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Lecture notes, lectures 1-4

Structural Analysis I (University of Sheffield)

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• CV2102: Structures 1

Scope of Structures 1
Topics
Section I (Week 1 to Week 7) Section I: Basic structural analysis
Types of structures and loadings
Basic concepts and analysis techniques
Analysis of Trusses
Analysis of beams and frames
Section II: Deflection of structures
Deflection of beams
Integration method -
Moment area method
Deflection of structures using energy
methods
Principle of virtual work

Lecture 1 1 Lecture 1 2

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Structural Engineering is about the conception, design and construction of
the structural systems that are needed in support of human activities. Civil
Why we study structural analysis?
engineering projects include bridges, building, dams, storage facilities etc.
involves structural engineering.
Answer: To prevent this to happen!

Lecture 1 3 Lecture 1 4

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CV2102: Structures 1

Compassvale School, Singapore

•Structural analysis is rarely an end in

itself. Rather, it is a tool used by structural
designers to assist in the creation of
design concepts and to demonstrate that
these concepts satisfy project
requirements.

Lecture 1 5

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Lecture 1 10

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Introduction Structural forms and classifications

What is a structure?
• Structural forms and classifications
• Structures refer to a system of connected parts used to
– Structural members and their characteristics support a load (e.g. self-weight, occupants/furniture for
– Different forms of structures and their building, traffics for bridges)
properties • Factors to consider
• Loads – Safety (most important!)
– Serviceability (e.g. extensive deflection or vibration is
– Different loadings type and their characteristics not allowed)
• Structural analysis and design – Esthetics
– An introduction to the basic concepts – Economic and environmental constraints (cost to build
and use, energy consumption etc.)

Lecture 1 11 Lecture 1 12

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CV2102: Structures 1

Structural members and their Tie Rod and Struts

characteristics • Tie rods normally refer to
• For the ease of design and construction, structures structural members subjected
are often composing of a number of structural to tensile force only
elements or members
• Normally tie rods are rather
• In this course, the following commonly encountered slender
member types shall be discussed:
• Struts are members that could
– Tie rods
subject to both tensile and
– Struts
compressive forces
– Beams
• They are commonly used in
– Columns
trusses and bridges
More on tie rod in Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie_rod
More on tie strut in Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strut
Lecture 1 13 Lecture 1 14

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

•Compression
Structures -
Strut

•Force transfer mechanism

in an arch

•Stable 3-hinge arch

continues to support the load

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

•Tension
Structures

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Beams Columns
• Beams are usually straight • Columns usually
horizontal members used straight vertical
primarily to carry vertical members to resist
loads vertical compression
• They are classified to how • Tubes and wide flange
they are supported cross section are often
used
• Design to resist bending
• A column is called a
moment and shear forces beam-column if it is
• In steel beam, wide flange subjected to both
cross section are commonly vertical compression and
used bending

More about beam in Wikipedia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beam_% More about column in Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column
28structure%29
Lecture 1 19 Lecture 1 20

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Structural forms and classifications Trusses

• The combination of structural elements • Used when long span is
needed with not much
(rods, strut, beam, column) and materials depth constraints
• Consist of slender
(concrete, steel, timber) generate different struts/ties arranged in
structural forms or structural systems triangular or other
fashions
• In this course, focus shall be given to the • Planer trusses (all
members lie in same
following two most popular types of skeleton plane) used in bridges
structural systems and roof
• Space truss (members lie
– Trusses in different planes) used
in derricks and towers
– Frames (including simple beams)

Lecture 1 21 Lecture 1 22

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Structural Analysis and Design

Selection of structural form
Find out the loads on (trusses, frames) and material
structures (structural steel, concrete)

Structural analysis Main study

(calculate the forces
Rechecking in the structure) objective of
this course
Design (to provide
Rechecking strong enough
members to resist the
forces

Build (to construct the

structures)

Lecture 1 24

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CV2102: Structures 1

Next Lecture

• Some essential tools for structural analysis

– Principle of superposition
– Equilibrium
– Internal forces
– Free body diagrams

Lecture 1 25

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Idealization structures
• In real sense, an exact analysis is almost impossible due
Lecture 2 to uncertainty in members dimensions and loading
•Idealization structures location (especially before the structure was built!)
Geometry • Hence, in practice, in order to carry out force analysis,
Loading structural engineers must know how to idealize a
structures to a simple form/geometry for analysis
Supports and connections
• Structural prismatic elements like rod/beam/column
•Principle of superposition
members are normally idealized as “line elements” with
•Equilibrium appropriate support conditions
•Internal forces • At the same time an appropriate idealized loading and
•Free body diagrams supports and connections should also be applied to the
structure

Lecture 2 1 Lecture 2 2

•Simplification
CV2102: Structures 1for the purpose of analysis CV2102: Structures 1
•All structures have to be simplified in a convenient form to carry out the structural
analysis; actual structures often have complicated details Support connections
•Experience and good judgement of structural behaviour are required in carrying
out such simplification • Real and actual supports/connections could come with many
different details
• In structural analysis, they are idealized into a few supports and
connection types

Pin connection
Fixed connection

Lecture 2 3 Lecture 2 4

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Idealized connection types Idealized structures
Roller support: no relative vertical movement, allows
some freedoms for slight rotation • When selecting the model for each support, the
Pin connection: no relative horizontal and vertical movement, engineer must be aware how the assumptions will
allows some freedoms for slight rotation affect the actual performance
Fixed joint: no relative horizontal, vertical movement and rotation • The assumptions must be reasonable for the
structural design
90
• The simplified loadings should give results that
Roller support Pin support closely approximate the actual loadings
Pin connection • Common types of connections on coplanar
=90
structures are given in Table 2.1 of Textbook (Page
37)

Fixed connection
Lecture 2 5 Lecture 2 6

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

•Reactions

•Different types of idealised support conditions for planar structures: Pin support
with Fx and
Fy
Tie support
with Fn

Partially
Generally fixed or fixed
known as support with
roller Fx , Fy and
support with M
only one
reaction
force Fy

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CV2102: Structures
Quite often, a body1 or a combination of bodies is to be analysed and it is CV2102: Structures 1
isolated as a single body from the surrounding bodies.
Hence, a free body diagram is a diagrammatic representation of the
isolated body or combination of bodies treated as a single body, showing •Example: Draw the
ALL forces applied to it and by mechanical contact with other bodies that free body diagram
are imagined to be removed. for the beam.
Neglect the weight of
the beam.

Idealized structures: An example

Lecture 2 9

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

•Example: Draw the free body diagram for the
•Example: A cylinder is pulley, the post and the beam CD.
supported on a smooth
inclined surface by a two-bar
frame . Draw the free body
diagram for the cylinder, the
two bar frame and the pin at
C.

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Equations of Equilibrium
• For the general 3D cases, six equations:
 Fx  0  Fy  0  Fz  0

 M x 0  M y 0  M z 0

• For planar structures (and problems appear in

this course), reduces to 3 equations:

 Fx  0 ,  F y  0 ,  M o  0

Lecture 2 14

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Principle of Superposition Principle of Superposition

• Forms the basis for much theory of structural P 2P
analysis in this course  2
• The total displacements or internal loadings
(stress) at a point in a structure subjected to
several external loadings can be determined by • 2 requirements for the principle to apply:
adding together the displacements or internal – Material must behave in a linear-elastic manner,
loadings (stress) caused by each of the external Hooke’s Law is valid
loads acting separately
– The geometry of the structure must not undergo
• Linear relationship exist among loads, stresses and significant change when the loads are applied,
displacements
small displacement theory

Lecture 2 15 Lecture 2 16

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

More examples on FBD D

More examples on FBD
P P

1
C

F 2

y FxA FxB
A B
1 2 FyA FyB
P FBD for the whole structure
x
FxA
Fxc
FyA
M Fxc
Fyc

FxA + 0 = 0 Fyc

FyA – F = 0
FxB
FBD for ACD FBD for CB
Moment above A: M + F3 = 0 FxA FyB
FyA
Lecture 2 17 Lecture 2 18

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

•12kN •22kN.m •10kN

•12kN •22kN.m •10kN •8kN/m
•8kN/m •18kN.m
•18kN.m
•K
•K
•1m •1m •4m •1m•1m •2m •29kN •25kN
•29
•17 •Q(kN)
•12kN •10kN •10
•8kN/m •22kN.m • •
•18kN.m •
•x=17/8 •15
•K
•20
•29kN •25kN •18
•M(kN·m)
•11 •17
•28 •46.0625 •32
19 / 47

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CV2102: Structures 1

•160kN •40kN
•80kN.m •40kN/m
•160kN •40kN
•80kN.m •40kN/m

•130kN •310kN
•1m •1m •2m •4m •2m
•130 • •120
•
•160kN •40kN •
•80kN.m •40kN/m •30 •190 •Q(kN)

•130 •160 •M(kN·m)

•340
•130kN •310kN •210 •280
•
哈工大 土木工程学院
22 / 47

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Some hints on drawing FBD and Internal forces

equilibrium equations (EE) • Internal forces are forces developed inside a member
• FBD should never contain any support under the action of external loadings and reactions from
• When removing the supports to the structures, replaced them by the the supports
corresponding reactions • In structural analysis, to find out the internal forces of
• The number of reactions should always equal to the numbers of constrains members are very important as such member forces
removed.
information are critical to the design of the structures so
• Away fix the global x and y axes before writing down the EE, this shall fix the
positive directions of forces that engineers could design a member section size strong
• In general, one could always assume that all reactions are acting in the enough to resist the internal forces
positive direction • Hence, it is very important that in structural analysis all
• When writing down the EE, always use the condition of “Sum-To-Zero”. the member forces are calculated correctly. Otherwise, it
That is, instead of writing:
could lead to error in design and eventually failure of
FxB = -Pcos(45) members and structures
one shall write: FxB + Pcos(45) = 0

Lecture 2 23 Lecture 2 24

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Next Lecture
• To obtain member force, one needs to make a
“cut” to the member under concern and expose
• Determinacy and stability
the corresponding internal forces
• Simple applications of equilibrium
P P
B N N
equations
A A B
C V V C
M M
A simple beam ACB
A cut before C exposes the
internal forces N, V and M
P
A N N B
FxA FxB
V V C
M M
FyA FyB
FBD for LHS FBD for RHS

Lecture 2 25 Lecture 2 26

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Determinacy
• Equilibrium equations (EE) provide sufficient conditions for
Lecture 3 equilibrium
• When all forces (internal and reactions) can be determined
• Determinacy strictly from the EE, the structure is referred as statically
• Stability determine
• Simple application of equilibrium • If the structure has more unknown forces than the numbers
of EE , the structure is a statically indeterminate structure
equations
• If a structure is statically indeterminate, addition equations,
known as compatibility equations are needed to solve for the
forces
• In this course, we shall only work on statically determine
planar (2D) structures
•For stability, a minimum of 3
reaction components is needed:

1 Lecture 3 2

Stability
• To ensure equilibrium of a structure or its members:
– Must satisfy EEs
– Members must be properly “held” or constrained
by their supports
• If the structure is not properly supported, instability
may be resulted and lead to collapse of the (partially
or whole) structure
• Instability could be caused by
– Partial constraints (i.e. no enough numbers of constraints
/ support reactions)
– Improper Constraints (i.e. enough numbers of constraints
but put in wrong positions/ directions)

Lecture 3 3 Lecture 3 4

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Lecture 3 5 Lecture 3 6

Lecture 3 7 Lecture 3 8

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•Examples of external statical classification:

•Computation of reactions using Equation of Equilibrium

•Example: Determine the reactions for the structure.

Lecture 3 12

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•And they must be properly arranged: •Example: A pin-connected two-bar frame is supported and loaded as shown
below. Determine the reactions at supports A and B.

In some cases, the number of reaction forces may equal EEs.

However, instability or movement of structure could still occur
if support reactions are
• Concurrent (i.e. pass through) at a point
• All parallel and acting along one direction only

Simple application of EEs Simple application of EEs

Procedure of analysis using EEs Some useful hints
(1) Identify all the supports and hinge connections (if (1) There is no need to know in advance the directions
any) of the reaction before the analysis. One could
(2) Remove the supports and re-apply the reactions always assuming the reactions are acting in the
(3) Draw FBD for the whole structures or FBDs for positive directions, if eventually the answer is
separate parts of the structure. Remember that 3 negative, it simply implies that the reaction is
EEs could by applied to each separated FBD acting in the opposite direction
(4) Apply EEs in turns (to different separate parts if (2) When apply the EEs, very often the solutions will
needed) to solve for the unknown reaction and become very straightforward by take moment (i.e.
forces using the M=0 condition) at appropriate point
(5) Always try to solve one unknown at a time (3) Always write the EE in “sum-to-zero” form, this
could reduce the chance of making errors

Lecture 3 15 Lecture 3 16

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Numerical examples The 6kN/m udl is converted to

36kN at its centroid

Note: the 6.8kNm

  Fx  0; Ax  270 cos 600  0
moment at the free
end should be
included when taking Segment BC :
Ax  135kN moment at A
With anti - clockwise in the  direction,
With anti - clockwise in the  direction,
 M c  0;  8  B y (4.5)  0  B y  1.78kN
 M A  0;  270 sin 60 (3)  270 cos 60 (0.3)  B y (4.2)  6.8  0
0 0

B y  159kN    Fy  0;  1.78  C y  0  C y  1.78kN

   Fy  0;  270 sin 600  159  Ay  0   Fx  0; Bx  0
Ay  74.8kN
Lecture 3 17 Lecture 3 18

•Example :
•Compute the reactions for the structure shown below.

Segment AB :
With anti - clockwise in the  direction,
 M A  0; M A  36(3)  (1.78)(6)  0
M A  97.3kN.m
   Fy  0; Ay  36  1.78  0
Ay  34.2kN
  Fx  0; Ax  0
Lecture 3 19

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•40kN/m •120kN

•A •B •C •K •D

•8m •2m •3m •3m

•120kN

•40kN/m •60kN •60kN

•145kN •235kN

•40kN/m •120kN
•Home Works
•20kN •10kN
•A •B •C •K •D •2kN/m
•120 •A
•B •E •C •F •D
•3m •3m •2m •2m •2m •2m •4m
•(kN·m)
•180
•263 •10kN •10kN
•145 •60 •5kN/m •20kN·m
• •
• •
•175 •60 (kN) •3m •2m •2m •2m •2m •2m •5m

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•q

•D •C
•A •B •x •l - x
•l •l
•q
1 1 •D •C
•D •C q( l  x ) x  qx 2
•A •B •x •l - x 2 2
•l •l 1
•A •B q( l  x ) 2
8
q( l  x )
x  qx 2  ql  x 
1
q( l  x ) •D •C 1 q( l  x ) 1 1 2
2 2 2 2 8
•A •B x  (3  2 2)l  0.172l

•F •q
P
•A •D •B •E •C •F •C
•A •B
•a •a •a •a •a l l
•FP
•FPa/4 a

•M 0.5ql 2 •M(kN·m)
•FPa/2 •FP 0.125ql 2
•FP/4 •FP/2 • • 0.5ql
•FQ •
0.5ql •
•FQ(kN)

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Past Years Exam

Past Years Exam

Past Years Exam

Past Years Exam

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Past Years Exam

Some remarks
• More examples could be found in the textbook
• When udl is involved, one needs to convert it to the
equivalent point load acts at the centroid
• In all exercises, calculations are always very simple
but one need to draw FBDs and apply EEs
correctly to get the correct answers
• More exercises are given in Tutorial sheet 1
• More practice is useful to allow one to solve the
this type of question in a faster speed with less
chances to make error

Lecture 3 34

Next Lecture

• Introduction to planar truss

• Determinacy and stability of truss

Lecture 3 35

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Introduction to planar trusses

• A truss is a structure composed of slender members
Lecture 4 joined together at their end points
• Introduction to planar truss • The joint connections are usually formed by bolting
• Roof and bridge trusses or welding the ends of the members to a common
• Internal forces plate called gusset plate
• Determinacy and stability of truss • Planar trusses lie in a single plane and is often used
to support roof or bridges

Lecture 4 1 Lecture 4 2

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Different forms of roof trusses
Roof trusses
• They are often used as part
of an industrial building
frame

• Roof load is transmitted to the truss at the joints by

means of a series of purlins
• To keep the frame rigid and thereby capable of
resisting horizontal wind forces, knee braces are
sometimes used at the supporting column

Lecture 4 3 Lecture 4 4

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Bridge trusses Different forms of bridge trusses

• The load on the deck is first
transmitted to the stringers 
floor beams  joints of
supporting side truss
• The top and bottom cords of
these side trusses are
connected by top and bottom
lateral bracings resisting
lateral forces
• Additional stability is
provided by the portal and
sway bracing
• In the case of a long span
truss, a roller is provided at
one end for thermal expansion

Lecture 4 5 Lecture 4 6

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Assumptions of analysis and design Internal force of truss members

P1 Since both end of any truss members are
pinned end, there is no moment at the ends
1. The gusset plates provide limited amount of y x
Set the x and y axes parallel and perpendicular
V1
moment resistance to the orientation of the member respectively
2. The members are joined together by smooth pins Assume that the two forces at the two ends are
P1, V1 and P2 and V2 respectively
3. No moment at the two ends of members
Using the conditions Fx=0 and Fy=0, the
4. All loadings are applied at the joints V2 forces must be equal and opposite at the two
P1
5. All supports are also located at the joints P2 ends
y x Now taking moment at one end since M=0
6. The above assumptions lead to the conclusion V1=0
that only axial forces (tension or compression) LV1=0
are acting in the all members regarding of their where L0 is the length of the member.
sizes, locations and dimensions Hence, V1=0 and only the equal and opposite
axial force exist
V1 =0
P1
Thus, all truss members are axial force
members

Lecture 4 7 Lecture 4 8

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Classification of coplanar trusses Compound trusses

Simple Truss
• Simplest framework of Formed by joining two
or more simple trusses
rigid (stable) with the together
basic “stable” triangle
Type 1, Figure (a) :
element (ADC) connected by a common
joint and bar
• Addition members are
added in to connect with Type 2 , Figure (b) :
connected by three bars
the basic triangle
Type 3, Figure (c):
• Note that simple trusses substituted bars of a
may not consist entirely truss by simple trusses
of triangles

Lecture 4 9 Lecture 4 10

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Complex truss Determinacy of planar trusses

A complex truss is one
that cannot be classified as •Overall classification
being either simple or
compound trusses

Lecture 4 11

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

•Condition equations

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Internal stability of trusses Internal stability of trusses

• To determine the internal stability • A truss is internally unstable if some of it
of a compound truss, it is necessary
to identify the way in which the components forms a collapsible mechanism
simple truss are connected together • The internal stability can be checked by careful
• The truss at the top is unstable as inspection of the arrangement of its members
there is no restraint between joints • If it can be determined that each joint is held
C and F or B and E fixed so that it cannot move in a “rigid body”
• The truss at the bottom unstable sense with respect to the other joints, then the
since the inner simple truss ABC is truss will be stable
connected to DEF using 3 bars
which are concurrent at point O.
• However, if a truss is constructed so that it does
not hold its joints in a fixed position, it will be
• An external load can be applied at unstable or have a “critical form”
A, B or C and causes the truss to
rotate slightly • A simple truss will always be internally stable

Lecture 4 15 Lecture 4 16

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CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1 •Examples

•Examples

CV2102: Structures 1 CV2102: Structures 1

Next Lecture
• Analysis of planar trusses I: method of
joints
• Zero force members

Lecture 4 19 Lecture 4 20

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