Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 110–116

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy for Sustainable Development

Review

Evaluation of small axial flow hydrokinetic turbines for remote communities

Martin Anyi ⁎, Brian Kirke
Sustainable Energy Centre, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper reviews works involving small axial flow hydrokinetic turbines specifically for generating electrical
Received 15 October 2009 power for off-grid remote communities and suggests improvements to overcome a major problem. Turbines
Revised 22 February 2010 mounted on pontoons or suspended using pivot arms from river banks or from jetties are reported able to
Accepted 22 February 2010
produce about 1 kW to 2 kW of electrical power suitable for remote homes. However several deployments have
experienced major problems with debris attaching to the turbines, resulting in interrupted operation. Excessive
Keywords:
Remote community
work in removing debris and furling result in frequent power cuts, a disadvantage in systems supplying AC power
Hydrokinetic turbine on demand, and this problem impedes the acceptance of hydrokinetic turbines in remote community
Debris problem electrification. Some methods of dealing with the debris problem have been suggested but these all involve
Swept blades interrupted operation. A system using a rotor with swept-back blades is suggested, where debris is shed
Axial flow automatically without lifting the turbine out of water. A deflecting device could also be used to push floating logs
Tropical countries away from the swept area. By making the system resistant to debris, efficient axial flow turbines could be used
practically in tropical rivers. Accessibility to power enables the use of basic home appliances and to encourage
small village industries which can help to improve their socio-economic standard.
© 2010 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
The axial flow hydrokinetic turbine (AFHT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
The Garman turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
AFHT experiences in South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
AFHT experiences in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
High solidity turbine (Tyson turbine) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Low solidity turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Problems encountered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
AFHT experiences in the UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Debris problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Methods of dealing with debris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Drive train ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Turbine mounting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Pontoon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Pivot arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Bridge or jetty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Turbine rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Suction tube or ducting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Use high speed axial flow turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Use swept-back turbine blades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Use a pontoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 61 883025018; fax: +61 883023380.

E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Anyi).

0973-0826/$ – see front matter © 2010 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.esd.2010.02.003
 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 110–116 111

Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Up-coming works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Introduction AquaCharger as shown in Fig. 1 (CMADFA, undated). Features of the

system are listed below.
The objectives of this paper are;
• 1.8 m rotor diameter.
(a) to conduct case studies on previous experiences in small axial • Furling mechanism to lift rotor out of water at water current above
flow turbine for remote communities and 1.5 m/s and to prevent rotor from touching the river bed.
(b) to highlight early achievements and problems. • Turbine mounted at the back of boat or on pontoon.
• Operates in 0.5 m/s to 1.5 m/s water velocity.
Findings from this study will be considered as vital inputs in • Generates approximately 500 W at 1.5 m/s.
designing a stand-alone turbine generating a practical amount of
The overall efficiency of the system (i.e. turbine, transmission and
electrical power from normal flow in debris-laden rivers in equatorial
generator) can be calculated from the power formula;
or tropical countries.
Hydrokinetic turbines can be categorized into two main groups, 3
1= ρACp ηV
namely the axial flow turbine and the cross flow turbine. The P = 2
propeller type turbine is an example of an axial flow turbine. Darrieus
and Savonius turbines and the paddle wheel belong to the cross flow where V = velocity of the water, ρ = density of water, A = swept area
category. High efficiency, easy self-starting, lack of torque fluctuation of turbine, Cp = turbine performance coefficient (i.e. efficiency) and
and high speed operation are all possible with the axial flow turbine, η = transmission and generator efficiency. The overall efficiency (Cpη)
making it a widely accepted turbine in the wind power industry. For is found to be equal to 12%. Although this figure is on the low side,
example, a modern propeller turbine used in a wind power system the system's ability to charge up to five 12 V or 24 V batteries
can achieve a power coefficient Cp of near 0.5, close to the maximum simultaneously is an encouraging achievement.
theoretical limit or Betz limit (0.59) whereas other turbines have Cp Despite its ability to generate continuously, its capacity to meet a
around 0.4 and below (Hau 2000). peak power demand exceeding the power being generated at the time
The advantages of axial flow turbines can also be applied to depends on the capacity of the storage battery bank. A complete
hydrokinetic turbines intended for generating electric power from system requires a charge controller and direct current (DC) to
water currents. However issues such as fluctuations in current alternating current (AC) converter or inverter to drive normal AC
velocity, flow rate and level, frequent presence of floating and loads, making the complete system complex and expensive, a major
submerged debris, possible destructive force/drag on turbines during disadvantage for remote communities in developing countries.
flash flood, limited energy contained in the natural flow of many At sites where plentiful energy is available, it can be argued that
rivers, and corrosion and bio-fouling need to be addressed properly. the extra cost of a larger diameter turbine, capable of generating AC
Therefore rotors of hydrokinetic turbines are commonly made from and meeting peak demand directly without the need for battery
strong composite material for strength and also to prevent corrosion storage, would be more than offset by the savings in complexity and
(Marsh, 2004). maintenance. A bigger version of the Garman style turbines, available
Comprehensive reviews on water current turbines including in diameters of 2 m, 2.6 m, 3.4 m and 4 m, capable of producing up to
detailed fundamental studies and turbine classification can be found 2 kW of AC power is said to be in operation in Sudan (Thropton
in Khan et al. (2006, 2007, 2009). Also a complete commercial turbine Energy, undated). Unfortunately there is hardly any publication about
technology survey can be found in Verdant Power (2006). Neverthe- their successful operations.
less, this paper will focus on field experiences gained in using small
axial flow hydrokinetic turbines intended for remote area application AFHT experiences in South America
only (development in mega scale and economically driven river or
marine current turbine technology is outside of the scope of this Generating AC power directly using a small turbine was demon-
paper). Field trial reports from Africa, South America, Australia and strated by the University of Brasilia in Brazil (Tiago, 2003). Both cross
the UK are analysed carefully in order to gauge the practicality of flow and axial flow turbines with different configurations were tested
using such turbines in unattended operation in inland rivers to benefit
remote communities in Sarawak, Malaysia.

The axial flow hydrokinetic turbine (AFHT)

Accounts of field experience with axial flow turbines intended for

remote community application have been collected and are sum-
marised below.

The Garman turbine

The use of an axial flow propeller turbine in remote area

application was first demonstrated by Peter Garman in 1978 (Khan,
2006). The turbine was claimed to have many years of successful
operation for pumping irrigation water from the Nile River in Egypt,
Sudan and Somalia. Later the application of the so called ‘Garman
turbine’ was extended for electrical power generation. This has led to
the existence of a commercially available turbine, the Amazon Fig. 1. Amazon AquaCharger (CMADFA, undated).
112 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 110–116

and it was found that a six bladed propeller turbine having 30% Darwin University (Swenson, 1996, 1999; Tuckey et al., 1997). This
solidity performed well. Features of the system are summarised effort was carried out to gauge the possibility of generating electricity
below. for Nguiu community in Apsley Strait using hydrokinetic turbines in
order to displace the use of diesel fuel there. Unlike in any commercial
• Rotor diameter of 0.8 m.
research, the performance and problems encountered throughout the
• Fitted with cone-shaped grid for protection from debris.
testing were disclosed openly, allowing new researchers to continue
• Fitted with suction tube, guide vanes/stator and centre cones for
their work without starting all over again.
performance enhancement.
In this work, the performance of two different types of turbines
• Generates about 1 kW using 2 kVA and 220 V AC generator.
was compared. In the first test, the Tyson turbine unit shown in Fig. 3
• Suspended using long arm from the bank of river.
was used with its original high solidity rotor but the drive train was
Using the power formula, the overall efficiency for this system modified to suit two car alternators instead of a water pump. The
(based on turbine rotor swept area) is calculated to be about 0.5. original rotor was then replaced with a lower solidity propeller
However this apparently high efficiency figure is deceptive because turbine shown in Fig. 4, with further modification to accommodate a
the duct enables the turbine to extract energy from an area larger than low speed permanent magnet generator.
the turbine swept area. Nevertheless, the fact that the system was able
to power a remote medical post in the state of Bahia, Brazil with loads High solidity turbine (Tyson turbine)
including a refrigerator, a freezer and some lights since 1996 is very The configurations of the Tyson turbine are as follows;
encouraging.
The Brazilian team revealed a unique and practical method of • 2 m diameter rotor.
turbine installation by simply suspending it from the river bank into • 7 blades, high solidity type.
the river using a long arm as shown in Fig. 2(a). In this way, the • 4-stage drive train, 1:182 gear ratios.
turbine can be lifted up and swung to the bank of the river during • 2 car alternators.
floods and for maintenance without sending men down into the river. • Mounted on pontoon.
Fig. 2(b) shows the detail of the turbine's components. The successful
A ten month field trial showed that the maximum efficiency of the
use of a suction tube to increase power in shallow rivers was also
turbine efficiency Cp obtained was 0.17 at 1.6 m/s velocity. The
demonstrated. Ponta and co-workers (2000,2008) have also used a
efficiency of the drive train was estimated at 74% and the maximum
channelling device in laboratory tests in Argentina to increase the
efficiency of the alternators was 44%. Therefore the overall efficiency
power output of a cross flow hydrokinetic turbine. The channelling
(water to wire) for the high solidity turbine can be worked out to be
device also provides buoyancy and serves as a pontoon. This principle
equal to 5.5%.
could also be applied to an axial flow turbine.
Low solidity turbine
AFHT experiences in Australia
The configuration for the second trial is summarised as below.
Perhaps some of the most transparent field trial reports on small • 2 m rotor diameter.
axial flow turbines intended for remote application were published by • 4 blades, low solidity type, 70 rpm at 2.1 m/s.
the Northern Territory University (NTU), Australia, now Charles • 1:14 gear ratios.
• Low speed permanent magnet generator rated 600 rpm.
• Mounted on pontoon.

After a field trial of about 18 months (from 3 June 1997 to 21 Jan

1999), a maximum Cp of 32% was obtained at 3.5 tip speed ratio (tsr)
and water velocity of 1.1 m/s. With the generator and transmission
efficiencies of 89% and 87.5% respectively, the overall efficiency is
calculated to be equal to 25%. It can be deduced that the higher overall
efficiency obtained in this second configuration was due to (i) the
smaller drive train made possible by using the high speed turbine and
the low speed generator, and (ii) the more efficient generator.
However a rotor with two blades, simply made by removing two of

Fig. 2. (a). River turbine in operation (Tiago, 2003). (b). Turbine components: (1) protecting
grid (2) stator, (3) propeller, (4) suction tube, (5) centre cone, and (6) transmission box
(Tiago, 2003). Fig. 3. Tyson turbine (Shannon, 1996).
 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 110–116 113

Fig. 5. Weed problem on turbine (Lowe, 2007).

after being put in the water, especially when the tide was coming in.
See Fig. 5. This caused an increase in drag which slowed and
eventually stopped the turbine. Troubled by frequent interruption
by debris, Lowe suggested the use of swept or scimitar-shaped blades
Fig. 4. Low solidity turbine (Swenson, 1999). in order to shed debris automatically. However there is no
information about the use of such blades in hydrokinetic turbines to
date.
the 4 blades from the hub, tested at the same water velocity, tsr and Impellers having “banana” shaped blades as shown in Fig. 6 have
blade pitch angles was found to have a much lower Cp of 14%. been used for clog-free operations in debris-laden sewage mixing
applications (Flygtus, undated), and this pattern may be applicable to
Problems encountered turbines also. Nevertheless, blade design for remote communities
Both turbines used in NTU field trials were found to have major should be kept simple for low cost and ease of manufacturing by the
problems with debris. In the first test, marine growth and debris were local people. Therefore further research is needed to assess whether it
found attached to the Tyson turbine. The gearbox of the machine was is practicable to build such blades, and how effective they would be on
reported damaged by floating mangrove trees. In the second test a hydrokinetic turbine.
leaves, seaweed and small mangrove trees were found frequently
attached to the leading edge of the high speed turbine and the drive
leg. Seaweed was also found attached to the velocity meter, causing Discussion
the turbine control system to operate the turbine at incorrect tsr.
Another problem encountered was the lifting of the rear of the unit The case study shows that small axial flow turbines with diameters
due to drag experienced by the rotor during strong currents and ranging from 0.8 m to 2.75 m can be used to generate a practical
waves. Fortunately waves are not a big problem in inland rivers and amount electrical power from water currents between 0.5 m/s and
the lifting problem can be solved by making a well designed, properly
balanced pontoon.

AFHT experiences in the UK

A relatively low solidity three bladed, 0.8 meter diameter turbine

was built and tested in a cavitation tunnel and a towing tank at the
University of Southampton (Bahaj et al., 2006). The result shows that
a high Cp of 0.46 was achieved. A turbine having similar design was
put on a field test by Lowe (2007) at Yarmouth Pier as part of his
Master of Science Degree in the same university. The turbine
configuration consists of;
• 2.75 rotor diameter.
• 3 blades, low solidity.
• Generated about 1 kW at 1.25 m/s water velocity.
• Used pumps for mechanical power transmission.
• Suspended from jetty.
The overall efficiency of the system is calculated to be about 27%.
This fairly high overall efficiency indicates that mechanical power
transmission using pressurized water instead of metal shaft and gears
is viable and can be considered for remote community turbines. Like
other axial flow turbines discussed earlier, the performance of the
turbine was also found to be adversely affected by debris. Seaweed
was found attached to the blades and the hub of the turbine shortly Fig. 6. Banana-shaped blades for clog-free operation (Flygtus, undated).
114 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 110–116

2 m/s. This range of water current velocities can be easily found in made flexible if mounted on springs. In the event that the turbine is
inland rivers. In Bangladesh for example, river current velocities hit by a floating tree, the inclined shaft will help to reduce impact
typically range from about 0.4 to 2.5 m/s (Al Mamun et al., 2001). At a before reaching the rotor. The affected blades will then absorb the
turbine site on the White Nile in Juba, the flow velocity was found to impact by folding backward, allowing the tree to pass by while the
be around 0.85 m/s to 1.15 m/s (CADDET, 1998). Therefore turbine turbine is still in the water. There might be some difficulties in man-
design around 1 m/s should be practical and applicable in Sarawak, ufacturing curved and flexible blades but the ease of operation and
Malaysia and elsewhere. Furthermore rivers in Sarawak (where less interrupted power supply is very desirable in remote community
remote communities live) flow all year round. However to ensure application. So this blade profile option is worth investigating.
successful operation, issues such as debris, gear ratio, type of turbines,
installation, etc. must be dealt with carefully.
Drive train ratio
Debris problem
Observations made in the NTU case study suggest that the drive
Perhaps the biggest problem and a possible limiting factor that train ratio may affect the overall efficiency of the system significantly.
impedes the progress of turbine application in rivers is debris. All case A reduction of drive ratio from 1:182 to 1:14 was accompanied by an
studies cited in this paper indicate this. Therefore application in increase in overall efficiency from 5.5% to 25%, obtained by using a
tropical countries may experience more serious debris problem high speed turbine and a low rpm generator. Part of this improvement
because tropical rivers normally flow through thick jungle collecting was probably due to the more efficient permanent magnet generator
lots of leaves, grass, vines and other jungle trash. Sometimes huge used in the second test. Nevertheless a highly engineered turbine
amounts of such debris including uprooted trees may float down the and generators could be too expensive and difficult to source in de-
river at high speed during flash floods, potentially causing hazard to veloping countries. So a fairly high speed turbine along with an easily
turbines installed in the river. In order to ensure efficient and safe available geared induction motor as generator, or a multi-pole low
operation, well designed turbines with smart debris management speed generator such as those made from Fisher and Paykel 3 phase
strategies must be planned properly. multi-pole washing machine motors (Thwaites, undated) may be
considered.
Methods of dealing with debris Instead of using rigid shafts for power transmission, pressurized
water using a suitable pump and turbine can be considered (Lowe,
Furling. The AquaCharger system employed a furling mechanism to 2007). This should allow flexibility in power transmission and
protect the rotor from hitting the bed of the river and to lift it out of generator mounting but at the cost of high pressure tube, pump and
the water when the current velocity exceeded 1.5 m/s. The mecha- turbine, with extra losses and maintenance requirements.
nism was also said to enable the turbine to “walk” over big debris such
as logs but did not prevent small debris such as leaves, grass, vines,
Turbine mounting
and others from sticking to the blades. A similar rotor used in the Nile
River at Juba was reported to have persistent operating problems due
As in the case studies above, turbines may be mounted on
to river hyacinth entangled on turbine blades (CADDET, 1998). While
pontoons, boats, jetties or bridges, or can be suspended using a long
being able to protect the rotor from damage due to grounding and
arm from the river bank.
logs, frequent stopping and removal of debris are still required in
systems utilizing furling. This translates to power cut-off in systems
supplying AC power on demand. A possible solution for this is to use
Pontoon
back-up batteries to supply power during power cut-off and to supply
The use of a pontoon is appropriate in inland rivers because the
power for the control system to restart the turbine systematically. But
water level fluctuates significantly. It also allows the unit to be moved
this will add to the complexity and cost of the system, making it less
to a suitable location where water velocity is faster and there is not
attractive in remote community application.
too much floating debris. This also makes it relatively easy to move the
turbine back to the river bank for maintenance or parking to avoid
Screen/grid. Generally, placing any structures in front of a turbine
strong currents during flash floods. Furthermore pontoons can be
operating in slow water current causes a reduction in power due to
cheaply made using used oil barrels and buoyant logs easily found in
blockage of flow. However, if power reduction is tolerable, then a well
remote jungle areas.
designed screen/grid can be considered. In this manner, most debris
could be deflected away from the turbine. Even if some debris gets
attached to the screen, accumulated debris can be removed manually Pivot arm
or automatically without stopping the turbine. This should reduce the In smaller rivers, suspending a turbine from the side of a river by
frequency of power cut-off significantly but may increase mainte- means of a lever pivot arm as demonstrated by the Brazilian group
nance works. Furthermore the screen and its supporting structures also seems to be a practical option. This greatly eases operation and
increase material cost and may need larger and more expensive maintenance without the need to send a man into the water.
pontoon.

Swept blades. The use of swept-back blades should help to shed debris Bridge or jetty
but has not been used (to the authors' knowledge) in hydrokinetic Suspending a turbine from a bridge or jetty using a long pole as in
turbines. However a swept-back blade profile has been used Lowe (2007) is an interesting method of turbine installation. If
effectively in clog-free sewage mixing application. Studies on conditions permit, this parasitic installation could be easier and less
swept-back blades for wind turbines indicate an increase in expensive than other options in rural areas since there are many
performance in low wind speeds and the same peak performance bridges across rivers along rural roads, especially in a tropical country
(Larwood and Zuteck, 2006; Ashwill and Kanaby, 2007). Therefore a like Malaysia. For safety of the turbine, both installations (using an
swept-back profile should be applicable in hydrokinetic turbines. arm and suspended from a bridge) can be fitted with suitable furling
Swept blades made of strong but flexible plastic mounted on an mechanisms so that they can be moved up or down according to the
inclined shaft may be worth considering. Metal blades can also be water level and also to protect them from floating trees.
 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 110–116 115

Turbine rotor Conclusion

Generally a low solidity axial flow turbine turns at a higher tip Small hydrokinetic turbines can be used to generate a practical
speed ratio than a high solidity turbine, i.e. higher RPM for the same amount of electrical power from slow moving water, but early
diameter and current speed (Carbon Trust, 2008). This is an advantage deployments showed that debris was a major operation problem. This
because a smaller step-up drive ratio is required to run a conventional potentially limits their application in tropical countries where large
generator. However for a turbine permanently connected via a con- amounts of debris constantly drift in rivers. Because screens placed
siderably high drive ratio to a generator, solidity should be kept upstream of the turbine reduce the available energy and may
around 30% to produce enough starting torque, as demonstrated by themselves become blocked, attention has been paid to making the
the Brazilian and Australian experiences. turbine able to shed debris. Axial flow turbines are less likely to
become clogged than cross flow turbines, and swept-back blades or
blades which can hinge back to shed debris are recommended.
Suction tube or ducting Turbines can then be mounted on low cost pontoons built using used
oil drums, buoyant logs or at the rear of a long boat. In smaller rivers,
Suction tube or ducting may be considered when using small turbines can be suspended from the bank using a pivot arm. Turbines
axial flow turbines in shallow rivers. In applications where the rotor can also be suspended from jetties or bridges using a long pole.
diameter is limited by the depth of a river, a cone-shaped suction However the use of axial flow turbines requires a fairly deep river
tube with a wide rectangular intake may be constructed. This should especially when the flow velocity is low. Maybe it is worth
allow significant increase in power because energy from a larger investigating the potential for a cross flow turbine which can be
area can be tapped. As mentioned in the section AFHT experiences made shorter but wider in order to suit river profiles.
in South America, work has been done on such a system in
Argentina, and a number of companies in North America have
developed or are developing ducted systems. A three-fold increase Up-coming works
in power was reported achievable (Kirke, 2005). However, the
resulting increase in cost and complexity has to be justified. A duct The outcome of this study will lead to the design of a flexible blade
may increase the likelihood of clogging of the turbine unless a hydrokinetic turbine prototype, capable of producing about 200 W of
screen is placed in front of the duct, and the screen will decrease the AC power in 1 m/s water current. The ability to shed debris
energy available to the turbine, especially if it becomes partially automatically, absorb the impact of large floating debris such as logs
blocked by debris. and cone backward during flash float in order to reduce stress on the
blades is highly expected from the design without adversely effecting
the turbine efficiency and its continuous operation.
Recommendation

The result of this study suggests that the following steps are References
desirable in order to operate a small axial flow turbine for generating Al Mamun NH, Islam MQ, Sadrul AKM, Infield DG. Zero head water turbine for small
AC power on demand successfully, especially in tropical countries. scale electricity generation in Bangladesh. 4th International Conference on
Mechanical Engineering, Dhaka, Bangladesh; 2001. p. I107–12.
Ashwill T, Kanaby G. Sweep-twist adaptive blade. Presented at EWEC_07, Milan, Italy; 2007.
Bahaj AS, Molland F, Chaplin JR, Batten WMJ. Power and thrust measurements of
Use high speed axial flow turbine marine current turbines under various hydrodynamic flow conditions in a cav-
itation tunnel and a towing tank. Renewable Energy. Elsevier; 2006.
CADDET. Water current turbines pump drinking water. Caddet Renewable Energy,
System efficiency is vital in turbines harvesting limited energy
Technical Brochure No. 83.; 1998. http://www.caddet-re.org.
from the natural flow of rivers. An axial flow turbine should be used Carbon trust. Tidal streams and tidal stream energy device design; 2008. http://www.
because of its higher efficiency and higher speed compared to other carbontrust.co.uk/technology/technologyaccelerator/ME_guide3.htm.
types of turbine. The solidity of the turbine should be around 30% for CMADFA, undated. What is the advantage of electricity? http://www.cmadfa.com/
projects/projects/electricity.html. Accessed 18 May 2009.
good starting torque and relatively high speed. Flygtus, undated. Slow speed Mixers. http://www.flygtus.com/724490.pdf. Accessed
on 22 May 2009.
Hau E. Wind turbines fundamentals, technologies, application, economics. Berlin:
Use swept-back turbine blades Springer; 2000.
Khan MJ, Iqbal MT, Quaicoe JE. A technology review and simulation based performance
analysis of river current turbine systems. Ottawa: IEEE CCECE/CCGEI; 2006.
A swept-back blade profile is necessary to shed debris for better Khan MJ. State of river energy technology; 2006. http://www.hydrovolts.com/Main-
efficiencies and less interrupted operations. This is desirable for Pages/Hydrokinetic%20Turbines.htm. Accessed 24 August 2009.
Khan MJ, Bhuyan G, Iqbal MT, Quaicoe JE. Hydrokinetic energy conversion systems and
systems designed to supply AC power on demand. Instead of furling, a assessment of horizontal and vertical axis turbines for river and tidal applications: a
log deflecting mechanism can be used to push or divert big debris out technology status review. Applied Energy: Elsevier; 2009.
of the swept area of the turbine. The structure of the mechanism can Khan MJ, Iqbal MT, Quaicoe JE. River current energy conversion systems: progress,
prospects and challenges. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Review. Elsevier; 2007.
be designed in such a way that it does not clog and does not reduce the Kirke BK. Developments in ducted water current turbines; 2005. http://www.cyberiad.
flow velocity in front of the turbine significantly. net/library/pdf/bk_tidal_paper25apr06.pdf. Accessed 2 October 2009.
Larwood S, Zuteck M. Swept wind turbine blade aeroelastic modelling for loads and
dynamic behaviour. Wind power; 2006.
Lowe, W.T., 2007. Tidal Turbine. Master of Science Thesis, University of Southampton.
Use a pontoon http://www.newtonandnoss-pc.gov.uk/Tidal%20Turbine%2019Oct07_files/
frame.htm. Accessed on 12 May 2009.
Turbines can be mounted on low cost pontoons made using used Marsh G. Tidal turbine harness the power of the sea. Journal of Reinforced
PlasticElsevier; 2004. 2004.
plastic or metal drums, buoyant logs (CMADFA, undated) or at the
Ponta F, Dutt GS. An improved vertical-axis water current turbine incorporating a
back of a long boat. This allows flexibility in mooring and ease of channelling device. Renew Energy 2000;20:223–41.
maintenance. As mentioned in the section AFHT experiences in South Ponta FL, Jakovkis PM. Marine power generation by diffuser-augmented floating hydro-
America, a pontoon may double as a channelling device, thus turbines. Renew Energy 2008;33:665–73.
Shannon R. Waterwheel Engineering, Sixth International Permaculture Conference &
increasing the power output, especially in low flows according to Convergence, Perth, Australia; 1996. http://permaculturewest.org.au/ipc6/ch08/
Ponta and Dutt (2000). shannon/index.html, Accessed 12 May 2009.
116 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 14 (2010) 110–116

Swenson WJ. The evaluation of an axial flow, lift type turbine for harnessing the kinetic Tiago GL. The state of art of hydrokinetic power in Brazil. Waterpower XIII, Buffalo
energy in tidal flow. Darwin, Australia: Australian Universities Power Engineering New York; 2003.
Conference AUPEC; 1999. Tuckey AM, Patterson DJ, Swenson WJ. A kinetic energy tidal generator in the Northern
Swenson WJ. The specification, design and development of a kinetic energy tidal power Territory—results. IEEE 23rd International Conference on Industrial Electronics,
generator. Engineering Tomorrow Today, the Darwin Summit, National Engineer- Control and Instrumentation; 1997.
ing Conference, Australia; 1996. Verdant Power. Technology evaluation of existing and emerging technologies water
Thropton Energy Services. http://www.throptonenergy.co.uk/. Accessed 24 August 2009. current turbines for river application. Report prepared for Natural Resources
Thwaites, J. Fisher and Paykel washing machine motors for electricity generation. www. Canada; 2006. http://www.hydrovolts.com/Refs/Verdant%20River%20Turbines%
sustainability.ofm.uwa.edu.au. Accessed 10 Oct 2009. 20report.pdf. Accessed 22 July 2009.