Test from Noun and its types:

Point out the Nouns in the following sentences, 20. He sets a high value on his time.
and say whether they are Common,
Proper, Collective or Abstract: 21. I believe in his innocence.

22. This room is thirty feet in length.

1. The crowd was very big.
23. I often think of the happy days of childhood.
2. Always speak the truth.
24. The streets of some of our cities are noted for
3. We all love honesty.
their crookedness.
4. Our class consists of twenty pupils.
25. What is your verdict, gentlemen of the jury?
5. The elephant has great strength.

6. Solomon was famous for his wisdom.

7. Cleanliness is next to godliness.

8. We saw a fleet of ships in the harbour.

9. The class is studying grammar.

10. The Godavary overflows its banks every year.

11. A committee of five was appointed.

12. Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister

of India.

13. The soldiers were rewarded for their bravery.

14.Without health there is no happiness.

15. He gave me a bunch of grapes.

16. I recognized your voice at once.

17. Our team is better than theirs.

18. Never tell a lie.

19. Wisdom is better than strength.

Form Abstract Nouns from the Form Abstract Nouns from the Form Abstract Nouns from the
following Adjectives: following Verbs: following Common Nouns:

Long, Laugh, King,

young, obey, man,
humble, live, thief,
decent, expect, woman,
cruel, excel, bankrupt,
bitter, know, infant,
strong, steal. owner,
true, Believe, rogue,
short, Serve, regent,
prudent, Hate, author,
dark, Please, mother,
deep, Act, agent,
wide, Starve, hero,
wise, Occupy, beggar,
good, Choose, coward,
vacant, Move, priest,
sweet, Conceal, boy,
human, Seize, bond,
broad, Flatter, pirate,
free, Depart, pilgrim,
proud, Persevere, friend,
brave, Defend, caption,
novel, Think, rascal,
quick, Protect, patriot,
high, Advise, glutton.
poor, Punish,
just, Die,
vain, Succeed,
sane, Free,
ignorant. See,
Judge,
Pursue,
Relieve,
Converse,
Discover.
Write the Collective Nouns used to describe a
number of
(1) Cattle;
(2) Soldiers;
(3) Sailors.
Write the qualities that belong to boys who are
(1) Lazy;
(2) Cruel;
(3) Brave;
(4) Foolish.
How Plurals are Formed
Rule No.1. Nouns ending in -s, -sh, -ch
(soft), or -x form the plural by adding -es to
the
singular;
Singular Plural
Class Classes
Glass Glasses
Wish Wishes
Dish Dishes
Brush Brushes
Match Matches
Watch Watches
Branch Branches
Tax Taxes
Box Boxes

Rule. No. 2. Most Nouns ending in o also form the

plural by adding -es to the singular

Singular Plural
buffalo, buffaloes;
mango, mangoes;
hero, heroes;
potato, potatoes;
cargo, cargoes,
echo, echoes;
negro, negroes;
volcano,. Volcanoes
Exceptional cases: A few nouns ending in -o
merely add -s; as,
Singular Plural
dynamo, dynamos;
solo; , solos
ratio, ratios;
canto,; Cantos
memento, mementos;
quarto, quartos;
piano, pianos;
photo, photos;
stereo, siereos.
kilo, kilos;
Logo logos;
commando, commandos
Rule. No. 3. Nouns ending in -y, preceded by a
consonant, form their plural by changing -y into –I
and adding -es; as,
Singular Plural
baby, babies;
lady, ladies;
city, cities;
army, armies;
story, stories;
pony, ponies.

Rule. No. 5. The following nouns ending in -f or -fe

form their plural by replacing –f and -fe –ves;
Singular Plural
thief, thieves;
wife, wives;
wolf, wolves;
life, lives;
calf, calves;
leaf, leaves;
loaf, loaves;
knife, knives;
shelf, shelves,
half, halves;
elf, elves;
self, selves;
sheaf,

Exceptional cases: The nouns dwarf, hoof, scarf

and wharf take either -s or -ves in the plural.
Singular Plural
Dwarf dwarfs or dwarves;
A few nouns form their plural by changing the
Hoof hoofs or hooves;
inside vowel of the singlar; as,
Scarf scarfs or scarves;
Singular Plural
Warf wharfs or wharves
Man Men
Other
Woman words ending in -for Women
–fe and –f add -s;
Singular
Foot Plural
Feet
chief,
Tooth chiefs; Teeth
safe,
Goose safes; Geese
proof,
Mouseproofs Mice
gulf, gulfs;
cliff, cliffs;
handkerchief,
handkerchiefs
Louse Lice

There are a few nouns that form their plural by

adding -en to the singular; as,

Singular Plural
Ox Oxen
Child Children

Note: The plural of fish is fish or fishes. The form

fishes is less usual.

Some nouns have the singular and the plural alike;

as,

Singular Plural
Swine, Swine,
sheep, sheep,
deer; deer;
cod, cod,
trout, trout,
salmon; salmon;
aircraft, aircraft,
spacecraft, spacecraft,
series, series,
species. species.
Pair, Pair,
dozen, dozen,
score, score,
gross, gross,
hundred, hundred,
thousand (when used thousand (when used
after numerals), after numerals),
Some nouns are used only in the plural.
1) Names of instruments which have two parts
forming a kind of pair; as,
Bellows,
scissors,
tongs,
pincers,
spectacles.
(2) Names of certain articles of dress; as,

Trousers,
drawers,
breeches,
jeans,
tights,
shorts,
pyjamas.

(3) Certain other nouns; as,

Annals,
thanks,
proceeds (of a sale),
tidings,
environs,
nuptials,
obsequies,
assets,
chatels.
Some nouns originally singular
are now generally used in the
plural; as,
Alms,
riches,
Eaves.
Riches do many things.

The following nouns look plural but are in fact singular:

(1) Names of subjects
mathematics,
physics,
electronics, etc.
(2) The word news
(3) Names of some common diseases
measles,
mumps,
rickets
(4) Names of some games
billiards,
draught

(5)Certain Collective Nouns, though singular in form, are

always used as plurals; as,
Poultry,
cattle,
vermin,
people,
gentry.

These poultry are mine.

Whose are these cattle?
Vermin destroy our property and carry disease.
Who are those people (= persons)?
There are few gentry in this town.

‘Means’ is used either as singular or plural. But when it has the

meaning of ‘wealth’ it is
always plural; as,
He succeeded by this means (or, by these means) in passing the
examination.
His means are small, but he has incurred no debt.

Note:- As a Common Noun 'people' means a 'nation' and is used in both

singular and
plural; as,
The Japanese are a hard-working people.
There are many different peoples in Europe.

A Compound Noun generally forms its plural by adding

-s to the principal word; as,

Singular Plural
Commander-in-chief -- commanders-in-chief
Coat-of-mail -- coats-of-mail
Son-in-Law -- sons-in-law
Daughter-in-law - - daughters-in-law
Step-son - - step-sons
Step-daughter - - step-daughters
Maid-servant - - maid-servants (but man-
servant, plural men-
servants)
Passer-by -- passers-by
Looker-on - lookers-on
-Man-of-war - - men-of-war.
We say spoonfuls and handfuls, because spoonful and
handful are regarded as one word.
Note that the Proper Nouns Brahman and Mussulman
are not compounds of man;
therefore their plurals are Brahmans and Mussulmans.

Many nouns taken from foreign languages keep their original plural form; as,

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Form Latin- Form Latin- basis, bases;
Erratum errata; phenomenon, phenomena;
formula, formulae (or analysis, analyses;
formulas):
index, indices; criterion, criteria.
memorandum, memoranda; From Italian- From Italian-
radius radii; Bandit, banditti, (or bandits)
terminus, termini (or From French- From French-
terminuses).
From Greek- From Greek- Madame messieurs. Or
(madam), mesdames;
Axis, axes; From Hebrew- From Hebrew-
parenthesis, parentheses; Cherub cherubim (or
cherubs);
crisis, crises; seraph seraphim (or seraphs).
hypothesis, hypotheses;

Some nouns have two forms for the plural, each with a some what different
meaning.

Singular Plural Plural

Brother Brothers= sons of the Brethren= members of a
same parent. society or a community.

Cloth Cloths= kinds or pieces of Clothes= garments.

cloth,
Die Dies= stamps for coining, Dice= small cubes used in
games.

Index Indexes= tables of Indices= signs used in

contents to books, algebra. Penny pennies,
number of coins, pence,
amount in value.

Some nouns have two meanings in the singular but only one in the plural.

Singular Plural
Light: -- (1) radiance, (2) a lamp Lights lamps.
People: (1) nation, (2) men and women Peoples nations.
Powder dust : (1)dust, (2) a dose of medicine Powders doses of
in fine grains like medicine.

Practice (1) habit (2) exercise of a Practices habits.

profession
Some nouns have one meaning in the singular, two in the plural.

Singular Meaning Plural Meaning (1) Meaning (2) or (3)

Colour Hue Colours (1)hues, (2)the flag of a regiment
Custom Habit Customs (1) habits (2) duties levied on imports
Effect Result Effects (1) results, (2) property
Manner Method Manners (1) methods (2) correct behaviour.
Moral a moral lesson Morals (1) moral lessons (2) conduct
Number a quantity Numbers (1) quantities (2) verses
Pain Suffering Pains (1) sufferings (2) care, exertion.
Premise Proposition Premises: (1) propositions (2) buildings
Quarter Fourth part Quarters (1) fourth parts (2) lodgings
Spectacle A sight Spectacles: (1) sights (2) eye-glasses.
Letter (1) letter of the Letters: (1) letters of the alphabet (2)epistle; (3) literature.
alphabet; (2)
epistle
Ground: (1) earth; (2) Grounds: (1) enclosed land attached (2) reasons (3) dregs.
reason to house.
Some nouns have different meanings in the singular and the plural.

Singular Meaning Plural Meaning

Advice Counsel Advices information.
Air Atmosphere Airs Affected manners.
Good benefit, well-being Goods Merchandise
Compass extent, range Compasses An instrument for
drawing circles.
Respect regard Respects compliments.
Physic medicine Physics natural science.
Iron a kind of metal Irons fetters
Force strength Forces troops

Letters, figures and other symbols are made plural by adding an apostrophe and s; as,
There are more e's than a's in this page.
Dot your i's and cross your t's.
Add two 5's and four 2's.

It is usual to say-
The Miss Smiths. (Singular, Miss Smith.)
Abstract Nouns have no plural. They are uncountable.
Hope, charity, love, kindness.
When such words do appear in the plural, they are used as countables; as
Provocations = instances or cases of provocation.
Kindnesses = acts of kindness.
Names of substances are also uncountables and are not therefore used in the plural.
Copper, iron, tin, wood.
When such words are used in the plural, they become countables with changed
meanings; as,
Coppers = copper coins; irons = fetters; tins = cans made of tin; woods = forests.

The Noun: Cases

Subjective Case=Nominative Case Objective Case= Accusative Case Possessive Case= Genitive Case
1. John threw a stone. 1. John threw a stone. `
2. The horse kicked the boy. 2. The horse kicked the boy.
(John= Subject, threw a In sentence 1, What did John
stone=predicate) throw?-A stone. Stone is the object
In sentence 1, the noun John is the which John threw. The noun stone
Subject. It is the answer to the is therefore called the Object.
question, “Who threw a stone?” In sentence 2, The noun boy is the
In sentence 2, the noun horse is the Object. It is the answer to the
Subject. It is the answer to the question, 'Whom did the horse
question, 'Who kicked kick?”
the boy?”
Note-To find the Nominative, put Who? or What? before the verb.
To find the Accusative put, Whom? or What? before the verb and its subject.
A noun which comes after a preposition is also said to be in the Accusative Case; as,
The book is in the desk.
The noun desk is in the Accusative Case, governed by the preposition in.

Active Voice Passive Voice

Hari broke the window. (Object) The window was broken. (Subject)
It will be seen that Nouns in English have the same form for the Nominative and the
Accusative.
The Nominative generally comes before the verb, and the Accusative after the verb.
Hence they are distinguished by the order of words, or by the sense.
Noun Used as direct object and Indirect Object
Rama gave a ball. Rama gave Hari a ball.
In each of these sentences the noun ball is the Object of gave.
The noun ball, the ordinary Object, is called the Direct Rama gave a ball.
Object. The noun Hari is called the Indirect Object of the verb
gave.
It will be noticed that the position of the Indirect Object is immediately after the verb and
before the Direct Object.
Rama gave Hari a ball = Rama gave a ball to Hari.
Will you do me a favour? = Will you do a favour to me?
I bought Rama a ball = I bought a ball for Rama.
Fetch the boy a book = Fetch a book for the boy.
She made Ruth a new dress = She made a new dress for Ruth.
Get me a taxi = Get a taxi for me.
We see that the Indirect Object of a verb denotes the person to whom something is given,
or for whom something is done.

Possessive Noun= Genitive Noun

This is Ram's umbrella. Ram's umbrella = the umbrella belonging to Rama.
The form of the noun Rama is changed to Rama's to The Possessive answers the question, ‘Whose?’
show ownership of possession. The Whose umbrella? - Rama's.
Noun Rama’s is therefore said to be in the possessive Note:
(or Genitive) Case The Possessive Case does not always denote
possession. It is used to denote
authorship, origin, kind, etc. as,
Shakespeare's plays = the plays written by
Shakespeare.
A mother's love = the love felt by a mother.
The President's speech = the speech delivered by the
President.
Mr. Aggarwal's house = the house where Mr.
Aggarwal lives.
Ashok's school = the school where Ashok goes.
A children's playground = a playground for children.
A week's holiday = a holiday which lasts a week.

Formation of the Possessive Case

(1) When the noun is Singular, the Possessive Case is Note:- The letter s is omitted in a few words where
formed by adding ‘s to the too many hissing sounds would come
noun; as, together; as,
The boy's book; the king's crown. For conscience' sake; for goodness' sake;
For justice' sake; for Jesus' sake; Moses' laws.
(2) When the noun is Plural, and ends in s, the (3) When the noun is Plural but does not end in s, the
Possessive Case is formed by adding only Possessive sign is formed by
an apostrophe; as, adding 's as,
Boys' school; girls' school; horses' tails. Men's club; children's books.
When a noun or a title consists of several words, the When two nouns are in apposition, the possessive sign
Posses sive sign is attached only is put to the latter only; as,
to the last word; as, That is Tagore the poet's house.
The King of Bhutan's visit.
The Prime Minister of Mauritius's speech.
Also when two nouns are closely connected, the Each of two or more connected nouns implying
possessive is put to the latter; as, separate possession must take the
Karim and Salim's bakery. possessive sign; as,
William and Mary's reign. Raja Rao's and R.K. Narayan's novels.
Goldsmith's and Cowper's poems.

Use of the Possessive Case

The Possessive Case is now used chiefly with the So we must say:
names of living thing; as, The leg of the table [not, the table's leg].
The Governor’s bodyguard; the lion’s mane. The cover of the book [not, the book's cover].
The roof of the house [not, the house's roof).
But the Possessive is used with the names of personified (When n inanimate thing has
ascribed to it the attributes of a person it is said to be personified. Objects; as,
India's heroes; Nature's laws; Fortune's favourite; at duty's call; at death's door.
The Possessive is also used with nouns denoting time, The following phrases are also in common use:-
space or weight; as, At his fingers' ends; for mercy's sake; to his heart's
A day's march; a week's holiday; in a year's time; a content; at his wit's end; a boat's crew.
stone's throw; a foot's length; a
pound's weight.
The possessive of a proper name or of a noun When you are in doubt whether to use a noun in the
denoting a trade, profession, or possessive case or with the
relationship may be used to denote a building or place preposition of, remember that, as a general rule, the
of business (church, house, school, possessive case is used to denote
college, shop, hospital, the atre; etc.) as, possession or ownership. Thus it is better to say 'the
She has gone to the baker's ( = baker's shop). defeat of the enemy' than 'the
Tonight I am dining at my uncle's ( = uncle's house). enemy's defeat', even though no doubt as to the
Can you tell me the way to St .Paul's ( ='St. Paul's meaning would arise.
church)?
Sometimes, however, a noun in the possessive case has a different meaning from a noun
used with the preposition of; as,
‘The Prime Minister's reception in Delhi’ means a reception held by the
Prime Minister in Delhi.
‘The reception of the Prime Minister in Delhi’ means the manner in which the people
welcomed him when he entered Delhi.
The phrase 'the love of a father' may mean either 'a father's love of his
child' or 'a child's love of his father'.

Nouns in Apposition
When one noun follows another to describe it, the Further examples:-
noun which follows is said to be in 1. Kabir, the great reformer, was a weaver.
apposition to the noun which comes before it. 2. Yesterday I met your uncle, the doctor.
[Apposition means placing near.] 3. Have you seen Ganguli, the artist's drawings?
A noun in apposition is in the same case as the noun In sentence 1, the noun in apposition is in the
which it explains. Nominative Case.
Rama, our captain, made fifty runs. In sentence 2, the noun in apposition is in the
We see that Rama and our captain are one and the Accusative Case. [Why?]
same person. The noun captain follows In sentence 3, the noun in apposition is in the Genitive
the noun Rama simply to explain which Rama is Case. [Why?]
referred to.
In the above sentence the noun captain is in apposition
to the noun Rama, and is in the
Nominative Case (because Rama is in the Nominative
Case.)

Definition:
A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person, animal, place or thing which
the noun names, or to tell the number or quantity, is called an Adjective.
An Adjective is a word used with a noun to add something for its meaning. [Adjective
means added to.]
1. Sita is a clever girl. (Girl of what kind1?) In sentence 1, ‘clever’ shows what kind of
girl Sita is; or, in other words, ‘clever’
describes the girl Sita.
2. I don't like that boy, (Which boy ?) In sentence 2, ‘that’ points out which boy is
meant.
3. He gave me five mangoes. (How many In sentence 3, ‘five’ shows how many
 mangoes?) mangoes he gave me.
4. There is little time for preparation. (How In sentence 4, ‘little’ shows how much time
much time ?) there is for preparation.

In sentence 1, the Adjective lazy is used along with

the noun boy as an epithet or attribute. It is, therefore,
said to be used Attributively.
In sentence 2, the Adjective lazy is used along with
the verb is, and forms part of the Predicate. It is,
therefore, said to be used Predicatively.
Kinds of Adjectives
Adjectives of Quality (or Descriptive Adjective) show Kolkata is a large city.
the kind or quality of a person He is an honest man.
or thing; The foolish old crow tried to sing.
This is a Grammar of the English
(Adjectives formed from Proper Nouns (e.g., French wines, Turkish tobacco, Indian tea,
etc.) are sometimes called Proper Adjectives. They are generally classed with Adjectives
of Quality) language.
Adjectives of Quality answer the question : Of what kind ?

Adjectives of Quantity show how much of a thing is meant.

I ate some rice.
He showed much patience.
He has little intelligence.
We have had enough exercise.
He has lost all his wealth.
You have no sense.
He did not eat any rice.
Take great care of your health.
He claimed his half share of the booty.
There has not been sufficient rain this year.
The whole sum was expended.
Adjectives of Quantity answer the question: How much?

Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) show how many persons or things are
meant, or in what order a person or thing stands; as,
The hand has five fingers. Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) are of
Few cats like cold water. three kinds:-
There are no pictures in this book. (i) Definite Numeral Adjectives, which denote an
I have taught you many things. exact number; as,
All men must die. One, two, three, etc. -- These are called Cardinals.
Here are some ripe mangoes. First, second, third, etc. -- These are called Ordinals.
Most boys like cricket.
There are several mistakes in your exercise.
Sunday is the first day of the week
[A Cardinal denotes how many, and an Ordinal the order of things in a series. It will be
seen that Ordinals really do the work of Demonstrative Adjectives.
(ii) Indefinite Numeral Adjectives, which do not (iii) Distributive Numeral Adjectives, which refer to
denote an exact number; as, each one of a number; as.,
All, no; many, few; some, any; certain, several, Each boy must take his turn.
sundry. India expects every man to do his duty.
Every word of it is false.
 Either pen will do.
On either side is a narrow lane.
Neither accusation is true.

The same Adjective may be classed as of Quantity or Number, according to its use.
Adjectives of Quantity Adjectives of Number
I ate some rice. Some boys are clever.
He has lost all his wealth. All men must die.
You have no sense. There are no pictures in this book.
He did not eat any rice. Are there any mango-trees in this garden?
I have enough sugar. There are not enough spoons.

Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or thing is meant; as,

This boy is stronger than Hari. That boy is industrious.
These mangoes are sour. Those rascals must be punished.
Yonder fort once belonged to Shivaji. Don't be in such a hurry.
I hate such things.
Demonstrative Adjectives answer the question: Which ?
[It will be noticed that this and that are used with Singular nouns and these and
those with
Plural nouns.]

What, which and whose, when they are used with nouns toask questions, are called
Interrogative Adjectives; as,

What manner of man is he?

Which way shall we go?
Whose book is this?
[It will be seen that what is used in a general sense, and which in a selective sense.]

Formation of Adjectives
Many Adjectives are formed from Nouns.
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective
Boy -- boyish Care -- careful

Fool -- foolish Pardon -- pardonable

Dirt -- dirty Play -- playful

Storm -- stormy Laugh – laughable

-- hopeful Outrage -- outrageous

Hope

Venture -- Courage -- courageous

venturesome

Trouble -- Glory -- glorious

troublesome
Shame -- shameless Envy -- envious

Sense -- senseless Man -- manly

Silk -- silken King -- kingly

Gold -- golden Gift – gifted

(ii) Some Adjectives are (iii) Some Adjectives are formed

formed from Verbs. from other Adjectives.

Verb -- Adjective Adjective -- Adjective

Tire -- tireless Tragic -- tragical

Cease -- ceaseless Black -- blackish

Talk -- talkative Whole -- wholesome

Move -- moveable White -- whitish

Laugh Laughable Three -- threefold

Dare Daring Sick -- sickly

Notice Noticeable
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree
The Positive Degree of an The Comparative Degree of an The Superlative Degree of an
Adjective is the Adjective in its Adjective denotes a higher degree Adjective denotes the highest
simple form. It is used to of the quality than the degree of the quality, and is
denote the mere existence of some Positive, and is used when two used when more than two things
quality of what we speak about. It things (or sets of things) are (or sets of things) are compared;
is used when no compared; as, as,
comparison is made. This boy is stronger than that. This boy is the strongest in the
Which of these two pens is the class.
better?
Apples are dearer than oranges.
Rule. No.1. One Vowel Sound Adjectives—
Most Adjectives of one syllable, and some of more than one, form the Comparative
by adding er and the Superlative by adding est to the positive.
Sweet -- sweeter -- sweetest
Small -- smaller -- smallest
Tall -- taller -- tallest
Bold -- bolder -- boldest
Clever -- cleverer -- cleverest
Kind -- kinder -- kindest
Young -- younger -- youngest
Great -- greater -- greatest

When the Positive ends in e, only r and st are added.

Brave -- braver -- bravest

Fine -- finer -- finest
White -- whiter -- whitest
Large -- larger -- largest
Able -- abler -- ablest
Noble -- nobler -- noblest
Wise -- wiser -- wisest
Rule. No.2. When an adjective ends with a long vowel sound –y at the end, it is made comparative and
superlative by replacing –y with –ier and –iest.

Happy -- happier -- happiest

Easy -- easier -- easiest
Heavy -- heavier -- heaviest
Merry -- merrier -- merriest
Wealthy -- wealthier -- wealthiest
When the Positive is a word of one syllable and ends in a single consonant, preceded by a short vowel, this
consonant is doubled before adding er and est.
Red -- redder -- reddest
Big -- bigger -- biggest
Hot -- hotter -- hottest
Thin -- thinner -- thinnest
Sad -- sadder -- saddest
Fat -- fatter -- fattest
Adjectives of more than two vowel sounds form the Comparative and Superlative by putting more and most
before the Positive.
Beautiful -- more beautiful -- most beautiful
Difficult -- more difficult -- most difficult
Industrious -- more industrious -- most industrious
Courageous -- more courageous -- most courageous

The following take either er and est or more and most. :

Polite More Polite/ politer Most Polite/ politest

simple More simple/ simpler Most simple/ simplest
feeble More feeble/ feebler Most feeble/ feeblest
gentle More gentle/ gentler Most gentle/ gentlest
narrow More narrow/ narrower Most narrow/ narrowest
cruel More cruel/ crueler Most cruel/ cruelest
common More common/ commoner Most common/ commonest
handsome More handsome/ handsomer Most handsome/ handsomest
pleasant More pleasant/ pleasanter Most pleasant/ pleasantest
stupid More stupid/ stupider Most stupid/ stupidest

The-Comparative-in er is not used when we compare two qualities in the same person
or thing. If we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than the courage of Balu,
we say
Rama is braver than Balu.
But if we wish to say that the courage of Rama is greater than his prudence, we must say,
Rama is more brave than prudent.
When two objects are compared with each other, the latter term of comparison must
exclude the former; as,
Iron is more useful than any other metal.
If we say,
Iron is more useful than any metal,
that is the same thing as saying 'Iron is more useful than iron' since iron is itself a metal.
Irregular Comparison
The following Adjectives are compared irregularly, that is, their Comparative and
Superlative are not formed from the Positive:-
Positive -- Comparative -- Superlative
Good, well -- better -- best
Bad, evil, ill -- worse -- worst
Little -- less, lesser -- least
Much -- more -- most (quantity)
Many -- more -- most (number)
Late -- later, latter -- latest, last
Old -- older, elder -- oldest, eldest
Far -- farther -- farthest
(Nigh) -- (nigher) -- (nighest), next
(Fore) -- (former) -- foremost, first
(Fore) -- further -- furthest
(In) -- inner -- inmost, innermost
(Up) -- upper -- upmost, uppermost
(Out) -- outer, (utter) -- utmost, uttermost

The double forms of the Comparative and Superlative of the Adjectives are used in different ways.
Later, latter; latest, last. - Later and latest refer to time; latter and last refer to position.
He is later than I expected.
I have not heard the latest news.
The latter chapters are lacking in interest.
The last chapter is carelessly written
Ours is the last house in the street.
Elder, older; eldest, oldest.- Elder and eldest are used only of persons, not of animals or things; and are now
confined to members of the same family. Elder is not used with than following. Older and oldest are used of
both persons and things.
John is my elder brother.
Tom is my eldest son.
He is older than his sister.
Rama is the oldest boy in the eleven.
This is the oldest temple in Kolkata.
Farther, further.- Both farther and further are used to express distance. Further, not farther, is used to mean
“additional”.
Kolkata is farther/further from the equator than Colombo.
After this he made no further remarks.
I must have a reply without further delay.
Nearest, next.- Nearest means the shortest distance away. Next refers to one of a sequence of things coming
one after the other.
Mumbai is the seaport nearest to Europe.
Where is the nearest phone box?
Karim's shop is next to the Post Office.
My uncle lives in the next house.

Certain English Comparatives have lost their comparative meaning and are used as
Positive. They cannot be followed by “than”. These are:-
Former, latter, elder, upper, inner, outer, utter.
Both the tiger and (he leopard are cats; the former animal is much larger than the latter.
The inner meaning of this letter is not clear.
The soldiers ran to defend the outer wall.
My elder brother is an engineer.
This man is an utter fool.
Certain Comparatives borrowed from Latin have no Positive or Superlative degree.
They all end in “-or”, not er. They are twelve in all. Five of them have lost their Comparative meaning, and are
used as Positive Adjectives. These are:-
Interior, exterior, ulterior, major, minor.
The exterior wall of the house is made of stone; the interior walls are of wood.
His age is a matter of minor importance.
I have no ulterior motive in offering you help.

The other seven are used as Comparative Adjectives but are followed by “to” instead of
“Than”
The comparative degree is generally followed by than; but Comparative Adjectives
ending in -or are followed by the preposition to; as,
Inferior, superior, prior, anterior, posterior, senior, junior.
Hari is inferior to Ram in intelligence.
Rama's intelligence is superior to Hari's. His marriage was prior to his father's death.
He is junior to all his colleagues.
All his colleagues are senior to him.
Adjectives expressing qualities that do not admit of different degrees cannot, strictly
speaking, be compared; as,
Square, round, perfect, eternal, universal, unique. Strictly speaking, a thing cannot be
more square, more round, more perfect. But we say, for instance,

Interchange of the Degrees of Comparison

As the following examples show, it is possible to change the Degree of Comparison of an Adjective in a
sentence, without changing the meaning of the sentence:-
Superlative - Lead is the heaviest of all metals. Comparative - Lead is heavier than all other metals.
Positive - Panchgani is not so cool as Mahabaleshwar. Comparative - Mahabaleshwar is cooler than
Panchgani.

Positive - He is as wise as Solomon. Comparative - Soloman was not wiser than he is.
Positive - No other drama in Sanskrit is so good as Comparative - Shakuntala is better than any other
Shakuntala. drama in Sanskrit.
Superlative - Shakuntala is the best drama in Sanskrit.
Positive - Very few Indian cities are as big as Comparative - Chennai is bigger than most other
Chennai. Indian cities.
Superlative - Chennai is one of the biggest of Indian
cities.
Positive - Some poets are at least as great as Comparative - Tennyson is not greater than some
Tennyson. other poets, I Some poets are not less
great than Tennyson.
Superlative - Tennyson is not the greatest of all poets.
A or an is called the Indefinite
Article, because it usually leaves
indefinite the
person or thing spoken of; as, A
doctor; that is, any doctor.
The choice between a and an is Before a word beginning with a
determined by sound. Before a consonant sound a is used; as,
word beginning with A boy, a reindeer, a woman, a
a vowel sound an is used; as, yard, a horse, a hole, also a
An ass, an enemy, an ink-pad, an university,, a union, a
orange, an umbrella, an hour, an European, a ewe, a unicorn, a
honest man. An heir. useful article.
because these words (university,
union, etc.) begin with a consonant
sound, that of yu.
Similarly we say,
A one-rupee note, such a one, a
one-eyed man.
because one begins with the
consonant sound of w.
It will be noticed that the words Some native speakers use an before
hour, honest, heir begin with a words beginning with h if the first
vowel sound, as the initial syllable is not
consonant h is not pronounced, stressed
An hotel (More common: a hotel)
an historical novel (More common:
a historical novel)

The is called the Definite Article,

because it normally points out
some particular
person or thing; as,
He saw the doctor; meaning some
particular doctor. The indefinite
article is used before
singular countable nouns, e.g.
A book, art orange, a girl
The definite article is used before
singular countable nouns, plural
countable nouns and
uncountable nouns, e.g., The book,
the books, the milk
PRONOUN
A word that is thus used instead of a noun is
called a Pronoun {Pronoun means for-
anoun.]

PERSONAL PRONOUNS
A pronoun used at the place of a
person (sometimes animals or
non-living objects…. )

Cases of Personal Pronoun

Subjective Case= Possessive Case= Objective Case=
Nominative Case Genitive Case Accusative Case
Speakers I My Mine Me 1st Person
We Our Ours Us Pronoun
Listener You Your Yours You 2nd Person
Pronoun
Absentees They Their Theirs Them 3rd Person
He His His Him Pronoun
She Her Hers Her
It Its It

I, we, you, he, (she, it), they are called Personal Pronouns because they stand for the three persons.
(i) the person speaking. . (ii) the person spoken to (iii) the person spoken of.
The Pronouns I and we, which The Pronoun you, which denotes The pronouns he (she) and they,
denote the person or persons the person or persons spoken to, is which denote the person or persons
speak-mg, are said to be said to be a Personal spoken of, are said
Personal Pronouns of the First Pronoun of the Second Person. to be Personal Pronouns of the
Person You is used both in the singular Third Person. It, although it
and plural denotes the thing spoken of,
is also called a Personal Pronoun of
the Third Person. [The Personal
Pronouns of the
Third Person are, strictly speaking,
Demonstrative Pronouns.]
It will be seen that the Possessive Cases of most of the
Personal Pronouns have
two forms. Of these the forms my, our, your, her, their, are
called Possessive Adjectives
because they are used with nouns and do the work of
Adjectives; as,
This is my book.
Those are your books.
That is her book.
Possessive Adjectives are somethings called Pronominal
Adjectives, as they are formed
from Pronouns.

It- The Pronoun it is used-

(1) For things without life; as,
Here is your book; take it away.
(2) For animals, unless we clearly wish to speak of them as male and female; as,
He loves his dog and cannot do without it. The horse fell and broke its leg.
(3) For a young child, unless we clearly wish to refer to the sex; as,
When I saw the child it was crying.
That baby has torn its clothes.
(4) To refer to some statement going before; as,
He is telling what is not true; as he knows it.
He deserved his punishment; as he knew it.
(5) As a provisional and temporary subject before the verb to be when the real subject
follows; as,
It is easy to find fault. [To find fault is easy.]
It is doubtful whether he will come.
It is certain that you are wrong.
(6) To give emphasis to the noun or pronoun following; as,
It was you who began the quarrel.
It was I who first protested.
It was at Versailles that the treaty was made.
(7) As an indefinite nominative of an impersonal verb; as,
It rains.
It snows.
It thunders.

The Pronoun it here seems to stand for no noun whatever, though this can be readily
supplied from the verb. Thus, 'It rains' means 'The rain rains.'
It so used is called an Impersonal Pronoun. So also the verb rains is here called an
Impersonal Verb.
(8) In speaking of the weather or the time; as,
It is fine.
It is winter.
It is ten o'clock.

When a Pronoun (It will be noted that we use the word 'Pronoun' in § 123-128
without observing the distinction pointed out in § 119 between the forms, my, they, her,
our, your, their (which are called Possessive Adjectives) and the forms mine, thine, hers,
ours, yours, theirs (which are called Possessive Pronouns)) stands for a Collective Noun,
it must be in the Singular Number (and Neuter Gender) if the Collective Noun is viewed
as a whole; as,
The army had to suffer terrible privations in its march.
The fleet will reach its destination in a week.
The crew mutinied and murdered its officers.
After a few minutes the jury gave its verdict.
If the Collective Noun conveys the idea of separate individuals comprising the whole, the
Pronoun standing for it must be of the Plural Number; as,
The jury were divided in their opinions.
The committee decided the matter without leaving their seats.

When two or more Singular Nouns are joined by and, the Pronoun used for them
must be Plural; as,
Rama and Had work hard. They are praised by their teacher.
Both Sita and Savitri are tired; they have gone home.
But when two Singular Nouns joined by and refer to the same person or thing, the
Pronoun used must of course be Singular; as,
The Secretary and Treasurer is negligent of his duty.
When two Singular Nouns joined by and are preceded by each or every, the Pronoun
must be Singular; as,
Every soldier and every sailor was in his place.
When two or more Singular Nouns are joined by or or either...or, neither... nor, the
Pronoun is generally Singular; as,
Rama or Hari must lend his hand.
Either Sita or Amina forgot to take her parasol.
Neither Abdul nor Karim has done his lesson.
When a Plural Noun and a Singular Noun are joined by or or nor, the Pronoun must
be in the Plural; as
Either the manager or his assistants failed in their duty.
When a pronoun refers to more than one noun or pronoun of different persons, it
must be of the first person plural in preference to the third; as,
You and I have done our duty.
You and Hari have idled away your time.

Good manners require that we should say'

You and I' not 'I and you'.
'You and he' not 'he and you'.
'Hari and I' not 'I and Hari'.
'He and F not T and he'.
You and I must work together.
You and he must mend your ways.
Hari and I are old school friends.
He and I can never pull on together

Each of the personal pronouns, I, he, she, we, they, has a different form for the
accusative case, namely, me, him, her, us, them. It is a common mistake to use / for me,
when the pronoun is connected by a conjunction (and, or) with some other word in the
accusative case.
Study the following correct sentences :-
The presents are for you and me (Not, I)
My uncle asked my brother and me to dinner..
Note that but is a preposition in the following sentence:
Nobody will help you but me. (not: I) Take care to use the accusative form after but in
such cases.

REFLEXIVE AND EMPHATIC

PRONOUNS
When -self is added to my, your, him, her, it, and My + Self Myself
-selves to our, your, them, we get Our+Selves Ourselves
what are called Compound Personal Pronouns. Your+self/selves Yourself/yourselves
Her+Self Herself
Him+self Himself
It+self Itself
Them+selves Themselves
Reflexive Pronoun Emphatic Pronoun
They are called Reflexive Pronouns when the action It will be seen that here Compound Personal Pronouns
done by the subject turns back are used for the sake of emphasis,
(reflects) upon the subject; as, and are therefore called Emphatic Pronouns.
I hurt myself. I will go myself.
We hurt ourselves. Rama has hurt himself.
You will hurt yourself. We often deceive ourselves.
I myself heard the remark.
It will be noticed that each of these Reflexive Each pronoun here puts emphasis on the doer of
Pronouns is used as the Object of a verb, action or subject.
and refers to the same person or thing as that denoted
by the Subject of the verb.

DEMONSTRATIVE INDEFINITE pronoun DISTRIBUTIVE

pronoun Pronoun

These Pronouns are used to point These Pronouns refer to persons or Each, either, neither are called
out the objects to which things in a general way, but do notDistributive Pronouns because they
they refer, and are, therefore, called refer refer to persons or
Demonstrative Pronouns. (Latin to any person or thing in particular.
things one at a time. For this reason
demonstrare, to They are, therefore, called they are always singular and as
show clearly). Indefinite Pronouns. such followed by the
verb in the singular.
This is a present from my uncle. One hardly knows what to do. Each of the boys gets a prize.
These are merely excuses, None of his poems are well known. Each took it in turn.
Both cars are good; but this is All were drowned. Either of these roads leads to the
better than that Mumbai mangoes Some are born great. railway station.
are better than those of Bangalore. Somebody has stolen my watch. Either of you can go.
Make haste, that's a good boy. Nobody was there to rescue the Neither of the accusations is true
My views are quite in accordance child.
with those of the University Few escaped unhurt.
Commission. Many of them were Gurkhas.
We did not see any of them again.
One or other of us will be there.
Do good to others.
Did you ask anybody to come?
What is everybody's business is
nobody's business.
His words are in everyone's mouth.
Indefinite pronoun (indefinite word+
verb/preposition….)
Indefinite word+
Noun(plural/singular/countable/uncountable=indefinite
adjective.)

Any of you can go to school.

Either of you can go to school.
Any student can go to school (inde-adje).
Either class can be used for teaching.
Demonstrative pronoun Demonstrative adjective
This+ verb This +noun
That +Verb That +noun
These+ verb These+nouns
Those+ verb Those.. +nouns
My noun…. Mine…
In referring to anybody, everybody, everyone, anyone,
each etc., the pronoun he or she is used according to
the context; as,
I shall be glad to help everyone of my boys in his
studies.
Everyone has to take her bag from the class.

Note that today it is more usual to use a plural pronoun

(they/ them/their) except in very formal English.
Anybody can do it if they try.
Each of them had their share.
The position of the pronoun each should be noticed. It may have three positions.
1. Each of the men (every single man from a group…)received a reward.
Each of these horses (every single horse from a group..)cost five thousand rupees.
I bought each of these mangoes (every single mango from a group)for three rupees.
2. These men received each (action of receiving a reward was repeated each time… ) a reward.
These horses cost each (action of costing was repeated with each horse… )five thousand rupees.
3. These horses cost five thousand rupees each(every single amount of five thousand.. ).
I bought these mangoes for three rupees each(every three rupees amount.).
The third order is usual after a numeral. We do not say, 'The men received a reward each';
but we say, 'The men received five hundred rupees each'.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
A Relative Pronoun refers or 1. I met Hari. Hari had just 1. I met Hari who had just
relates (Le., carries us back) to returned. returned.
some noun going before, which is 2. I have found the pen. I lost the 2. I have found the pen which I
called its Antecedent. pen. lost.
3. Here is the book. You lent me 3. Here is the book that you lent
the book. me.
Note: The word who is used instead of the noun Hari. It, therefore, does the work of a Pronoun.
The word who joins or connects two statements. It, therefore, does the work of a Conjunction. The word who,
therefore, does double work-the work of a Pronoun and also the work of a Conjunction. We might, therefore,
call it a Conjunctive Pronoun.

Forms of the
Relative Pronouns
The Relative Pronoun who Nominative – who Genitive -- whose Accusative --
has different forms for whom/who (who
Accusative and Genitive. replaces whom in
informal English.)
This is the boy (or girl) This is the boy (or girl) This is the boy (or
who works hard. whose exercise is done girl) whom / who all
well. praise.
These are the boys (or
girls) who work hard. These are the boys (or These are the boys (or
giris) whose exercises are girls) whom / who all
done well. praise.
The Relative Pronoun which has The Relative Pronoun which has The Relative Pronoun that has the
the same form for the Nominative no Genitive Case, but whose is same form in the Singular and
and Accusative used as a substitute for Plural, and in the
cases. 'of which'; as Nominative and Accusative. It has
This is the house which belongs A triangle whose three sides are no Genitive case.
to my uncle. equal is called an equilateral He that is content is rich.
The house which my uncle built triangle. They that touch pitch will be
cost him Rs. 3,50,000 defiled.
Take anything that you like.

152. The Relative Pronoun what is used only in the Singular, and has the same form in
the Nominative and Accusative.
What has happened is not clear.
I say what I mean.
He failed in what he attempted.

Use of the Relative Pronouns

As a general rule, who is used for Which is used for things without
persons only. It may refer to a life and for animals. It may refer to
Singular or a Plural a Singular or
Noun. Plural Noun.
The man who is honest is trusted.The moment which is lost is lost
Blessed is he who has found his for ever.
work. The books which help you most
He prayeth best who loveth best. are those which make you think
He who hesitates is lost. most.
The horse which I recently
bought is an Arab.
Which was formerly used to refer
to persons; as,
Our Father, which art in heaven.
Who is sometimes used in referring Which may also refer to a
to animals. sentence; as,
The man was said to be drunk,
which was not the case.
He said he saw me there, which
was a lie.
He is here, which is fortunate.
Whose (the Possessive form of
who) is used in speaking of
persons, animals and also
things without life (see § 150); as,
The sun, whose rays give life to the
earth, is regarded by some people
as a god.
This is the question whose solution
has baffled philosophers of all
ages.
[More properly, 'This is the
question the solution of which has
baffled philosophers of all
ages'.]

Note- The relative pronouns who

and which can be used-
(i) To restrict, limit, or define more
clearly the antecedent; that is;
where the clause
introduced by a relative pronoun is
restrictive or non-defining; as, The
man who had cheated me was
yesterday arrested by the police.
The book which you see on the
table cost me ninety rupees.

Compound Relative Pronouns

Pronouns formed by adding ever, These Relatives have no antecedent The forms whoever, whichever,
so, or soever to who, which and expressed. and whatever are now ordinarily
what are called Whosoever (= any and every used; as,
Compound Relative Pronouns. person who) exalteth himself shall Whoever (i.e., any person who)
They are:- be abased. comes is welcome.
Whoever, whoso, whosoever; Whoso diggeth a pit shall fall Take whichever lie., any which)
whichever; whatever, whatsoever. therein. you like.
Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, I will take with me whomsoever
do it with thy might. you choose.
Whatever (i.e, anything which) he
does, he does well.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
They are here used for asking Whom do you want? / Who do you Who gave you that knife?
questions, and are, want? (Nominative)
therefore, called Interrogative Whose is this book? Whose is this book? (Possessive)
Pronouns. Which is the house? Whom did you see? / Who did you
Ex. Who, what, about whom, Which do you prefer, tea or coffee? see?, To whom were you speaking?
which What is the matter? / Who were you
What do you want? speaking to? (Accusative)
What will all (he neighbours say? What is that? (Nominative)
What do you want? (Accusative)
Which is he? (Nominative)
Which do you prefer? (Accusative)
It will be noticed that the Pronouns Nominative: who, Possessive:
in italics are similar in form to whose, Accusative: whom/who
Relative Pronouns. --Masc. and Fem. Singular
But the work which they do is and Plural.
different.

Who is used of persons only. Which is used of both persons and What is used of things only.
Who spoke? (We expect the things. It implies selection, that is, What have you found? (We expect
answer to be the name of a person.) it implies a the answer to be the name of a
Who goes there? Who made the question concerning a limited thing.)
top score? Who is knocking at the number. What do you want? What did you
door? Who says so? Which is your friend? Which are say? What was it all about?
Whose is this umbrella? Whom did your books? Which of the boys What is sweeter than honey?
you see? saw him? What are those marks on your
Which of you has done this? coat?
Which of these books is yours?
Which of the pictures do you like
best?
Which of you by taking thought
can add one cubit unto his stature?
Which will you take?
In such expressions as, 'What are you?' 'What is he?' What is this man?' the word
what does not refer to the person but to his profession or employment (Today it is more
usual to say, ‘What do you do?’ etc).
What are you? --- I am a doctor.
What is he? --- He is an engineer.
But- Who is he? (= What is his name and family?) -He is Mr. K.P. Roy.

In the following sentences which In the following sentences the

and what are used as Interrogative words in italics are used as
Adjectives:- Compound Interrogative
Which book are your reading? Pronouns :-
Which way shall we go? Whoever told you so?
What books have you read? Whatever are you doing?
What pranks are you playing? Note.- The forms whoever,
What manner of man is this, that whichever, whatever, are intensive.
even the wind and the sea obey
him?
Who (subject) teaches you English……?
Sir Yaseen (subject) teaches you English.
Who do you teach?
You teach students.
Whose
This is yaseen’s (possessive) book.
Whose (possessive) is this book?
THE VERB
A Verb is a word that tells or (1) What a person or thing does; as, (2) What is done to a person or
asserts something about a person or Hari laughs. thing ; as,
thing. The clock strikes. Hari is scolded.
The window is broken.
(3) What a person or thing is; as,
The cat is dead.
Glass is brittle.
I feel sorry.

Types of verb
1. Regular Verb 2. Irregular Verb
3. Transitive Verb 4. Intransitive Verb
5. Finite Verb 6. Infinite Verb
7. Action verb 8. State verb
9. Helping verb 10. Ordinary verb
What is verb?
Verb is a work done by any noun or pronoun.
Verb means action…
Verb is the main part of predicate…
Verb is a word that describes any action of a noun or pronoun…
Verb is the name of action or state..
Verb is a word that describes what a subject is? Or what does a
subject do? or what does a subject have?
Verb is a word that is used to describe a subject using his mental
or physical energy to do something…

Action State
What does a subject do? What is the subject?
Movement…… consuming a He is a professor.
sort energy …. Mental or I have a car.
physical… You look intelligent.
I am writing a sentence.
I am teaching English…
He is driving a car.
You are listening to me…
You have understood the topic.
Action leads to show influence No influence….
of something… (external I am a lecturer….
body/object)….. He is active student.
I eat an apple…
I kicked a ball.
We writing a sentence on the
page.
Action…. Influence limited to
subject…. Energies are
consumed…..
I cried…
I laughed
I jumped…
I thought…
Forms of verb
1st form 2nd form 3rd from 4th form
Present simple Past simple Past participle Present
participle
Ing-form..
The forms are used in different tenses…
Present simples and future simple…. 1st verb… past simple….2nd
verb… perfect tense…3rd verb… continuous… 4th verb..
Regular verb…. Verb used on the regular basis
Verb used to express our present situation….
Regulars verbs are those which when converted into 2nd and 3rd
verb are added with –d, or –ed (suffixes) at the end….
Look(root Looked Looked Looking
word)
Play Played Played Playing
Use Used Used Using
Produce Produced Produced Producing
Develop Developed Developed Developing
Irregular verb: are verbs which when converted into past simple
and past participle they change their pronunciation and
spellings….in other words the root word is modified in terms of
sound and spelling…
Drink Drank Drunk Drinking
Buy Bought Bought Buying
Fight Fought Fought Fighting
Light Lit Lit Lighting
Eat Ate Eaten Eating
Bring Brought Brought Bringing
Fly Flew Flown Flying
Choose Chose Chosen Choosing
Be Was Had Being
Sit Sit Sit Sitting
Put Put Put Putting
Shut Shut Shut Shutting

Transitive verb: it describes an object…..

They are used as objects in a sentence?....
It is a verb which is used to carry an object after it……..
The verb which anyhow has to carry a sort of object to transfer its
influence on that object.
He eats a They play They cut the We are using a
mango.. cricket. fruit. mobile.
Intransitive verb: it does not carry any kind of object.
Because the action is limited to the subject….
We laughed at We cried. He jumped.
them.
Finite verb: it follows the subject.
Finite verb can be the main word in the sentence. It is always used
as per nature of tense…. It does not carry “to” before it…..
He is writing a sentence.
They played cricket.
Infinite verb: it Ex.
always carries I want to play
“to” before cricket.
it….. and it He runs (finite)
does not fast to win
mostly follow (infinite) the
any rule of race.
tense…

Action verb State verb

A verb which It is a verb
shows an which is used
action. to describe the
Which state,
describes an condition,
action or work possession or
of a noun or appearance of
pronoun…. any noun or
What a noun or pronoun in a
pronoun is sentence…..
doing? It does not
What is done show any sort
by a subject? of energy to be
What is done used by the
on the object? subject……
Any work or
verb that is
performed by a
subject shows
the
consumption of
energy(mental
or physical)

He played He is a player.
cricket.
Salman eats an He seems
apple.. intelligent.
Teacher buys Teacher has the
the stationary stationary
items. items.

Helping or auxiliary verb Ordinary verb….

Is + 4th verb… Is
He is driving a car. He is a driver.
Am Am
Are Are
Has +3rd verb Has
He has written a book. He has a book.
Have
Have Had
Had Was
Was Were
Were Do
Do Does
Does Did
Did Been
Been Being
Being Will
Will Shall
Shall
Most verbs can be used both as Transitive and as Intransitive verbs. It is, therefore,
better to say that a verb is used Transitively or Intransitively rather than that it is
Transitive or Intransitive.
Used Transitively Used Intransitively
1. The ants fought the wasps. 1. Some ants fight very fiercely.
2. The shot sank the ship. 2. The ship sank rapidly.
3. Ring the bell, Rama. 3. The bell rang loudly.
4. The driver stopped the train. 4. The train stopped suddenly
5. He spoke the truth. 5. He spoke haughtily.
6. The horse kicked the man. 6. This horse never kicks.
7. I feel a severe pain in my head. 7. How do you feel?

In such a sentence as The man killed himself ' where the Subject and the Object both
refer to the same person, the verb is said to be used reflexively.
Sometimes, though the verb is used reflexively. the These verbs may, however, be regarded as pure
Object is not expressed. In the Intransitives without any reflexive force
following examples the reflexive pronoun understood whatever.
is put in brackets:-
The bubble burst [itself].
The guests made [themselves] merry,
Please keep [yourselves] quiet.
With these words he turned [himself] to the door.
The Japanese feed [themselves] chiefly on rice.

Intransitive Verbs Used as Transitives

186. When an Intransitive Verb is used in a causative sense it becomes Transitive.
Intransitive Transitive
1. The horse walks. 1. He walks the horse.
2. The girl ran down the street. 2. The girl ran a needle into her finger (ran a needle =
3. Birds fly. caused a needle to run)
3. The boys fly their kites (i.e., cause their kites to fly)
A few verbs in common use are distinguished as Transitive or Intransitive by their
spelling, the Transitive being causative forms of the corresponding Intransitive verbs.
Intransitive Transitive
1. Many trees fall in the monsoon. 1. Woodmen fell trees. (Fell = cause to fall)
2. Lie still. 2. Lay the basket there. (Lay = cause to lie)
3. Rise early with the lark. 3. Raise your hands. (Raise = cause to rise)
4. Sit there. 4. Set the lamp on the table. (Set = cause to sit)
Some Intransitive Verbs may become Transitive by Sometimes the Preposition is prefixed to the Verb; as,
having a Preposition added to Shivaji overcame the enemy.
them ; as, He bravely withstood the attack.
All his friends laughted at (= derided) him. The river overflows its banks.
He will soon run through (= consume) his fortune.
Please look into (= investigate) the matter carefully.
We talked about (= discussed) the affair several times.
.
I wish for (= desire) nothing more.
The Police Inspector asked for (= demanded) his
name.

Intransitive Verbs sometimes take after them an Object akin or similar in meaning to
the Verb. Such an Object is called the Cognate Object or Cognate Accusative.
I have fought a good fight.
He laughed a hearty laugh.
I dreamt a strange dream.
He sleeps the sleep of the just.
Let me die the death of the righteous.
She sighed a deep sigh.
She sang a sweet song. He ran a race.
Aurangzeb lived the life of an ascetic.
The noun used as a Cognate Object is in the Accusative Case.

There are a few Transitive Verbs which are sometimes used as Intransitive Verbs.
Transitive Intransitive
1. He broke the glass. 1. The glass broke.
2. He burnt his fingers. 2. He burnt with shame.
3. Stop him from going. 3. We shall stop here a few days.
4. Open all the windows. 4. The show opens at six o'clock.

VERBS OF INCOMPLETE
PREDICATION
The Intransitive Verb requires a word to make the 1. The baby sleeps.
sense complete. Such a verb is called a Verb of 2. The baby seems happy.
Incomplete Predication.
On the other hand if I say 'The baby seems' I do not make complete sense.
The Intransitive Verb seems requires a word (e.g., happy) to make the sense complete.
Such a verb is called a Verb of Incomplete Predication.
The word happy, which is required to make the sense complete, is called the Complement
of the Verb or the Completion of the Predicate.
Verbs of Incomplete Predication usually express the idea of being, becoming, seeming, appearing. The
Complement usually consists of a Noun (called a Predicative Noun) or an Adjective (called a Predicative
Adjective). When the Complement describes the Subject, as in the following sentences, it is called a Subjective
Complement.
1. Tabby is a cat.
2. The earth is round.
3. John became a soldier.
4. Mr. Mehta became mayor.
5. The man seems tired.
6. You look happy.
7. The sky grew dark.
8. Roses smell sweet.
9. Sugar tastes sweet.
10. She appears pleased.
11. This house is to let.

Note: When the Subjective Complement is a Noun (as in 1,3, 4) it is in the same case as
the Subject, Le., in the Nominative Case.

Certain Transitive Verbs require, besides an Object, a Complement to complete their

predication ; as,

1. The boys made Rama captain.

2. His parents named him Hari.
3. This made him vain.
4. The jury found him guilty.
5. Rama called his cousin a liar.
6. Exercise has made his muscles strong.
7. I consider the man trustworthy.
8. God called the light day.
9. We thought him a rascal.
10. They chose him their leader.
Here, in each case, the Complement describes the Object, and is, therefore, called an
Objective Complement.