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UNIVERSITY OF CYBERJAYA
FOUNDATION IN ALLIED SCIENCE

EXPERIMENT 2: THE HUMAN MUSCULARSKELETAL SYSTEM

OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this experiment, you should be able to:

1. Identify the major bones of the human skeleton system

2. Explain how bones are held together
3. Identify what bones form structures such as the elbow and knuckles
4. Identify the major muscles of your body
5. Describe how muscles can flex or extend a joint

Activity 1: What bones compose the human body?

1. Examine the articulated skeleton in the lab. The human skeleton consists of the axial
skeleton (skull, vertebrae, sternum, and ribs) and appendicular skeleton (shoulder,
arm, hip, and legs).

2. Identify the bones of these parts of the skeleton. Note the geometry of the skeleton,
paying particular attention to the shapes of the bones, the textures of the bones, and
the planes in which the joints can move. (Figure 1)

3. Identify and label the bones in Figure 2. Also identify these bones in your body.

THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Shoulder

Clavicle – collarbone
Scapula – shoulder blade

Arm

Humerus – upper arm; is the longest and largest bone of the upper limb.
Ulna – longer of the two bones in the forearm; is on the side of the little finger.
Radius – shorter of the two bones of the forearm; is on the side of the thumb.
Carpals – eight bones in the wrist bound by strong connective tissue.
Metacarpals – five main bones in the hand.
Phalanges – bones of the fingers.

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Leg

Femur – thigh bone; above the knee.

Tibia – shin bone; larger of the two leg bones below the knee.
Patella – kneecap.
Tarsals – seven bones of the ankle and heel.
Metatarsals – five long bones of the feet.
Phalanges – bones of the toes; two in the big toe and three in each of the other toes.

Figure 1: Three types of joints. (a) Sutures are immovable joints held together by fibrous
connective tissue. (b) Cartilaginous joints contain articular cartilage that cushions the two
bones of the joint. (c) In freely movable joints, a synovial membrane filled with synovial fluid
provides lubrication.

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Figure 2: Ventral view of the human skeleton

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Activity 2: Identifying bones in your body

1. Clench your fist.

Question 1
What bones form the raised knobs of your knuckles?

2. Flex your arm.

Question 2
a) What bones form the elbow?
b) What is a “funny bone”?

3. Use your left hand to hold your right forearm near the elbow. Now rotate your right
wrist from palm up to palm down.

Question 3
What bone is stationary?
1. Bend your leg at the knee and feel your patella. Then feel the lump just below your
patella.

Question 4
What bone forms that lump?

AXIAL SKELETON

Sternum – breastbone
Ribs – normally 24 bones; increase in length from the first through seventh ribs, then
decrease in length to the twelfth rib.
Vertebrae – 26 bones; including the sacrum (forms part of the hip) and the coccyx
(tailbone) [sacrum and coccyx are made of fused vertebrae].
Skull – 28 bones; including the inner-ear bones; most are fused with immovable
joints called sutures that appear as wavy lines.

Question 5
How many joints are in the skull?

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Activity 3: Bone structure and remodeling

1. Examine the basic structure of bone (Refer to Figures 3 and 4).

Parts of bone are dense and strong, whereas other parts, such as marrow, are spongy.
Most red blood cells are formed by bone marrow. Bones are built by cells called
osteoblasts which secrete collagen fibers as sites for the deposition of hard calcium-salt
crystals. These salts are deposited in thin, concentric layers called lamellae. When
muscles are developed by exercise, the bones they pull against also become thicker and
stronger. This is why exercises such as weight lifting increase the mass of bone as well as
muscle.

Strong, healthy bone is continually maintained by bone remodeling, which is the on-
going replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. As osteoblasts produce
collagen and other organic components they become trapped in these secretions. Soon
they mature and are called osteocytes. Bone is broken down by large cells called
osteoclasts in a process called bone resorption. In humans, bone remodeling replaces
bones as many as 10 times during an average lifetime.

Bone remodeling is a balance between bone deposition and bone resorption. If too
much mineral is deposited in the bone, the surplus bone tissue often forms thick bumps
called bone spurs that can interfere with movement of joints. If too much bone is
resorbed, the bones become weak and overly susceptible to fracture.

Question 6
a) What causes osteoporosis?
b) What factors increase a person’s chances of getting osteoporosis?
c) What can help prevent the development of osteoporosis?

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Figure 3: Bone shown at three levels of detail. Some parts of bones are dense and compact, providing great
strength. Other parts, such as marrow, are spongy and have a more open lattice. Red blood cells are formed in
marrow. New bone is formed by cells called osteoblasts, which secrete collagen fibers as sites for deposition of
hard calcium-phosphate crystals. Bone is deposited in thin, concentric layers called lamellae. Lamellae form a
series of tubes around narrow channels called Haversian canals, which run parallel to the bone. Haversian canals
are interconnected and contain nerves and blood vessels.

Figure 4: Bone, a type of connective tissue. (a) Photomicrograph of bone. (b) Diagram of a cross section of
bone.

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Activity 4: Major groups of muscles

The following terms help biologists describe the structure and function of muscles:

Extensor – muscle that straightens a joint

Flexor – muscle that bends a joint
Insertion – where a muscle attaches at its more movable end
Origin – where a muscle attaches to a relatively fixed position

Using your textbook and other materials available, identify the following groups of muscles.
After locating these muscles on yourself or your partner, label Figures 5 and 6.

Shoulder and Trunk

Deltoid – Inserts on humerus; originates on clavicle.

When arm is at rest, the deltoid is the outer muscle along the upper third of the humerus. When the arm is
raised, the deltoid is the hard mass of muscle above the shoulder joint. The short, thick deltoid raises the arm to
horizontal or slightly higher.

Pectorals – Large, triangular muscle covering the upper part of the chest. Inserts on the humerus; originates
from the clavicle, upper ribs, and sternum. If your arm is fixed, such as during climbing, the pectoral helps pull
the chest upward. The pectorals are the “breast” of poultry and are the main flight muscles of birds.

Trapezius – Inserts on the clavicle and along the scapula; originates along the upper dorsal midline. Aids in
lifting with the arms or carrying loads on shoulders; braces and shrugs the shoulders.

Latissimus – Large sheet of muscle in back. Inserts on the upper part of the humerus, and originates along the
mid-dorsal line. Moves the arm downward. The latissimus is a primary muscle used in a swimming stroke or in
bringing the arm forcibly downward.

Arm

Triceps – Inserts on ulna and originates from scapula and humerus. The triceps extends the arm at the elbow
and is the primary muscle for doing a pushup.

Biceps – Inserts on the radius; originates on the scapula. The biceps flexes the arm at the elbow and is the
primary muscle for doing a pullup.

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Figure 5: Ventral view of superficial muscles of the human body.

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Figure 6: Dorsal view of superficial muscles of the human body.

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Activity 5: What muscles flex and extend the forearm?

1. Feel the muscles of your partner’s upper arm as it is extended and flexed.
2. Repeat this exercise as your partner holds a weight and then with his or her elbow
pointed at the ceiling.

Question 7
a) What muscle flexes the forearm?
b) What is its origin? Its insertion?
c) Which muscle extends the forearm?
d) What is its origin? Its insertion?

Wrist extensors – Muscles on the upper side of the lower arm that raise the wrist upward.

Wrist flexors – Muscles on the lower side of the lower arm which bend the hand at the wrist. With
your palm up, you can see the tendons of the wrist flexors, especially if you are lifting something
heavy.

Finger flexors and extensors – Similar to those of the wrist. Identify these muscles and the long
tendons that attach to them by clenching and extending your fingers. Note that the tendons are
crossed from extensor muscles to the middle and ring fingers.

Activity 6: How does the structure of your hand affect its movement?

1. With your fingertips resting on the table, raise only your ring finger as high as it will
go.
2. Now raise your middle finger as well.

Question 8
Did your ring finger also go higher? Why or why not?

Skull

Masseter – The main muscle that clenches the jaw. You can feel this muscle at your temples and on either
side of your cheekbone.

Leg
Hamstring – A set of three muscles on the back of the thigh that bend the leg at the knee. Originate on
the coxal bone and femur; insert on the fibula. You can feel the hamstring’s tendons at the back of your
knee joint when you bend your knee while standing on the other leg. Hamstrings are so named because
butchers use these tendons to hang up hams.

Quadriceps – Large muscle on the anterior part of the thigh that originates on the coxal bone and inserts
on the tibia. The quadriceps extends the knee and enables you to stand from a squatting position. Also
provides much of the power for kicking a ball.

Gastrocnemius – The calf muscle; originates on the femur and inserts (by the Achilles tendon) on the heel
bone (one of the metatarsals). The gastrocnemius enables you to stand on tiptoe and extend your foot.

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Activity 7: What muscles flex and extend the lower leg and foot?

1. Feel the muscle of your partner’s thigh as he/she flexes and extends the lower leg
against an externally applied force.

Question 9
a) What muscle extends the lower leg?
b) What are its origins? Its insertions?
c) What muscle flexes the lower leg?
d) What are its origins? Its insertions?

2. Repeat the previous observation for your partner’s lower leg.

Question 10
a) What muscle group extends the foot?
b) What are its origins? Its insertions?
c) What muscle flexes the foot?
d) What are its origins? Its insertions?
e) What common activities involve contraction of the gastrocnemius?
f)

Toe flexors and extensors – Several muscles in the lower leg that curl or extend the toes. Tendons
from the extensors are visible atop your foot when you raise your toes.

Activity 8: Can any tendons be manipulated manually?

1. Grab your ankle with your thumb on the Achilles tendon and squeeze hard.

Question 11
What happens? Explain your answer.

Hip

Gluteus – Large, powerful muscle in the posterior pelvic region. Inserts on the femur and originates
from the coxal bone. The gluteus supports the pelvis and trunk on the femur (you can show this by
standing on one leg and feeling the muscle). Used in climbing, cycling, jumping, and regaining an
erect position after bending forward.

Abdominals – Set of muscles below the chest that flatten and compress the abdomen. Abdominals
bend the body forward and from side to side; also used to urinate and defecate.

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