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A First Course in
LINEAR ALGEBRA

Lecture Notes
by Karen Seyffarth

Systems of Linear Equations

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Systems of Linear Equations Lyryx with Open Texts Page 2/65

 A First Course in Linear Algebra
Lecture Notes

Current Lecture Notes Revision: Version 2017 — Revision A

These lecture notes were originally developed by Karen Seyffarth of the University of Calgary. Edits, additions, and
revisions have been made to these notes by the editorial team at Lyryx Learning to accompany their text A First
Course in Linear Algebra based on K. Kuttler’s original text.
In addition we recognize the following contributors. All new content contributed is released under the same license
as noted below.
Ilijas Farah, York University
Ken Kuttler, Brigham Young University
Asia Weiss, York University

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Systems of Linear Equations Copyright Page 3/65
 Motivation
Example
Find all solutions of the (linear) equation in one variable:

ax = b

Solution
If a 6= 0, there is a unique solution x = b/a.
Else if a = 0 and
I b 6= 0, there is no solution.
I b = 0, there are infinitely many solutions, in fact any x ∈ R is a
solution.
This a complete description of all possible solutions of ax = b.

Objective:
Can we do the same for linear equations in more variables?

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 4/65

 Definitions

A linear equation is an expression

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = b

where n ≥ 1, a1 , . . . , an are real numbers, not all of them equal to zero,

and b is a real number.
A system of linear equations is a set of m ≥ 1 linear equations. It is not
required that m = n.
Solution to a system of m equations in n variables is an n-tuple of numbers
that satisfy each of the equations.
Solve a system means ‘find all solutions to the system.’

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 5/65

 Systems of Linear Equations
Example
A system of linear equations:

x1 − 2x2 − 7x3 = −1
−x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 0

variables: x1 , x2 , x3 .
coefficients:
1x1 − 2x2 − 7x3 = −1
−1x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 0

constant terms:
x1 − 2x2 − 7x3 = −1
−x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 0

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 6/65

 Example (continued)
x1 = −3, x2 = −1, x3 = 0 is a solution to the system

x1 − 2x2 − 7x3 = −1
−x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 0

because
(−3) − 2(−1) − 7 · 0 = −1
−(−3) + 3(−1) + 6 · 0 = 0.
Another solution to the system is x1 = 6, x2 = 0, x3 = 1 (check!).
However, x1 = −1, x2 = 0, x3 = 0 is not a solution to the system, because

(−1) − 2 · 0 − 7 · 0 = −1
−(−1) + 3 · 0 + 6 · 0 = 1 =
6 0

A solution to the system must be a solution to every equation in the

system.
The system above is consistent, meaning that the system has at least
one solution.
Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 7/65
 Example (continued)
x1 + x2 + x3 = 0
x1 + x2 + x3 = −8
is an example of an inconsistent system, meaning that it has no solutions.

Why are there no solutions?

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 8/65

 Graphical Solutions
Example
Consider the system of linear equations in two variables
x +y =3
y −x =5
A solution to this system is a pair (x, y ) satisfying both equations.
Since each equation corresponds to a line, a solution to the system
corresponds to a point that lies on both lines, so the solutions to the
system can be found by graphing the two lines and determining where they
intersect.
x +y =3 y −x =5

(−1, 4)

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 9/65

 Given a system of two equations in two variables, graphed on the
xy -coordinate plane, there are three possibilities, as illustrated below.

intersect in one point parallel but different line are the same
consistent inconsistent consistent
(unique solution) (no solutions) (infinitely many solutions)

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 10/65

 For a system of linear equations in two variables, exactly one of the
following holds:
1 the system is inconsistent;
2 the system has a unique solution, i.e., exactly one solution;
3 the system has infinitely many solutions.
(We will see in what follows that this generalizes to systems of linear
equations in more than two variables.)

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 11/65

 Example
The system of linear equations in three variables that we saw earlier

x1 − 2x2 − 7x3 = −1
−x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 0,

has solutions x1 = −3 + 9s, x2 = −1 + s, x3 = s where s is any real

number (written s ∈ R).
Verify this by substituting the expressions for x1 , x2 , and x3 into the two
equations.
s is called a parameter, and the expression

x1 = −3 + 9s, x2 = −1 + s, x3 = s, where s ∈ R

is called the general solution in parametric form.

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 12/65

 Problem
Find all solutions to a system of m linear equations in n variables, i.e., solve
a system of linear equations.

Definition
Two systems of linear equations are equivalent if they have exactly the
same solutions.

Example
The two systems of linear equations

2x + y = 2 x + y = 1
and
3x = 3 y = 0

are equivalent because both systems have the unique solution x = 1,

y = 0.

Systems of Linear Equations Systems of Linear Equations Page 13/65

 Elementary Operations

We solve a system of linear equations by using Elementary Operations to

transform the system into an equivalent but simpler system from which the
solution can be easily obtained.

Three types of Elementary Operations

Type I: Interchange two equations, r1 ↔ r2 .
Type II: Multiply an equation by a nonzero number, 13r1 .
Type III: Add a multiple of one equation to a different equation,
3r3 + r2 .

Systems of Linear Equations Elementary Operations Page 14/65

 Elementary Operations
Example
3x1 − 2x2 − 7x3 = −1
Consider the system of linear equations −x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 1
2x1 − x3 = 3
Interchange first two equations (Type I elementary operation):

−x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 1

r1 ↔ r2 3x1 − 2x2 − 7x3 = −1
2x1 − x3 = 3
Multiply first equation by −2 (Type II elementary operation):

−6x1 + 4x2 + 14x3 = 2

−2r1 −x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 1
2x1 − x3 = 3
Add 3 time the second equation to the first equation (Type III elementary
operation):
7x2 + 11x3 = 2
3r2 + r1 −x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 1
2x1 − x3 = 3

Systems of Linear Equations Elementary Operations Page 15/65

 Theorem (Elementary Operations and Solutions)
If an elementary operation is performed on a system of linear equations, the
resulting system of linear equations is equivalent to the original system. (As
a consequence, performing a sequence of elementary operations on a system
of linear equations results in an equivalent system of linear equations.)

Systems of Linear Equations Elementary Operations Page 16/65

 Solving a System using Back Substitution
Problem
Solve the system using back substitution

2x + y = 4
x − 3y = 1

Solution
Add (−2) times the second equation to the first equation.

2x + y + (−2)x − (−2)(3)y = 4 + (−2)1

x − 3y = 1

The result is an equivalent system

7y = 2
x − 3y = 1

Systems of Linear Equations Elementary Operations Page 17/65

 Solution (continued)
The first equation of the system,
7y = 2
can be rearranged to give us 2
y= .
7
2
Substituting y = 7 into second equation: 
2
x − 3y = x − 3 = 1,
7
and simplifying, gives us
6 13
x =1+
= .
7 7
Therefore, the solution is x = 13/7, y = 2/7.

The method illustrated in this example is called back substitution.

We shall describe an algorithm for solving any given system of linear

equations.
Systems of Linear Equations Elementary Operations Page 18/65
 The Augmented Matrix
Represent a system of linear equations with its augmented matrix.
Example
The system of linear equations
x1 − 2x2 − 7x3 = −1
−x1 + 3x2 + 6x3 = 0
is represented by the augmented matrix
 
1 −2 −7 −1
−1 3 6 0
(A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers.)
Note. Two other matrices associated with a system of linear equations are
the coefficient matrix and the constant matrix.
   
1 −2 −7 −1
,
−1 3 6 0

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 19/65

 Elementary Row Operations
For convenience, instead of performing elementary operations on a
system of linear equations, perform corresponding elementary row
operations on the corresponding augmented matrix.

Type I: Interchange two rows.

Example
Interchange rows 1 and 3.
   
2 −1 0 5 −3 0 5 −6 1 0
 −2 0 3 3 −1   −2 0 3 3 −1 
  →r1 ↔r3  
 0 5 −6 1 0   2 −1 0 5 −3 
1 −4 2 2 2 1 −4 2 2 2

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 20/65

 Elementary Row Operations

Type II: Multiply a row by a nonzero number.

Example
Multiply row 4 by 2.
   
2 −1 0 5 −3 2 −1 0 5 −3
 −2 0 3 3 −1   −2 0 3 3 −1 
  →2r4  
 0 5 −6 1 0   0 5 −6 1 0 
1 −4 2 2 2 2 −8 4 4 4

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 21/65

 Elementary Row Operations

Type III: Add a multiple of one row to a different row.

Example
Add 2 times row 4 to row 2.
   
2 −1 0 5 −3 2 −1 0 5 −3
 −2 0 3 3 −1  2r +r  0 −8 7 7 3 
  → 4 2  
 0 5 −6 1 0   0 5 −6 1 0 
1 −4 2 2 2 1 −4 2 2 2

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 22/65

 Definition
Two matrices A and B are row equivalent (or simply equivalent) if one can
be obtained from the other by a sequence of elementary row operations.

Problem
Prove that A can be obtained from B by a sequence of elementary row
operations if and only if B can be obtained from A by a sequence of
elementary row operations.
Prove that row equivalence is an equivalence relation.

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 23/65

 Row-Echelon Matrix
All rows consisting entirely of zeros are at the bottom.
The first nonzero entry in each nonzero row is a 1
(called the leading 1 for that row).
Each leading 1 is to the right of all leading 1’s in rows above it.

Example
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
 
0 1

 0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 


 0 0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ 


 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
where ∗ can be any number.

A matrix is said to be in the row-echelon form (REF) if it a row-echelon

matrix.
Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 24/65
 Reduced Row-Echelon Matrix

Row-echelon matrix.
Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column.

Example
∗ ∗ ∗
 
0 1 0 0 0

 0 0 0 1 0 ∗ ∗ 0 


 0 0 0 0 1 ∗ ∗ 0 


 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 

 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
where ∗ can be any number.

A matrix is said to be in the reduced row-echelon form (RREF) if it a

row-echelon matrix.

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 25/65

 Examples

Which of the following matrices are in the REF?

Which ones are in the RREF?
 
    1 0 2 0
0 1 2 0 1 0 2 0
(a) , (b) , (c)  0 0 1 2 
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
0 0 1 2
 
    1 2 0 0
1 0 2 0 1 2 0 0
(d) , (e) , (f)  0 0 1 0 ,
0 1 1 2 0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 26/65

 Example
Suppose that the following matrix is the augmented matrix of a system of
linear equations. We see from this matrix that the system of linear
equations has four equations and seven variables.
 
1 −3 4 −2 5 −7 0 4
 0
 0 1 8 0 3 −7 0 

 0 0 0 1 1 −1 0 −1 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2

Note that the matrix is a row-echelon matrix.

Each column of the matrix corresponds to a variable, and the leading
variables are the variables that correspond to columns containing
leading ones (in this case, columns 1, 3, 4, and 7).
The remaining variables (corresponding to columns 2, 5 and 6) are
called non-leading variables.

We will use elementary row operations to transform a matrix to

row-echelon (REF) or reduced row-echelon form (RREF).
Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 27/65
 Solving Systems of Linear Equations

“Solving a system of linear equations” means finding all solutions to the

system.

Method I: Gauss-Jordan Elimination

1 Use elementary row operations to transform the augmented matrix to
an equivalent (not equal) reduced row-echelon matrix. The procedure
for doing this is called the Gaussian Algorithm, or the Reduced
Row-Echelon Form Algorithm.
2 If a row of the form [0 0 · · · 0 | 1] occurs, then there is no solution to
the system of equations.
3 Otherwise assign parameters to the non-leading variables (if any), and
solve for the leading variables in terms of the parameters.

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 28/65

 Gauss-Jordan Elimination
Problem
Solve the system 2x + y + 3z = 1
2y − z + x = 0
9z + x − 4y = 2

Solution
   
2 1 3 1 1 2 −1 0
 1 2 −1 0  →r1 ↔r2  2 1 3 1 
1 −4 9 2 1 −4 9 2
   
1 2 −1 0 1 2 −1 0
→−2r1 +r2 ,−r1 +r3  0 −3 5 1  →−r2 +r3  0 −3 5 1 
0 −6 10 2 0 0 0 0
7 2 
1 0
  
1 2 −1 0 3 3
− 13 r2  0 1 − 5 − 1  −2r2 +r1 
 5 1 

→  3 3  →
 0 1 −3 −3 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 29/65

 Solution (continued)
Given the reduced row-echelon matrix
 7 2 
1 0 3 3
 0 1 −5 − 31 
 
 3 
0 0 0 0

x and y are leading variables; z is a non-leading variable and so assign a

parameter to z. Thus the solution to the original system is given by
2 7 
x = 3 − 3s  

1 5
y = −3 + 3s where s ∈ R.


z = s


Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 30/65

 Solving Systems of Linear Equations

Method II: Gaussian Elimination with Back-Substitution

1 Use elementary row operations to transform the augmented matrix to
an equivalent row-echelon matrix.
2 The solutions (if they exist) can be determined using
back-substitution.

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 31/65

 Gaussian Elimination with Back Substitution
Problem
Solve the system
2x + y + 3z = 1
2y − z + x = 0
9z + x − 4y = 2

Solution
     
2 1 3 1 1 2 −1 0 1 2 −1 0
 1 2 −1 0 → 2
  1 3 1  →  0 −3 5 1 
1 −4 9 2 1 −4 9 2 0 −6 10 2
 

1 2 −1 0
 1 2 −1 0
→  0 −3 5 1 →
 0 1 − 53 − 13 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 32/65

 Solution (continued)
This row-echelon matrix corresponds to the system

x + 2y − z = 0 x = −2y + z
1 , so
y − 5
3z = −3 y = − 31 + 53 z ,

and thus
x = −2(− 13 + 53 z) + z = 2
3 − 37 z

y = − 13 + 53 z

Setting z = s, where s ∈ R, gives us (as before):

2 7
x = 3 − 3s

y = − 13 + 5
3s

z = s

Always check your answer!

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 33/65
 Problem
Solve the system
x + y + 2z = −1
y + 2x + 3z = 0
z − 2y = 2

Solution
     
1 1 2 −1 1 1 2 −1 1 1 2 −1
 2 1 3 0  →−2r1 +r2  0 −1 −1 2  →−1·r2  0 1 1 −2 
0 −2 1 2 0 −2 1 2 0 −2 1 2

1 0 0 5 
3
 
1

0 1 1
 1 0 1 1
1r
2r +r −4
 
→ 2 3  0 1 1 −2  → 3 3  0
 1 1 −2  →−r3 +r2 ,−r3 +r1  0 1 0 
3
−2
  
0 0 3 −2 0 0 1 3 −2
 
0 0 1 3

5, y = −4, z = −2.
The unique solution is x = 3 3 3

Check your answer!

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 34/65

 Problem
Solve the system

−3x1 − 9x2 + x3 = −9
2x1 + 6x2 − x3 = 6
x1 + 3x2 − x3 = 2

Solution
     
1 3 −1 2 1 3 −1 2 1 3 0 4
 2 6 −1 6 → 0 0 1 2 → 0 0 1 2 
−3 −9 1 −9 0 0 −2 −3 0 0 0 1

The last row of the final matrix corresponds to the equation

0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 = 1

which is impossible!
Therefore, this system is inconsistent, i.e., it has no solutions.
Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 35/65
 General Patterns for Systems of Linear Equations
Problem
Find all values of a, b and c (or conditions on a, b and c) so that the
system
2x + 3y + az = b
− y + 2z = c
x + 3y − 2z = 1
has (i) a unique solution, (ii) no solutions, and (iii) infinitely many
solutions. In (i) and (iii), find the solution(s).

Solution
   
2 3 a b 1 3 −2 1
 0 −1 2 c  →  0 −1 2 c 
1 3 −2 1 2 3 a b

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 36/65

 Solution (continued)
   
1 3 −2 1 1 3 −2 1
 0 −1 2 c  → 0 −1 2 c 
2 3 a b 0 −3 a + 4 b − 2
   
1 3 −2 1 1 0 4 1 + 3c
→ 0 1 −2 −c  →  0 1 −2 −c 
0 −3 a + 4 b − 2 0 0 a − 2 b − 2 − 3c
Case 1. a − 2 6= 0, i.e., a 6= 2. In this case,
   

1 0 4 1 + 3c
 1 0 0 1 + 3c − 4 b−2−3c
a−2 
  
→ 0 1 −2
 −c  → 0
 1 0 −c + 2 b−2−3c 
a−2
1 b−2−3c

0 0 b−2−3c
a−2 0 0 1 a−2

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 37/65

 Solution (continued)
   
1 0 0 1 + 3c − 4 b−2−3c
a−2 
  
b−2−3c
 0 1 0
 −c + 2 a−2


b−2−3c
0 0 1 a−2

(i) When a 6= 2, the unique solution is

   
b − 2 − 3c b − 2 − 3c
x = 1 + 3c − 4 , y = −c + 2 ,
a−2 a−2

b − 2 − 3c
z= .
a−2

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 38/65

 Solution (continued)
Case 2. If a = 2, then the augmented matrix becomes
   
1 0 4 1 + 3c 1 0 4 1 + 3c
 0 1 −2 −c  → 0 1 −2 −c 
0 0 a − 2 b − 2 − 3c 0 0 0 b − 2 − 3c

From this we see that the system has no solutions when b − 2 − 3c 6= 0.

(ii) When a = 2 and b − 3c 6= 2, the system has no solutions.

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 39/65

 Solution (continued)
Finally when a = 2 and b − 3c = 2, the augmented matrix becomes
   
1 0 4 1 + 3c 1 0 4 1 + 3c
 0 1 −2 −c  →  0 1 −2 −c 
0 0 0 b − 2 − 3c 0 0 0 0

and the system has infinitely many solutions.

(iii) When a = 2 and b − 3c = 2, the system has infinitely many solutions,
given by
x = 1 + 3c − 4s
y = −c + 2s
z = s
where s ∈ R.

Systems of Linear Equations Gaussian Elimination Page 40/65

 Uniqueness of the Reduced Row-Echelon Form

Theorem
Systems of linear equations that correspond to row equivalent augmented
matrices have exactly the same solutions.

Theorem
Every matrix A is row equivalent to a unique reduced row-echelon matrix.

Systems of Linear Equations Uniqueness Page 41/65

 Homogeneous Systems of Equations
Definition
A homogeneous linear equation is one whose constant term is equal to
zero. A system of linear equations is called homogeneous if each equation
in the system is homogeneous. A homogeneous system has the form
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = 0
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = 0
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = 0
where aij are scalars and xi are variables, 1 ≤ i ≤ m, 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

Notice that x1 = 0, x2 = 0, · · · , xn = 0 is always a solution to a

homogeneous system of equations. We call this the trivial solution.

We are interested in finding, if possible, nontrivial solutions (ones with at

least one variable not equal to zero) to homogeneous systems.
Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 42/65
 Homogeneous Equations
Example
x1 + x2 − x3 + 3x4 = 0
Solve the system −x1 + 4x2 + 5x3 − 2x4 = 0
x1 + 6x2 + 3x3 + 4x4 = 0
1 0 − 95 14
 
  5 0
1 1 −1 3 0
4 1
 
 −1 4 5 −2 0  → · · · →   0 1 5 0 

5
1 6 3 4 0
0 0 0 0 0
The system has infinitely many solutions, and the general solution is

x1 = 59 s − 14
 9
s − 14

5 t 5 5 t
 
x1
x2 = − 45 s − 15 t  x2   − 4 s − 1 t 
 
or 
  =  5 5  , where s, t ∈ R.
x3   
x3 = s  s 
x4
x4 = t t

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 43/65

 Definition
If X1 , X2 , . . . , Xp are columns with the same number of entries, and if
a1 , a2 , . . . ap ∈ R (are scalars) then a1 X1 + a2 X2 + · · · + ap Xp is a linear
combination of columns X1 , X2 , . . . , Xp .

Example (continued)
In the previous example,
 9 14
5s − 5 t

9
− 14
   
5s 5 t
 
x1
 x2   − 4 s − 1 t − 45 s   − 15 t 
     

 = 5 5  =  +
 x3    
s   0 

s
  
x4 0 t
t
9
− 14
   
5 5
− 45   − 15 
   
= s +t


 1   0 
0 1
Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 44/65
 Example (continued)
This gives us
 9
− 14
    
x1 5 5
 4
 x2  −  − 15
  
 5
 x3  = s  +t  = sX1 + tX2 ,
   
 1   0 
x4 0 1
 9   14 
5 −5
− 54   − 51 
   
where X1 =   and X2 =  .

 1   0 
0 1

The columns X1 and X2 are called basic solutions to the original

homogeneous system.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 45/65

 Example (continued)
Notice that
 9
− 14
        
x1 5 5 9 −14
 4
 x2  −  − 51 s  −4  + t  −1 
     
5
 x3  = s  +t  =
    
 1   0  5 5  5 0 
x4 0 1 0 5
   
9 −14
 −4   −1 
= r 5 +q
  
0 
0 5
= r (5X1 ) + q(5X2 )

where r , q ∈ R.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 46/65

 Example (continued)
   
9 −14
 −4   −1 
The columns 5X1 =   5  and 5X2 = 
   are also basic solutions
0 
0 5
to the original homogeneous system.

In general, any nonzero multiple of a basic solution (to a homogeneous

system of linear equations) is also a basic solution.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 47/65

 Theorem
The general solution to a homogeneous system can be expressed as a linear
combination of basic solutions.

Proof.
Consider the RREF matrix equivalent to the augmented matrix of the
system.
Each non-leading variable corresponds to a parameter; let N be the set of
non-leading variables and enumerate the parameters as sj , for j ∈ N.
Then, for scalars cij , the general solution has the form
X
xi = cij sj (1)
j∈N

i.e. each variable—leading or not—is expressed as a linear combination of

the parameters. Because the system is homogeneous, on the RHS we have
a linear combination of sj s with no constant terms.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 48/65

 Proof. (continued).
Re-arranging, we obtain general solution of the form
   
x1 c1j
 x2  X  c2j 
 ..  = sj  . 
   
 .   .. 
j∈N
xn cnj

(each row corresponds to an instance of (1), with the 1st row

corresponding to x1 , the second row corresponding to x2 , etc.) which is a
linear combination of the basic solutions.
This completes the proof.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 49/65

 Problem
Find all values of a for which the system

x + y = 0
ay + z = 0
x + y + az = 0

has nontrivial solutions, and determine the solutions.

Solution
Non-trivial solutions occur only when a = 0, and the solutions when a = 0
are given by    
x 1
 y  = s  −1  , s ∈ R.
z 0

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 50/65

 Rank

Definition
The rank of a matrix A, denoted rank A, is the number of leading 1’s in
any row-echelon matrix obtained from A by performing elementary row
operations.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 51/65

 What does the rank of an augmented matrix tell us?
Suppose A is the augmented matrix of a consistent system of m linear
equations in n variables, and rank A = r .
   

 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 1 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 


   0 0 1 ∗ ∗ 
 
m
 ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗  → 0 0 0 1 ∗ 
   


  ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗   0 0 0 0 0 

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 0 0 0 0 0


| {z } | {z }
n r leading 10 s

Then the set of solutions to the system has n − r parameters, so

if r < n, there is at least one parameter, and the system has infinitely
many solutions;
if r = n, there are no parameters, and the system has a unique
solution.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 52/65

 An Example

Problem
 
a b 5
Find the rank of A = .
1 −2 1

Solution
     
a b 5 1 −2 1 1 −2 1
→ →
1 −2 1 a b 5 0 b + 2a 5 − a
If b + 2a = 0 and 5 − a = 0, i.e., a = 5 and b = −10, then rank A = 1.
Otherwise, rank A = 2.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 53/65

 Solutions to a System of Linear Equations

For any system of linear equations, exactly one of the following holds:
1 the system is inconsistent;
2 the system has a unique solution, i.e., exactly one solution;
3 the system has infinitely many solutions.

One can see what case applies by looking at the RREF matrix equivalent to
the augmented matrix of the system and distinguishing three cases:
1 The last nonzero row ends with . . . 0 1]: no solution.
2 The last nonzero row does not end with . . . 0 1] and all variables are
leading: unique solution.
3 The last nonzero row does not end with . . . 0 1] and there are
non-leading variables: infinitely many solutions.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 54/65

 Problem
Solve the system

−3x1 + 6x2 − 4x3 − 9x4 + 3x5 = −1

−x1 + 2x2 − 2x3 − 4x4 − 3x5 = 3
x1 − 2x2 + 2x3 + 2x4 − 5x5 = 1
x1 − 2x2 + x3 + 3x4 − x5 = 1

Solution
Begin by putting the augmented matrix in reduced row-echelon form.
   
1 −2 2 2 −5 1 1 −2 0 0 −13 9
 −3 6 −4 −9 3 −1   0 0 1 0 0 −2 
  → 
 −1 2 −2 −4 −3 3   0 0 0 1 4 −2 
1 −2 1 3 −1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

The system has 5 variables, and the rank of the augmented matrix is 3.
Since the system is consistent, the set of solutions has 5 − 3 = 2
parameters.
Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 55/65
 Solution (continued)
From the reduced row-echelon matrix
 
1 −2 0 0 −13 9
 0
 0 1 0 0 −2 

 0 0 0 1 4 −2 
0 0 0 0 0 0

we obtain the general solution


x1 = 9 + 2r + 13s 

x2 = r



x3 = −2 r, s ∈ R
x4 = −2 − 4s




x5 = s


The solution has two parameters (r and s) as we expected.

Systems of Linear Equations Rank and Homogeneous Systems Page 56/65

 Review Problem

Problem
The following is the reduced row-echelon form of the augmented matrix of
a system of linear equations.
 
1 0 −3 0 6 8
 0 1 1 0 2 0 
 
 0 0 0 1
 5 −5 

 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0
How many equations does the system have? 5
How many variables does the system have? 5
If the variables are labeled x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , which variables are are the
- leading variables? x1 , x2 , x4
- non-leading variables? x3 , x5

Systems of Linear Equations Review Problem Page 57/65

 Problem (continued)
 
1 0 −3 0 6 8

 0 1 1 0 2 0 

 0 0 0 1 5 −5 

 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0

What is the rank of this matrix? 3

How many parameters (if any) do we need for the general solution? 2
What is the system of equations corresponding to this matrix?

x1 − 3x3 + 6x5 =8
x2 + x3 + 2x5 =0
x4 + 5x5 = −5

Is this system homogeneous or inhomogeneous? Inhomogeneous

Systems of Linear Equations Review Problem Page 58/65

 Problem (continued)
x1 − 3x3 + 6x5 =8
x2 + x3 + 2x5 =0
x4 + 5x5 = −5
What is the general solution? Assign paramaters s, t ∈ R to the
non-leading variables x3 and x5 , respectively.
x1 = 8 + 3s − 6t
x2 = −s − 2t
x3 = s
x4 = −5 − 5t
x5 = t
The general solution may also be written as
       
x1 8 3 −6

 x2  
  0 


 −1 


 −2 

 x3 = 0 +s 1 +t 0  , for s, t ∈ R.
       
 x4   −5   0   −5 
x5 0 0 1

Systems of Linear Equations Review Problem Page 59/65

 Balancing Chemical Reactions
Problem
Balance the chemical reaction given below involving tin (Sn), hydrogen
(H), and oxygen (0).

xSnO2 + yH2 → zSn + wH2 O

Solution
Setting up a system of equations in x, y , z, w gives

Sn : x = z or x − z = 0
O : 2x = w or 2x − w = 0
H : 2y = 2w or 2y − 2w = 0
 
1 0 −1 0 0
The augmented matrix is  2 0 0 −1 0 
0 2 0 −2 0
Systems of Linear Equations Various Applications Page 60/65
 Solution (continued)
The reduced row-echelon matrix is
1 0 0 − 12 0
 
 0 1 0 −1 0 
0 0 1 − 12 0

Letting w = t, the solution is

1
x = t
2
y = t
1
z = t
2
w = t

We can choose any values for w = t. Suppose we choose w = 4, then

x = 2, y = 4, z = 2 and the balanced reaction is

2Sn02 + 4H2 → 2Sn + 4H2 O

Systems of Linear Equations Various Applications Page 61/65
 Resistor Networks
Important Symbols:

Resistor:

Voltage Source:

Current:

I1

Resitance is measured in ohms, Ω. Voltage is measured in volts, V .

Current is measured in amps, A.

Systems of Linear Equations Various Applications Page 62/65

 Problem
Write an equation for each circuit and solve for each current in the
following diagram.
14 volts
2Ω

17 volts
I2

1Ω
4Ω
I3 2Ω

2Ω

24 volts
I1 3Ω

5Ω
Systems of Linear Equations Various Applications Page 63/65
 Solution
The equation for the bottom circuit, with current I1 is given by

5I1 + 3I1 + I1 − I2 = −24

The top left circuit, with current I2 is

I2 − I1 + 4I2 − 4I3 + 2I2 = 17

The top right circuit is

4I3 − 4I2 + 2I3 + 2I3 = −14

After simplifying, this system is represented by

 
9 −1 0 −24
 −1 7 −4 17 
0 −4 8 −14

Systems of Linear Equations Various Applications Page 64/65

 Solution (continued)
The reduced row-echelon form of this matrix is
0 0 − 52
 
1
 0 3 
1 0 2
0 0 1 −1

This gives values of the currents of

5
I1 = −
2
3
I2 =
2
I3 = −1

Systems of Linear Equations Various Applications Page 65/65