The Lymphatic System defensive effects; the skin’s acidity,

lysozyme, mucus, keratin, and ciliated

1. The lymphatic system consists of the cells are examples.
lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and
certain other lymphoid organs in the 2. The inflammatory response prevents
body. spread of harmful agents, disposes of
pathogens and dead tissue cells, and
2. Extremely porous, blind-ended promotes healing. Protective leukocytes
lymphatic capillaries pick up excess enter the area; fibrin walls off the area;
tissue fluid leaked from the blood and tissue repair occurs.
capillaries. The fluid (lymph) flows into
the larger lymphatics and finally into the 3. Natural killer cells are lymphocytes that
blood vascular system through the right act nonspecifically to lyse virus-infected
lymphatic duct and the left thoracic duct. and malignant cells.

3. Lymph transport is aided by the 4. Phagocytes (macrophages and

muscular and respiratory pumps and by neutrophils) engulf and destroy
contraction of smooth muscle in the pathogens that penetrate epithelial
walls of the lymphatic vessels. barriers. This process is enhanced when
the pathogen’s surface is altered by
4. Lymph nodes are clustered along attachment of antibodies and/or
lymphatic vessels, and the lymphatic complement.
stream flows through them. Lymph
nodes serve as multiplication sites for 5. When complement (a group of plasma
agranular WBCs (lymphocytes); proteins) becomes fixed on the
phagocytic cells within them remove membrane of a foreign cell, lysis of the
bacteria, viruses, and the like from the target cell occurs. Complement also
lymph stream before it is returned to the enhances phagocytosis and the
blood. inflammatory and immune responses.

5. Other lymphoid organs include the 6. Interferons are a group of proteins

tonsils (in the throat), which remove synthesized by virus-infected cells and
bacteria trying to enter the digestive or certain immune cells. They prevent
respiratory tracts; the thymus, a viruses from multiplying in other body
programming region for some cells.
lymphocytes of the body; Peyer’s
patches, which prevent bacteria in the 7. Fever enhances the fight against
intestine from penetrating deeper into infectious micro- organisms by
the body; and the spleen, an RBC increasing metabolism (which speeds up
graveyard and blood reservoir. repair processes) and by causing the
liver and spleen to store iron and zinc
Innate Body Defenses (which bacteria need for multiplication).

1. Surface membranes (skin and mucous Adaptive Body Defenses

membranes) provide mechanical
barriers to pathogens. Some produce 1. The immune system recognizes
secretions and/or have structural something as foreign and acts to
modifications that enhance their inactivate or remove it. Immune
 response is antigen specific, is systemic, 4. Macrophages arise from
and has memory. The two arms of monocytes produced in bone
immune response are humoral immunity marrow. They and other APCs
(mediated by antibodies) and cellular phagocytize pathogens and
immunity (mediated by living cells, the present parts of the antigens on
lymphocytes). their surfaces, for recognition by
2. Antigens T cells.
4. Humoral (antibody-mediated) immune
a. Antigens are large, complex response
molecules (or parts of them) recognized 1. Clonal selection of B cells
as foreign by the body. Foreign proteins occurs when antigens bind to
are the strongest antigens. their receptors, causing them to
proliferate. Most clone members
2. Complete antigens provoke an immune become plasma cells, which
response and bind with products of that secrete antibodies. This is
response (antibodies or sensitized called the primary humoral
lymphocytes). response.
3. Incomplete antigens, or haptens, are 2. Other clone members become
small molecules that are unable to memory B cells, capable of
cause an immune response by mounting a rapid attack against
themselves but do so when they bind to the same antigen in subsequent
body proteins and the complex is meetings (secondary humoral
recognized as foreign. responses). These cells provide
immunological “memory.”
3. Cells of the adaptive defense system:
An overview Immune System Topic: Common
1. Two main cell populations, Characteristics of B and T Lymphocytes,
lymphocytes and antigen-
presenting cells, are involved in Active humoral immunity is acquired during an
adaptive defense. infection or via vaccination and provides
2. Lymphocytes arise from immunological memory. Passive immunity is
hemocytoblasts of bone conferred when a donor’s antibodies are injected
marrow. T cells develop into the bloodstream or when the mother’s
immunocompetence in the antibodies cross the placenta. It does not
thymus and oversee cell- provide immuno- logical memory.
mediated im- munity. B cells
develop immunocompetence in Basic antibody structure
bone marrow and provide
humoral immunity. 1. (1)  Antibodies are proteins produced by
Immunocompetent lymphocytes sensitized B cells or plasma cells in
seed lymphoid organs, where response to an antigen, and they are
antigen challenge occurs, and capable of binding with that antigen.
circulate through blood, lymph,
and lymphoid organs. 2. (2)  An antibody is composed of four
3. Immunocompetence is signaled polypeptide chains (two heavy and two
by the appearance of antigen- light) that form a T- or Y-shaped
specific receptors on surfaces of molecule.
lymphocytes.
 3. (3)  Each polypeptide chain has a Regulatory T cells terminate the
variable and a constant region. Variable normal immune response by
regions form antigen-binding sites, one releasing suppressor chemicals.
on each arm of the T or Y. Constant
regions determine anti- body function 6. Organ transplants include autografts,
and class. isografts, allografts, and xenografts. The
most usual graft is an allograft. Blood
4. (4)  Five classes of antibodies exist: IgA, group and tissue matching are done to
IgG, IgM, IgD, IgE. They differ ensure the best match possible, and
structurally and functionally. organ trans- plant is followed by
immunosuppressive therapy.
5. (5)  Antibody functions include
complement fixation, neutralization, 7. Disorders of immunity
precipitation, and agglutination.
a. Autoimmune disease occurs when the
6. (6)  Monoclonal antibodies are pure body’s self-tolerance breaks down, and
preparations of a single antibody type antibodies and/or T cells attack the
useful in diagnosing various infectious body’s own tissues. Most forms of
disorders and cancer and in treating autoimmune disease result from the
certain cancers. appearance of formerly hidden self-
antigens or changes in the structure of
Immune System Topic: Humoral Immunity self-antigens, and antibodies formed
against foreign antigens that resemble
Cellular (cell-mediated) immune response self-antigens.

1. T cells are sensitized by binding 2. In allergy or hypersensitivity, the

simultaneously to an antigen immune system overreacts to an
and a self-protein displayed on otherwise harmless antigen, and tissue
the surface of a macrophage or destruction occurs. Immediate (acute)
another type of antigen- hypersensitivity, as seen in hay fever,
presenting cell. Clonal selection hives, and anaphylaxis, is due to IgE
occurs, and clone members antibodies. Delayed hypersensitivity (for
differentiate into effector T cells example, contact dermatitis) reflects
or memory T cells. activity of T cells, macrophages, and
cytokines.
2. There are several different
classes of T cells. Cytotoxic 3. Immunodeficiencies result from
(killer) T cells directly attack and abnormalities in any immune element.
lyse infected and cancerous Most serious is severe combined
cells. Helper T cells interact immunodeficiency disease (a congenital
directly with B cells bound to disease) and AIDS, an acquired
antigens. They also liberate immunodeficiency disease caused by a
cytokines, chemicals that virus that attacks and cripples the helper
enhance the killing activity of T cells.
macrophages, at- tract other
leukocytes, or act as helper DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE
factors that stimulate activity of LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND BODY
B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
1. Lymphatic vessels form by budding off veins.
The thymus and the spleen are the first lymphoid
organs to appear in the embryo. Other lymphoid
organs re- main relatively undeveloped until after
birth.

2. The immune response develops around the

time of birth.

3. The ability of immunocompetent cells to

recognize foreign antigens is genetically
determined. Stress appears to interfere with
normal immune response.

4. Efficiency of immune response wanes in old

age, and infections, cancer, immunodeficiencies,
and autoimmune diseases become more
prevalent.