LUANSHYA TECHNICAL AND BUSINESS COLLEGE MANAGEMENT BOARD

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTATION (DEE 231)

INSTRUCTION: Study the lesson notes carefully. You will be required to answer an assignment
from the lesson.

5.0 SOURCES OF ERRORS

Errors may be classified as follows;

I. Gross errors
II. Systematic errors
III. Random errors

5.1 GROSS ERRORS

This class of errors covers human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating
measurement results. The experimenter may grossly misread the scale, e.g. he may read the
temperature as 31.5℃ instead of 21.5℃. He may transpose the reading while recording, e.g.
he may read 25.8℃ and record 28.5℃.

Gross errors may be avoided by adopting the following measures;

I. Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data

II. Two, three or more readings should be taken for the quantity under measurement as a
close agreement between readings assures that no gross error has been committed.

5.2 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

Systematic errors may be divided into three categories;

I. Observational errors
II. Environmental errors
III. Instrument errors

5.2.1 OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS

Observational errors include;

I. Parallax
 II. Sensing capabilities of individual observers since no two persons observe the same
situation in exactly the same way where small details are concerned.

Observational errors may be eliminated by use of a digital display of output.

5.2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS

Environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device, including
conditions in the area surrounding the instrument e.g. temperature, pressure, humidity, dust,
vibrations and external magnetic or electrostatic fields.

The following are some of the measures taken to reduce or eliminate environmental errors;

I. Keeping the conditions nearly as constant as possible e.g. using a temperature

controlled enclosure
II. Using equipment that is immune to environmental effects e.g. using resistance materials
which have a low resistance-temperature coefficient.
III. Employing techniques that eliminate the effects of the environment. For example, the
effect of humidity and dust may be eliminated by sealing the equipment
IV. Applying computed corrections where they are needed and when necessary.

5.2.3 INSTRUMENT ERRORS

Instrument errors arise due to the following reasons;

I. Inherent shortcomings in the instrument

II. Misuse of the instrument
III. Loading effect of instruments

5.2.3.1 INHERENT SHORTCOMINGS IN THE INSTRUMENT

Errors are inherent in instruments as a result of their construction, calibration or operation.

These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high. For example, if the spring
used to produce a controlling torque in a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, the
instrument will always read high.

The following methods may be used to reduce or eliminate inherent errors;

I. Before measurement, the instrument must be calibrated against a standard.

II. Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrument errors
III. The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
5.2.3.2 MISUSE OF INSTRUMENTS

Too often, the errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of
the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give erroneous results e.g.
Failure to adjust the zero of instruments and poor initial adjustments, using leads of too high a
resistance, may account for misuse of instruments.

5.2.3.3 LOADING EFFECT

Some measuring instruments depend, for their operation, on the power taken from the circuit
in which measurements are being made. The current taken from the circuit to enable the
instrument to operate may change the prevailing conditions of the circuit. This is known as
loading effect.

Loading effect is altering the actual circuit conditions by the measurement process. For
example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading when connected
across a high resistance circuit than when connected across a low resistance circuit.

A figure of merit must be stated for an instrument in order to show its sensitivity. For example,
the figure of merit for a voltmeter may be stated in KΩ/volt of f.s.d.

EXAMPLE 1

Calculate the power dissipated by the voltmeter V and by the resistor R in the figure shown
below when the value of the resistor R is; a) 250 Ω and, b) 2 MΩ. Assume that the voltmeter has
a figure of merit (sensitivity) of 10 KΩ/V.

100 V

R
V = 0 – 200 V

SOLUTION

a) When R is 250 Ω;

Resistance of voltmeter, Rv = Sensitivity x f.s.d

Rv = (10 KΩ/V) x (200 V) = 2MΩ

 V
Current flowing in voltmeter, Iv =
Rv

100
Iv = = 50 X 10-6 A
2 MΩ

Power dissipated by voltmeter, P = VIv

P = 100 X (50 X 10-6) = 5 mW

V
When R = 250 Ω, current in resistor, IR =
R

100
IR = = 0.4 A
250

Power dissipated in load resistor R is given by;

P = VIR = 100 X 0.4 = 40 W.

b) When R = 2 MΩ;
V 100
Current in the resistor, IR = = = 50 X 10-6 A
R 2000000
Power dissipated in the load resistor, P = VIR = 100 X (50 X 10-6) = 5 mW.

Note: In a) the power dissipated in the voltmeter is insignificant in comparison with the power
dissipated in the load. In b), the higher load resistance reduced the power dissipated such that
the voltmeter is using as much power as the load.

EXAMPLE 2

In the figure below, a voltmeter having a full scale deflection of 100 V and a figure of merit
(sensitivity) of 1.6 KΩ / V is used to measure voltage V1. Determine;

I. The value of voltage V1 with the voltmeter not connected.

II. The voltage indicated by the voltmeter when connected between A and B
III. The percentage error in measurement when using the voltmeter
 A 40 KΩ B 80 KΩ

V1

100 V

SOLUTION

V 100
I. I= = = 0.833 mA
R 40 KΩ+ 80 KΩ

Thus, the value of the voltage, V1 with the voltmeter not connected is given as;

V1 = IRAB = 0.833 mA X 40 KΩ = 33.33 V

Also, using potential divider rule;

40
VRB = 100 X ( ) = 33.33 V
40+80

II. Resistance of the voltmeter, Rv = 1.6 KΩ X 100 = 160 KΩ

Total resistance, RT = Rv II RAB

160 X 40
RT = = 32 KΩ
160+ 40

Using potential divider rule, the voltage indicated by the voltmeter when connected between A
and B is given as;

32
VAB = 100 X ( ) = 28.57 V
32+ 80

Also, current through the circuit, I is given by:

V 100
I= = = 0.893 A
R 32+ 80
Using current divider rule,

160 KΩ
IAB = 0.893 X ( ) = 0.7144 A
160 KΩ+ 40 KΩ

VAB = IABRAB = 0.7144 X 40 KΩ = 28.576 V

III. Percentage error is given as follows;

Measured value−True value

% Error = X 100
True value

28.57−33.33
% Error = x 100 = -14.28%
33.33

Note: A considerable error has been caused by the loading effect of the voltmeter on the
circuit. The error may be reduced by using a voltmeter with a higher sensitivity.

Errors caused by loading effects of meters can be avoided by using them intelligently. For
example, when measuring a low resistance by ammeter-voltmeter method, a high resistance
voltmeter should be used. Otherwise, a more suitable instrument with negligible or no loading
effect such as an oscilloscope could be used.

EXERCISE

A voltmeter having a sensitivity of 1000 Ω/V reads 100 V on its 150 V scale when connected
across an unknown resistor in series with a milli-ammeter. When the milli-ammeter reads 5mA,
calculate;

I. Apparent resistance of the unknown resistor

II. Actual resistance of the unknown resistor
III. Error due to the loading effect of the voltmeter

SOLUTION

I. Apparent resistance, Rapparent = 20 KΩ

II. Actual resistance, Ractual = 23.077 KΩ
III. Error = -13.33%

5.3 RANDOM (RESIDUAL) ERRORS

Experimental results show a variation from one reading to another; even after all systematic
errors have been accounted for. The quantity being measured is affected by many happenings
which we may not be aware of throughout the universe. These happenings or disturbances
about which we are unaware are lumped together to form random or residual errors.

Random or residual errors remain even after the systematic errors have been dealt with.

Mathematical laws or probability can be applied for the study of random errors in order to
obtain the best approximation of the true value of the quantity under study.

6.0 SUMMATION OF ERRORS

Summation of errors should be made after taking all the errors into account in order to
establish the error limit.

Consider the diagram below showing the measurement of resistance using an ammeter and a
voltmeter;

As an example, the voltmeter has a f.s.d of 10 V with the uncertainty in reading of ±0.5 % of full
scale deflection (f.s.d). The ammeter has a f.s.d of 1 A and uncertainty of ±0.5% of f.s.d.

If the readings were 10 V and 1 A, the resistance would be 10Ω ±1.0%.

The voltage, V would be 9.95 V or 10.05 V and the current, I would be 0.995 A or 1.005 A.

For the worst cases, the resistance would be;

 V 10.05
I. R= = = 10.1 Ω +1.0%
I 0.995
V 9.95
II. R= = = 9.9 Ω -1.0%
I 1.005

From the above example, it is apparent that the more the instrument is involved in the
measurement of resistance, the greater the uncertainty becomes.