻𝑶
S.No V CDTO 𝑪𝑫𝑶 = CDT D=(( CDT
M=V/a (𝟏 − 𝑴𝟐)^𝟎. 𝟓 =1.05(
(m/s) CL x 10-3 ×W)/ CL)
𝑪𝑫𝑶 +
x 10-3 𝒌𝐂𝐋^𝟐) Newton
1. 150 1.24 0.508 21.8 25.308 0.1234 194776.8
2. 170 0.967 0.576 21.8 26.67 0.0869 175888.38
3. 180 0.86 0.609 21.8 27.48 0.0754 171599.8
4. 190 0.77 0.64 21.8 28.37 0.067 170305.2
5. 200 0.69 0.678 21.8 29.67 0.0611 173428.39

 At h= 8 km

T =236.2 K,
ρ = 0.526kg/m3
a = (γ×R×T) ^0.5 = (1.4×28̊̊̊7× 236.2) ^0.5 = 308̊̊̊.1m/s.
2×𝑊 2×199514.7×9.81
CL = 𝜌×𝑆×𝑉^2
= 0.526×300×𝑉^2

𝑪𝑫𝑻𝑶
S.No V CDTO 𝑪𝑫𝑶 = CDT D=(( CDT
M=V/a (𝟏 − 𝑴𝟐)^𝟎. 𝟓 =1.05(
(m/s) CL x 10-3 ×W)/ CL)
𝑪𝑫𝑶 +
x 10-3 𝒌𝐂𝐋^𝟐) Newton
1. 150 1.1 0.508 21.8 25.308 0.1028 182912.9
2. 170 0.86 0.576 21.8 26.668 0.0746 169779.1
3. 180 0.77 0.609 21.8 27.48 0.0662 168271.7
4. 190 0.69 0.643 21.8 28.46 0.0598 169627.4
5. 200 0.62 0.678 21.8 29.66 0.0553 174573.09
 GRAPH BETWEEN VELOCITY, ALTITUDE & DRAG

30000
0
25000
0
20000
0 h=8 km

h= 9km
15000
0 h= 10km
h=
11.5km
10000
5000
00

0
0 50 10 150 200 25
0 0

DESIGN DETAILS

11.1 ENGINE

The PW535E1 has a T-stage, mounted on the LP shaft behind the fan, to increase overall
pressure ratio and core flow. It entered service in September 2000. It is a medium
thrust turbofan engine designed specifically for business jet applications. Dual Spool, axial
flow, medium bypass turbofan. The 2-stage axial and single stage centrifugal high pressure
compressor is driven by a single stage high pressure turbine. The integrally bladed fan and
single boost stage low pressure compressor is driven by a 2- stage low pressure turbine

11.2 WING GEOMETRY

12 Wing loading (W/S) = 463.216 kg/m2(from historical
data)
13 Wing reference area (S) = WTO/463.216= 22.03 m2
14 Aspect Ratio (AR) =9 (from historical data - Table 4.1)
𝑏2
𝑏2 = 𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝑆 =9 *237.16
𝑏 =46.2
15 Wing reference area (S) = b * Ĉ Ĉ = S / b =5.134
 The aerofoil selected for this project is NACA SC20714.

15.1 V- TAIL GEOMETRY

• Airfoil chosen : NACA 0010

• Volume ratio (VVT) :0.09

• Tail arm (lVT) :35.798 m

 • Tail area (SVT) :52.09 m2

From “Aircraft design: A Conceptual approach” by Daniel.P.Raymer,

• Aspect ratio (AR) : 1.9

2
𝑏𝑉𝑇
𝐴𝑅 = = 3.24
𝑆𝑉𝑇
2
𝑏𝑉𝑇 = 𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝑆𝑉𝑇
𝑏𝑉𝑇 = 4.236𝑚
• Span (bVT) :
4.236 m
SVT= b * Cmean

• Mean chord
(Cmean) :1.31 m
• Taper ratio (λ)
: 0.4
λ = Ct/Cr = 0.4................................................................(8̊̊̊.2.3.1)
S = b * (Ct+Cr)/2
VT ………………………… (8̊̊.2.3.2) ̊

Solving equation (8.2.3.1) and (8.2.3.2), we get

• Root chord (Cr) : 1.798 m
• Tip chord (Ct) :0.814 m
• Sweep Angle :48.5degree (From historical data)
2
• Mean 1+λ+λ
× C root chord×( ) = 1.375m
Aerodynamic (1+λ)
2
Chord 𝐶̅ =
3
• Span wise location of 𝐶̅ (Ȳ) =
𝑏 1+2𝜆
∗[ ] = 0.9077m
15.2 WEIGHT OF VARIOUS COMPONENTS

The weight of the components which includes fuselage, propulsion, equipment, fuel,
payload and crew is 33940lbs. The weight without fuel is 28645. The weight without fuel,
crew, and payload is 26550.

15.3 CENTER OF GRAVITY

Centre of gravity is the point where all the weight of the object acts. The CG point
should be within the object. If not the object will be unstable.
 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM

Top view, Side view and Front view with dimensions

 CONCLUSION

The preliminary design of a heavy cargo aircraft is done and the

various design consideration and performance parameters required
are calculated and found out. The obtained design values are not
necessarily a definite reflection of the airplane’s conceptualized
design, but the basic outlay of development has been obtained. The
final design stays true to the desired considerations of a long range
aircraft that can provide high fuel efficiency as well. There is no ideal
design as such and continuous changes, improvements and
innovations serve to make the design as ideal as possible, while
always looking to achieve optimum performance. The challenges we
faced at various phases of the project made clear the fact that
experience plays a vital role in successfull design of any aircraft or
aircraft components. A lot of effort has been put into this project and
as much as we have worked, we have learnt in turn.