A1 States of matter Coe Chemistry is the study of the structure and behaviour of By the endof this topleyouwil matter. Everything around us is made of matter. Matter be able to: has both mass and volume. Air, water, sand, human ¢ sheadeintionotmete | beings and animals are all matter. Matter exists in ‘© give the four main ideas of the 5 : . artctlata tneoe ct inate various states. The three main states of matter are solid, ‘© explain hy scientists findthe liquid and gas. particulate theory of matter Useful * identity the three main states of 1.1 The particulate nature of matter matter ‘© explain the relationship Matter between temperature and the motion of particles. ‘As far back as 460 BC a Greek philosopher called Democritus developed the idea that matter consisted of particles, He asked this question: ‘If you cut a plece of matter, for example, a piece of gold, in half and then cut it in half again, how many cuts will you have to make before you can cut it no vw isin tip. further?’ Democritus thought that it ended at some point, the smallest bits of matter, and that these smallest bits of matter, or particles, would be the It is important that you know the. basic building blocks of matter. Today scientists have added to Democritus’ definitions of key terms used ir idea and now describe matter and its properties using the particulate theory Chemistry. These definitions are of matter. provided for you in the ‘Key fact’ boxes th the book 5 Saeco The particulate theory of matter The particulate theory of matter states that all matter is made of particles. Key fact This theory is very useful because it helps us to explain both the physical properties ofmatterandalso the dfferencesbetween thethreestates of matter. Matior 6 SARE WSINES Ham) We will be looking at the three states of matter in deta in Unit A1.3. and occupies space. The particulate theory of matter has four main ide: © all matter is made of particles the particles are in constant, random motion ‘there are spaces between the particles ‘The particulate theory of matter: there are forces of attraction between the particles. states that all matter is made up of ae + So & 8 matter ie made partclos aro in thore ar spaces of parielos constant motion botwean particies ® Key fact A. Figure 1.1.1 The pariculate theory of matter ‘The particulate theory of matter can be used to explain many physical phenomena that we observe in our everyday lives. Examples of some of these are given on the next page. It explains:ate nature of matter Bence ar © The difference in density of solids, liquids and gases, e.g. why pebbles sink and bubbles rise in water. ‘© How cooling a liquid can cause it to change into a solid, e.g. when water is placed ina freezer it forms ice. ‘© Why asmell can move throughout a room, e.g, when chicken is frying, it can be smelt at the other side of the kitchen. ‘¢ Why the pressure of a gas increases with an increase in temperature, eg. car tyres get harder as you drive. © Why certain vegetables become crisper when soaked in water, e.g. raw potatoes, ‘© Surface tension in liquids, e.g. certain insects can ‘walk’ on water. A. Figure 1.1.2 Pebbles sink in water States of matter Matter can exist in various forms or states. The three states of matter that are the most common are the solid, liquid and gaseous states. The difference between these states lies in the energy and arrangement of the particles. Particles in the solid state have the least amount of energy, they simply vibrate in their fixed position and they are packed closely together. Particles, in the liquid state have medium amounts of energy, they move about slowly and they have small spaces between them. Particles in the gaseous state have the greatest amount of energy, they move about rapidly and they have large spaces between them. You will study this in greater detail in Unit 1.3. The energy of the particles is directly related to the temperature of the particles and matter can change from one physical state to another by changing its temperature, This change of state occurs because increasing the temperature of a substance increases the kinetic energy of the particles, eC fasts they move oe Changing state by changing temperature is a physical change. A physical change occurs when the form of the substance is changed without changing its chemical composition, for example, water as a solid, ie. ice, has exactly the same chemical particles as water in the liquid state and as water in the 4 Figure 1.1.3 The drinks ilustrate the gaseous state, Le, water vapour. three states of matter Summary questions 1. State the three main ideas of the particulate theory of matter. 2 Ha crystal of potassium manganate(w) is dropped into a beaker of water, the purple colour spreads throughout the water. What features of the particulate theory of matter does this observation provide evidence for? 3. Explain why scientists find the particulate theory of matter useful. 4 What are the three states of matter? 5 What is the relationship between temperature and the movement of particles?Evidence for the particulate theory of matter See org A1.2 Evidence for the particulate theory of matter By the end of this topic you will ; basbla te: In the previous unit we mentioned that scientists find the particulate theory of matter very useful because itallowsthem to explain the physical properties ‘© explain evidence which ‘of matter. At the same time though, scientists have to provide evidence to Sere ‘the particulate theory support their ideas. There are simple practical activities involving diffusion and osmosis which we can perform to provide evidence for the existence © explain the processes of and movement of particles, diffusion and osmosis ‘© describe experiments which demonstrate diflusion and, Diffusion osmosis We have all had experience of being aware of a smell, whether it is walking © explain the uses of salt and into a bakery, a cosmetic shop or climbing into a car that contains an air sugar to control garden pests _ freshener. All of these smells are produced at a point in the shop or car, but and preserve focd items. the smell seems to travel through the air. This process of the smell travelling through the air is as a result of diffusion. Diffusion occurs because particles of (P) wey tact Cases ncenee (G9 EZE TE TY particles from an area of higher atter are in constant motion and will move from a region of higher centration to one of lower concentration. Concentration to an area of lower Investigating the particulate theory of matter ear Your teacher may use this activity to assess: distributed. ‘© observation, recording and reporting ‘© analysis and interpretati You willbe supplied with a straw, a beaker containing distiled water and a potassium manganate() crystal. Method 41 Place the straw vertically in the beaker of water unt it touches the bottom of the beaker. 2. Drop the crystal of potassium manganate(w) into the straw without moving the straw. Very carefuly remove te straw trying to disturb the water as ite as eri 4 Observe how the purple colour immediately begins to spread throughout. (YJexam tip ae itis veyyimportant when answering -~-«S Leave the beaker and observe after a few days. Note that the purple BEC EHEMMESSETEEGR TN colours spreed troughoui all he water in Sve beak: What Parietal elfen seaman eae tea een and conclusions. If you are asked @ the spaces between the water particles to give your observations, then you ‘must describe what you would ‘800 while the experiment is being the movement of the potassium manganate(w particles? performed. Ifyou are askedto state The potassium manganate(vut) crystal and the water used in the experiment ‘what you would conclude from the illustrated in Figures 1.2.1 and 1.2.2 are both composed of minute particles. experiment, then you must give ‘The partictes in the crystal are packed closely together and those in the water ‘what you can deduce from the: have very small spaces between them. When the crystal is in the water, the observations. A deduction is made by using data from the experiment to arrive at'a conclusion. minute crystal particles slowly separate from each other and diffuse into the spaces between the water particles. This continues until all the particles have separated from the crystal and have diffused between the water particles.Bence Evidence for the particulate theory of matter straw beaker ‘of water 1 the water becomes a potassium purple colour throughout ‘manganate(v) enystal A. Figure 1.2.1 Potassium manganate(u) A. Figure 1.2.2 After a while the purple crystal being placed in water colour spreads throughout the water The crystal gradually dissolves and an aqueous solution is formed, ive. a solution where water is the solvent. Figure 1.2.3 illustrates the process of diffusion occurring in the experiment. tr pantlos moving random with sm ‘Spaces between | crystal particles separate fram auch other and itie into te spaces betwoen the water | a te a ce re onlin stein 4 Foe 128 Espino sin iS Seas Investigating diffusion in gases Your teacher may use this activity to assess: ‘© observation, recording and reporting ‘© analysis and interpretation Your teacher will perform the following experiment: Method 4 Place a glass tube at least 1 m in length between two retort stands. 2 Soak separate pieces of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution and concentrated hydrochloric acid and place them simultaneously at each end of the glass tube. 3 Seal the ends of the glass tube with rubber stoppers. 4 Allow time for the ammonia and hydrogen chloride vapours to diffuse. Observe any changes. 5 Use your observations to explain what happened during the experiment. During the experiment illustrated in Figures 1.2.4 and 1.2.5, the ammonia solution gives off a gas called ammonia gas and the hydrochloric acid gives off a gas called hydrogen chloride gas. The ammonia and hydrogen chloride particles diffuse through the air in the glass tube towards éach other. When the particles meet, they collide and react to form a white solid known, as ammonium chloride. The ammonium chloride forms a ring inside the glass tube,CE See org cotlon ool soakedin.- We can represent the reaction between the ammonia and hydrogen chloride hydrchiore acid as a chemical equation where (g) and (s) indicate the state of the chemicals cotton woo! soaked involved, (g) indicating a gas and (s) a solid: ammonia + hydrogen chloride ammonium chloride NEA(g) + HCI) —_— NH,Cl(s) ‘The ammonium chloride forms closer to the cotton wool soaked in lass tube hydrochloric acid because the ammonia particles are lighter than the ‘A. Figure 1.24 Ammonia and hydrogen hydrogen chloride particles. Therefore, the ammonia particles move much Chloride gas diffuse towards each other fister through the air than the hydrogen chloride particles. cottenwoolseakadin This experiment provides the following evidence for the particulate theory hydrchiore acd” of matter: crtton wool soaked © Particles are able to move - the ammonia and hydrogen chloride erent particles must have moved towards each other to form the white ring. © There are spaces between particles - there must have been spaces between the air, ammonia and hydrogen chloride particles to allow ‘them to move between each other. ite ing forms A Figure 1.2.5 Afiora while awhite ring i forms inside the glass tube Cemesis: Osmosis is a special case of diffusion, which involves the movement of water molecules through a differentially permeable membrane from a ites tact: region with a lot of water molecules to a region with fewer water molecules. ‘Osmosis is the movement of water Substances to pass through but not others. You may also find the membrane molecules from a region with alot _being called a semi-permeable or selectively permeable membrane. The cell of water molecules, €.g. a lite ‘membrane that surrounds biological cells is differentially permeable. solution or pure water, to a region : : ' sith enor water molecules. ¢a,2 differentially permeable membrane contains minute pores. Water molecules Concentrated soliton, though'a 2 able to pass through these pores. However, the patticles of many Giferentaly permeable membrane, other substances, which may be dissolved in the water, are unable to pass through. When two solutions, e.g. sucrose solutions, which have different concentrations, are separated by a differentially permeable membrane, the water molecules will diffuse through the pores in the membrane from the more dilute solution to the more concentrated solution. The sucrose molecules, however, do not move because they are unable to pass through. the pores in the membrane. The volume of the more dilute solution decreases and the volume of the more concentrated solution increases. Figure 1.2.6 Theoretical explanation ret movement of of osmosis water moleculesSart Evidence for the particulate theory of matter SSL Investigating osmosis in green paw-paw Your teacher may use this activity to assess: ‘manipulation and measurement © analysis and interpretation. You will be supplied with a piece of green paw-paw (the experiment may be done with potato or yam), one beaker filled with distilled water and one beaker filed with concentrated sodium chloride solution. Method 41 Cut the piece of green paw-paw into six strips of equal length. 2 Measure and record the length of each strip. 3 Place three of the strips into the beaker containing distilled water and place the other three strips into the beaker containing the concentrated sodium chloride solution. Allow the strips to remain in the solutions for one hour. Remove the strips from the beakers. Feel the strips and take note of the texture of each strip. Measure and record the length of each strip. Explain why the paw-paw strips placed in distilled water become more rigid and have increased in length (consider the direction in which the water molecules move, from the paw-paw into the distilled water or from the distilled water into the paw-paw). 8 Explain why the paw-paw strips placed in concentrated sodium chloride solution become floppy and softer and decrease in length (consider the direction in which the water molecules move, from the paw-paw into the sodium chloride solution or from the sodium chloride solution into the paw-paw). soas dlstos wae: concentrated beaker Fock conde 1 paw an setuion 4 Figure 1.27 Pav-paw strips in tips cistiled water and concentrated sodium chiorde solution corceittod soxkum ised water hone skion ow-pan sips au-pow eps freon e0 scree nize ‘A. Figure 1.28 Altera while the strips in water increase in length and those in ium chi re the concentrated sodium chloride solution decrease in length Did you know? During the experiment illustrated in Figures 1.2.7 and 1.2.8, the cell membranes of the paw-paw cells acts differentially permeable membranes. Jour cag as t coesin the pan Water can pass through the cell membranes, either into or out of thecells: P24 ryou sweat alot you low ‘Distilled water hasa higher water content (or lower sodium chloride water. Tris lowers the amount of concentration) than the paw-paw cells, therefore water moves intothe cells water in your blood and osmosss by osmosis, resulting in the paw-paw strip becoming longer and more rigid. _ takes place and starts to pull water out of your cals. For this reason it is very important to ckirk lots of water on a hot day or when you exercise (Osmosis works in the same way in © The paw-paw cells have a higher water content than the concentrated sodium chloride solution, therefore water moves out of the cells by ‘osmosis, resulting in the paw-paw strip becoming shorter and softer.for the particulate theory of matt See org Practical uses of osmosis We use the principles of osmosis in various ways. These include controlling garden pests and preserving food Controlling garden pests Slugs and snails, being herbivores, are serious garden pests which ravage many of our precious plants. The skin of these pests is a lot more permeable than the skin of most other animals. This means that they need to keep themselves moist to prevent water evaporating from their bodies causing them to dehydrate and die, We make use of these facts to control slugs and snails in our gardens by using sodium chloride (table salt), ‘A Figure 1.2.9 Snails are serious garden pests Sodium chloride is deliquescent, which means that it absorbs water readily and dissolves. When sodium chloride is sprinkled on slugs and snails, it absorbs some of the moisture surrounding their bodies and dissolves forming a concentrated solution, This causes water inside their bodies to move out and into the solution by osmosis. Ifthe slugs and snails lose more water than their bodies can tolerate, they die from dehydration. Preserving food items Both sodium chloride and sugar are used to preserve food items, e.g. meat, fish, fruits and vegetables. We are all familiar with salt fish, salt pork, crystallised fruits, guava jelly and glace cherries. Both salt and sugar work in the same way to preserve foods: ‘© They withdraw water from the cells of the food items by osmosis. This makes the water unavailable for the chemical reactions in cells which cause decay. Without these reactions occurring, the food items do not decay. © They also withdraw water from the microorganisms that bring about decay, e.g. bacteria and fungi. This prevents these organisms from growing and causing the food items to decay. A. Figure 1.2.10 (a) Salt fish and (b) crystallised fruits are examples of preserved food ites