BITH102 Foundations of Computer Hardware

Bachelor of Information
Technology and Software

Engineering
Foundations of Computer
Hardware
Module BITH102
Author: Tafadzwa Zimucha
Master of Science in Computer Science (University
of Zimbabwe)
Bachelor of Science, Computer Science &
Mathematics (University of Zimbabwe)
Content Reviewer: Peace Muyambo

Master of Science in Computer Science (University
of Zimbabwe)
Bachelor of Science, Computer Science &
Mathematics (University of Zimbabwe)
Editor: Tanunurwa W Mangava

Master of Scienece in Counselling (ZOU)
Bachelor of Scienec in Counselling (ZOU)
NID in Secretarial Studies (Harare Polytechnic)
Part C (CIS)
Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University
P.O. Box MP1119
Mount Pleasant
Harare, ZIMBABWE
The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

learning institution.
Year: July 2016
Cover design: T. Ndhlovu
Layout and design: S. Mushore / C. S. Nhari
Printed by: ZOU Press
Typeset in Garamond, 12 point on auto leading
© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
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prior permission of the Zimbabwe Open University.
To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge academics, technologists and
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change with changing technology, places training, skills, experiences and personal
on us a need to learn continually interests. The combination of all these
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appropriate skills and knowledge materials producers come from different
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openness enables ZOU to produce
Since attainment of independence in materials that have a long shelf life and
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developing the ZOU learning materials,
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we are guided by the desire to provide
determined to maintain our leading
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Any course or programme launched by ZOU is you may never meet in life. It is our intention
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We consult you and listen to your critical analysis our learners, wherever they may be. For all these
of the concepts and how they are presented. We developments and for the latest information on
also consult other academics from universities what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
the world over and other international bodies website at www.zou.ac.zw
whose reputation in distance education and open
learning is of a very high calibre. We carry out Having worked as best we can to prepare your
pilot studies of the course outlines, the content learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
and the programme component. We are only prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is my
too glad to subject our learning materials to hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you,
academic and professional criticism with the will experience unimpeded success in your
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determined to continue improving by changing continually strive to improve the learning
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performance should be second to none.
Best wishes and success in your studies.
As a progressive university that is forward
looking and determined to be a successful part
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introduce e-learning materials that will enable
you, our students, to access any source of
information, anywhere in the world through
internet and to communicate, converse, discuss _____________________
and collaborate synchronously and Prof. Primrose Kurasha
asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom Vice Chancellor
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) by open
and distance learning, we need to advise you so
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For
it to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor
that you can make the best use of the learning
to lecture you
materials, your time and the tutors who are based
· Any ideas that you discuss in the
at your regional office.
tutorial, originate from your experience
as you work on the materials. All the
The most important point that you need to note is
issues raised above are a good source
that in distance education and open learning, there
of topics (as they pertain to your
are no lectures like those found in conventional
learning) for discussion during the
universities. Instead, you have learning packages
tutorial
that may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs,
· The answers come from you while the
DVDs and other referral materials for extra reading.
tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
All these including radio, television, telephone, fax
discussion, clarify, explain, give
and email can be used to deliver learning to you.
additional information, guide the
As such, at ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to
discussion and help you put together
lecture you when you meet him/her. We believe
full answers for each question that you
that that task is accomplished by the learning
bring
package that you receive at registration. What
· You must prepare for the tutorial by
then is the purpose of the six hour tutorial for each
bringing all the questions and answers
course on offer?
that you have found out on the topics
to the discussion
At ZOU, as at any other distance and open learning
· For the tutor to help you effectively, give
university, you the student are at the centre of
him/her the topics beforehand so that
learning. After you receive the learning package,
in cases where information has to be
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding
gathered, there is sufficient time to do
documents before using the learning materials.
so. If the questions can get to the tutor
During the study, it is obvious that you will come
at least two weeks before the tutorial,
across concepts/ideas that may not be that easy
that will create enough time for
to understand or that are not so clearly explained.
thorough preparation.
You may also come across issues that you do not
agree with, that actually conflict with the practice
In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
that you are familiar with. In your discussion
take part all the time through contributing in
groups, your friends can bring ideas that are totally
every way possible. You can give your views,
different from yours and arguments may begin. You
even if they are wrong, (many students may hold
may also find that an idea is not clearly explained
the same wrong views and the discussion will
and you remain with more questions than answers.
help correct the errors), they still help you learn
You need someone to help you in such matters.
the correct thing as much as the correct ideas.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At Zimbabwe Open University
You also need to be open-minded, frank, inquisitive learning package together with the sources to
and should leave no stone unturned as you analyze which you are referred. Fully-fledged lectures
ideas and seek clarification on any issues. It has can, therefore, be misleading as the tutor may
been found that those who take part in tutorials dwell on matters irrelevant to ZOU course.
actively, do better in assignments and examinations
because their ideas are streamlined. Taking part Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
properly means that you prepare for the tutorial and student separate. By introducing the six hour
beforehand by putting together relevant questions tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch
and their possible answers and those areas that with the physical being, who marks your
cause you confusion. assignments, assesses them, guides you on
preparing for writing examinations and
Only in cases where the information being assignments and who runs your general academic
discussed is not found in the learning package can affairs. This helps you to settle down in your
the tutor provide extra learning materials, but this course having been advised on how to go about
should not be the dominant feature of the six hour your learning. Personal human contact is,
tutorial. As stated, it should be rare because the therefore, upheld by ZOU.
information needed for the course is found in the
The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.
Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The
main aim of this session is to guide you, the student, on how
you are going to approach the course. During the session, you
will be given the overview of the course, how to tackle the
assignments, how to organize the logistics of the course and
formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is also during
this session that you will be advised on how to use your learning
materials effectively.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At Zimbabwe Open University
Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond
to the challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and
ideas that you are facing as you go through the course. In this
session, difficult areas in the module are explained through the
combined effort of the students and the tutor. It should also give
direction and feedback where you have not done well in the
first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.
Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the
semester. In this session, you polish up any areas that you still
need clarification on. Your tutor gives you feedback on the
assignments so that you can use the experience for preparation
for the end of semester examination.
Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.
Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
can maximally benefit from it. We also urge
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six you to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
hours is too little for lectures and it is not
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self- BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
contained learning materials in the package, to
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore, ZOU
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials
Contents
Module Overview ______________________________________________ 1
Unit One: Logic Design and Switching Circuits

1.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 5
1.1 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 6
1.2 ________ Analogue and Digital Signals. _______________________________________ 6
__________ Activity 1.1 _______________________________________________________ 8
1.3 ________ Number Systems __________________________________________________ 8
__________ Activity 1.2 _______________________________________________________ 15
1.4 ________ Boolean algebra __________________________________________________ 15
1.5 ________ Algebraic Logic Circuits. ___________________________________________ 18
1.6 ________ Circuit Inverters __________________________________________________ 19
1.7 ________ Circuit Diagrams _________________________________________________ 20
1.8 ________ Evaluating Logic Circuits Outputs ___________________________________ 20
1.9 ________ Circuit Diagrams involving NAND and NOR Operations. _______________ 22
__________ Activity 1.3 ______________________________________________________ 23
1.10 _______ Combinational and Sequential Circuits _______________________________ 23
1.11 _______ Simplification of Logic Circuits ____________________________________ 24
1.12 _______ Designing Combinational Logic Circuits. _____________________________ 25
1.13 _______ Karnaugh Maps (K Maps) __________________________________________ 26
1.14 _______ Looping ________________________________________________________ 28
1.15 _______ Don’t care conditions _____________________________________________ 33
__________ Activity 1.4 ______________________________________________________ 34
__________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 35
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 36
Unit Two: Motherboards

2.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 37
2.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 38
2.2 ________ Motherboard ____________________________________________________ 38
2.3 ________ Components of a Motherboard _____________________________________ 38
2.4 ________ Connectors and Ports _____________________________________________ 39
__________ Activity 2.1 _______________________________________________________ 41
2.5 ________ Types of Motherboards ____________________________________________ 41
__________ Activity 2.2 ______________________________________________________ 44
__________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 44
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 45
Unit Three: The Internal Structure and Functions of the CPU
3.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 47
3.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 48
3.2 ________ Components of the processors ______________________________________ 48
__________ Activity 3.1 ______________________________________________________ 50
3.3 ________ CPU and System Buses ____________________________________________ 50
3.4 ________ Speed of Processor ________________________________________________ 51
3.5 ________ Types of Processors ______________________________________________ 52
__________ Activity 3.2 ______________________________________________________ 53
3.6 ________ Processor Connections on the Motherboard ___________________________ 53
3.7 ________ Installing a Processor _____________________________________________ 58
__________ Activity 3.3 ______________________________________________________ 59
__________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 59
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 60
Unit Four: Memory

4.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 61
4.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 62
4.2 ________ Hierarchy of Computer Memory ____________________________________ 62
4.3 ________ Types of Memory ________________________________________________ 63
4.4 ________ Primary Memory (Main Memory) ___________________________________ 64
__________ Activity 4.1 ______________________________________________________ 67
4.5 ________ Memory Modules ________________________________________________ 68
4.6 ________ Steps for installing the RAM _________________________________________ 71
4.7 ________ Symptoms of a faulty RAM ________________________________________ 72
4.8 ________ RAM error detection and correction _________________________________ 72
__________ Activity 4.2 ______________________________________________________ 74
4.9 ________ Read Only Memory (ROM) ________________________________________ 74
4.10 _______ Types of ROM __________________________________________________ 75
4.11 _______ BIOS __________________________________________________________ 77
4.12 _______ Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) __________________ 77
4.13 _______ Secondary Memory _______________________________________________ 78
__________ Activity 4.3 ______________________________________________________ 79
__________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 79
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 80
Unit Five: Ports

5.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 81
5.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 82
5.2 ________ Types of Ports. __________________________________________________ 82
__________ Activity 5.1 ______________________________________________________ 83
__________ Activity 5.2 ______________________________________________________ 85
__________ Activity 5.3 ______________________________________________________ 87
__________ Activity 5.4 _______________________________________________________ 91
__________ Activity 5.5 ______________________________________________________ 96
__________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 96
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 97
Unit Six: Expansion Slots and Cards
6.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 99
6.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 100
6.2 ________ Types of Expansion Slots __________________________________________ 100
__________ Activity 6.1 ______________________________________________________ 104
6.3 ________ Installing Expansion cards _________________________________________ 108
__________ Activity 6.2 ______________________________________________________ 109
__________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 109
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 111
Unit Seven: Input Devices

7.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 113
7.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 114
7.2 ________ Keyboard _______________________________________________________ 114
__________ 7.2.1 Types of keyboards ___________________________________________ 115
__________ 7.2.2 Keyboard layouts _____________________________________________ 119
__________ Activity 7.1 ______________________________________________________ 122
7.3 ________ Mouse _________________________________________________________ 122
__________ 7.3.1 Types of mouse ______________________________________________ 123
__________ Activity 7.2 ______________________________________________________ 124
7.4 ________ Trackball _______________________________________________________ 124
__________ Activity 7.3 ______________________________________________________ 125
7.5 ________ Light pen _______________________________________________________ 125
7.6 ________ Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR) ______________________________ 126
__________ Activity 7.4 ______________________________________________________ 127
7.7 ________ Optical Character Reader (OCR) ____________________________________ 127
__________ Activity 7.5 ______________________________________________________ 128
7.8 ________ Optical Mark Reader (OMR) _______________________________________ 128
__________ Activity 7.6 ______________________________________________________ 129
7.9 ________ Bar code reader __________________________________________________ 129
__________ Activity 7.7 ______________________________________________________ 130
__________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 130
__________ References ______________________________________________________ 131
Unit Eight: Storage Devices
8.1 ______ Introduction _____________________________________________ 133

8.2 ______ Objectives ______________________________________________ 134
8.3 ______ Storage Devices _________________________________________ 134
_________ 8.3.1 Magnetic storage ___________________________________ 134
_________ 8.3.2 Optical storage _____________________________________ 139
_________ 8.3.3 Solid-state storage __________________________________ 142
_________ 8.3.4 Cloud storage ______________________________________ 144
_________ Activity 8.1 ______________________________________________ 146
8.4 ______ Summary ________________________________________________ 146
_________ References ______________________________________________ 146
Unit Nine: Output Devices
9.1 ______ Introduction _____________________________________________ 147

9.2 ______ Objectives ______________________________________________ 148
9.3 ______ Softcopy ________________________________________________ 148
_________ 9.3.1 Monitors __________________________________________ 148
_________ 9.3.2 Types of monitors ___________________________________ 149
_________ Activity 9.1 ______________________________________________ 153
9.4 ______ Hardcopy _______________________________________________ 153
_________ 9.4.1 Printers ____________________________________________ 153
_________ 9.4.2 Impact Printers _____________________________________ 154
_________ 9.4.3 Non-impact printers _________________________________ 155
_________ Activity 9.2 ______________________________________________ 157
9.5 ______ Printer Interfaces ________________________________________ 157
_________ Activity 9.3 _____________________________________________ 159
9.6 ______ Printer Software _________________________________________ 159
9.7 ______ Installing a printer _______________________________________ 159
_________ Activity 9.4 ______________________________________________ 160
9.8 ______ Summary ________________________________________________ 160
_________ References ______________________________________________ 161
Unit Ten: Disk System Architecture
10.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 163

10.2 _____ Objectives ______________________________________________ 164
10.3 _____ Floppy Disk System ______________________________________ 164
_________ 10.3.1 History of the floppy ________________________________ 164
_________ 10.3.2 Types of floppy disks _______________________________ 164
_________ 10.3.3 Floppy connectors _________________________________ 166
_________ Activity 10.1 ____________________________________________ 168
10.4 _____ IDE disk system _________________________________________ 168
_________ 10.4.1 An overview of the IDE interface ____________________ 168
_________ 10.4.2 Precursors to IDE _________________________________ 169
_________ Activity 10.2 ____________________________________________ 169
_________ 10.4.3 ATA standards _____________________________________ 171
_________ Activity 10.2 ____________________________________________ 172
10.5 _____ SCSI Disk System _______________________________________ 172
_________ 10.5.1 SCSI Interface _____________________________________ 172
_________ 10.5.2 SCSI standards ____________________________________ 173
_________ Activity 10.3 ____________________________________________ 173
10.6 _____ Summary ________________________________________________ 174
_________ References ______________________________________________ 174
Unit Eleven: Networking Hardware
11.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 175

11.2 _____ Objectives ______________________________________________ 176
11.3 _____ Network Types __________________________________________ 176
11.4 _____ Cables __________________________________________________ 179
_________ Activity 11.1 ____________________________________________ 185
11.5 _____ Wireless Communication _________________________________ 187
11.6 _____ Network Interface Card (NIC) _____________________________ 187
11.7 _____ Workstation _____________________________________________ 188
11.8 _____ Hub ____________________________________________________ 189
11.9 _____ Repeater _______________________________________________ 189
11.10 ____ Bridge __________________________________________________ 190
_________ Activity 11.2 ____________________________________________ 191
11.11 ____ Switch __________________________________________________ 191
11.12 ____ Router__________________________________________________ 192
11.13 ____ Brouter _________________________________________________ 193
11.14 ____ Gateway ________________________________________________ 193
_________ Activity 10.6 ____________________________________________ 194
11.15 ____ Firewall _________________________________________________ 194
_________ Activity 11.3 ____________________________________________ 194
11.16 ____ Servers _________________________________________________ 195
_________ Activity 10.7 ____________________________________________ 196
11.17 ____ Summary ________________________________________________ 196
_________ References ______________________________________________ 197
Unit Twelve: Configuring Network Software
12.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 199

12.2 _____ Objectives ______________________________________________ 200
12.3 _____ MS Networking Basic ____________________________________ 200
12.4 _____ Installing Networking Software ____________________________ 200
12.5 _____ Configuring Windows to share Files and Printers ____________ 202
12.6 _____ Using Shared Resources __________________________________ 204
12.7 _____ Networking and the Internet ______________________________ 205
12.8 _____ A TCP/IP Primer _________________________________________ 205
_________ Activity 12.1 ____________________________________________ 206
12.9 _____ Summary ________________________________________________ 206
_________ References ______________________________________________ 207
Unit Thirteen: Software
13.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 209

13.2 _____ Objectives ______________________________________________ 210
13.3 _____ Types of Software ________________________________________ 210
13.4 _____ Computer Programming Tools _____________________________ 211
13.5 _____ Operating Systems (OS) __________________________________ 211
13.6 _____ Types of Operating systems _______________________________ 212
13.7 _____ Type of Operating System Interfaces _______________________ 213
13.8 _____ The Booting Process for Windows 8 ________________________ 215
13.9 _____ Installing and Upgrading Windows 8 ________________________ 216
13.10 ____ Hardware Requirements for Windows operating systems _____ 217
13.11 ____ Preventive Maintenance __________________________________ 218
13.12 ____ Software Updates ________________________________________ 218
13.13 ____ Windows Automatic Updates ______________________________ 219
_________ Activity 13.1 ____________________________________________ 219
13.14 ____ Summary ________________________________________________ 219
_________ References ______________________________________________ 220
Unit Fourteen: Application Installation and Configuration
14.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 221

14.2 _____ Objectives ______________________________________________ 222
14.3 _____ Application Basics _______________________________________ 222
_________ Activity 14.1 ____________________________________________ 223
14.4 _____ Installing Applications ____________________________________ 223
14.5 _____ Repairing or Uninstalling Applications ______________________ 224
_________ Activity 14.2 ____________________________________________ 224
_________ Activity 14.3 ____________________________________________ 224
14.6 _____ Summary ________________________________________________ 225
_________ References ______________________________________________ 226
Module Overview
Course Guide Description

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It
tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way
through the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely
to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on refer-
ring to the Course Guide as you go through the course material as it will help
you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or
overlook.
Introduction
BIT102 Foundations of Computer Hardware is one of the courses offered
by Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia Communication at Zim-
babwe Open University (ZOU). The course first gives an insight of circuit
design and implementation as integrated circuits are the building blocks of
computer hardware. Further, the course demystifies the structure, functions
and evolution of the basic computer hardware components. Emphasis is given
to how each hardware component is installed, configured and troubleshoot.
The course also gives introductory remarks regarding the installation and con-
figuration of software that support the hardware.
Foundations of Computer Hardware Module BITH102
Course Audience
This module aims to impart knowledge in detail to an open and distance learner
regarding the foundations of computer hardware. The open and distant learner
will have the opportunity to learn, visualise, think and apply principles learn in
this course to everyday scenarios.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before
you begin this course, please confirm the course material, the course require-
ments and how the course is conducted.
Study Schedule
It is a standard ZOU practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for
every credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected
to spend 120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study
hours could be accumulated.
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours
Understanding course content and initial discussions 5

Read 14 units and complete exercises given at a rate of 8.5 120
hours per unit
Attend 5 tutorial sessions at a rate of 2 hours per session 10
Access to Web sites 12
Complete 1 assignment at a rate of 15 hours per assignment 15
Revision 18
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 180
2 Zimbabwe Open University

Module Overview
Objectives
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Identify the importance of each computer hardware component and

peripherals.
2. Install and configure appropriately each hardware component.
3. Install and configure software that is compatible with the given hardware.
4. Upgrade hardware components on a machine.
5. Troubleshoot hardware problems on a machine.
6. Simplify circuits and implement them in everyday situations.
7. Explain the evolution of computer hardware.

Text Arrangement Guide

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text ar-
rangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally,
the text arrangement for each unit is as follows:
Objectives: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely gone through a unit. As you go through each unit, you should
frequently refer to these Objectives. By doing this, you can continuously gauge
your progress of digesting the unit.
Activity: Activities are also placed at various locations or junctures through-

out the module. Activity can appear in various forms such as questions, short
case studies or it may even ask you to conduct an observation or research.
Activity may also ask your opinion and evaluation on a given scenario. When
you come across an Activity, you should try to widen what you have gathered
from the module and introduce it to real situations. You should engage your-
self in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthe-
sise and evaluate instead of just having to recall and define.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each unit. This compo-
nent helps you to recap the whole unit. By going through the summary, you
should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find
points inside the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a
good idea for you to revisit the details from the module.
Zimbabwe Open University 3

Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each unit. You should
go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargons
used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able
to explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,

journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can
appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References sec-
tion), at the end of every unit or at the back of the module. You are encour-
aged to read and refer to the suggested sources to elicit the additional infor-
mation needed as well as to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
Prior Knowledge: A basic knowledge of the subject matter is not required

for students who follow this module. However, basic knowledge of computer
system will be an added advantage.

Unit One
Logic Design and Switching

Circuits
1.0 Introduction
I
n this chapter we give a comprehensive guide to you regarding fundamen
tals of how logic design and switching circuits are structured from a hard
ware perspective. We further spells out the relevance of digital systems
and the need to understand different number formats. You will be equipped
with the knowledge of how to design, implement and simplify logic circuits
through Boolean algebra and Karnaugh Maps.
1.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
♦ Differentiate analogue from digital signals and explain the significance

of signals in circuits.
♦ Convert numbers from one base to another.
♦ Draw truth tables for the AND, NOT and OR operations.
♦ Write Boolean expressions for logic gates and combinations of logic
gates and draw the respective circuits
♦ Simplify logic circuits using basic theorems and De Morgan’s Theorems.
♦ Convert logic expressions into Sum of Products (SOP).
♦ Design and simplify logic expressions using Boolean algebra and
Karnaugh Maps.
1.2 Analogue and Digital Signals.

A signal is a physical quantity that depicts information. Quantities have to be
represented accurately, consistently and efficiently. The values for these quan-
tities are represented using either analogue or digital signals. The information
transmitted is done through electric pulses of varying amplitudes.
Analogue signals
These are quantities that are represented using proportional variables and
proportional indicators. The resulting signal is continuous and takes infinite
values within a given range of values. In other words, analogue signals take
non-discrete values within a given range. For example, the speedometer of
cars use analogue signals. The speed of the car is always proportional to the
deflection of the speedometer needle. Accordingly, when the car reduces
speed, the needle fluctuates until the car stops when the speedometer reads
zero. Additionally, microphones generate electrical analogue signals with varying
voltage outputs. However, it can be noted that analogue signals are more
susceptible to noise during transmission thus reducing the accuracy of these
types of signals. Analogue instruments consume a large amount of power but
utilizes less bandwidth. Hence, these types of signals are best suited for video
and audio transmission.

Unit 1 Logic Design and Switching Circuits
Digital Signals
These represent quantities using symbols called digits. The signals take dis-
crete values in a finite set of possible values to represent information. The
speed on car dashboards can now be measured digitally. Digital clocks measure
time using decimal digits that represent hours, minutes and seconds. This re-
sults in a digital clock being more precise and accurate compared to analogue
driven wall clocks. Digital devices consume a negligible amount of power but
consume a large amount of bandwidth. Digital signals are denoted using square
waves and are immune to noise during data transmission as they take exact
values. Hence, digital signals are best applied in computing and electronics.
Digital systems overtook analogue systems due to the following reasons:

 Circuits designed using digital technology are least affected by noise.
 Digital technology is more precise and accurate.
 Digital systems are very easy to design and capable of storing large
amounts of data.
 It is easy to program digital systems.
However, most real world entities are analogue and there is need to convert
digital signals back to analogue and vice versa. Thus, a considerable amount
of time is normally taken processing these digitised signals.
Diagrams

Activity 1.1
1. Compare and contrast digital and analogue signal.
? 2. Critically analyse the drawbacks of using digital signal.
3. Discuss the future of digital technology.
1.3 Number Systems

Number Systems define the representation of numbers using distinct symbols
that is a number can be represented differently using different number sys-
tems. Several number systems have been in use and these include decimal,
binary, octal and hexadecimal number systems.
Decimal number systems (base 10) uses ten symbols namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

6, 7, 8 and 9. These symbols are referred to as decimal digits or just digits.
Binary number systems (base 2) uses two symbols namely 0 and 1. The
symbols are known as binary digits or simply bits. Octal number systems
(base 8) uses eight symbols which are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. These are
called octal digits. Hexadecimal number systems (base 16) uses sixteen sym-
bols namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. Likewise the
symbols are referred to as hexadecimal digits. All the above are positional
value systems where the value of digit depends on its position.
For example in decimal number systems, the number 632.51. The 6 repre-
sents hundreds, 3 represents tens, 2 units, 5 tenths and 1 hundredth. Com-
puters are digitals systems that utilise binary number systems in the design and
implementation of simple and accurate electronic circuits. Binary quantities
have only two possible conditions for example open (0) switch or closed (1)
switch. Different combinations of zeros and ones yield patterns that when
matched are used in everyday applications such as opening and closing doors.
It is important to note that exact values of voltages are not important when
dealing with digital systems compared to analogue systems which require ex-
act values. For example, binary 1 may be used to represent a voltage range of
2 to 5, a binary 0 may represent voltage range of 0 to 0.8 whilst a range of 0.8
to 2 are invalid voltages that are not used. Hence digital circuits respond to
predefined range of values. The way in which digital circuits responds to input
values is called the circuit’s logic as it obeys the predefined logic rules thus
digital circuits are also referred to as logic circuits.

Binary to decimal conversions
Example 1.
11001 base 2 to base 10
2^4 2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0
1 1 0 0 1
(2^4x1)+(2^3x1)+(2^2x0)+(2^1x0)+(2^0x1)=16+8+0+0+1=25
Hence 11001 base 2 is 25 base 10
Example 2
1011.101 base 2 to base10
2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0 2^-1 2^-2 2^-3
1 0 1 1 . 1 0 1
(2^3x1)+(2^2x0)+ (2^1x1)+(2^0x1)+(2^-1x1)+(2^-2x0)+(2^-
3x1)=8+0+2+1+0.5+0.125
=11.625
Decimal to Binary conversions

When converting a decimal number to binary, continuously divide a given
decimal number by two noting down the remainder until the quotient is zero.
The binary solution is then found by writing the first remainder as the Least
Significant Bit (LSB) and the last remainder as the Most Significant Bit (MSB).
Example 1
15 in base 10 to binary
15/2=7 rem 1
7/2=3 rem 1

3/2=1 rem 1
1/2= 0 rem 1
Therefore 15 base 10 = 1111base 2
Example 2
26 base 10 to binary
26/2=13 rem 0
13/2=6 rem 1
6/2=3 rem 0
3/2=1 rem 1
1/2=0 rem 1
Therefore 26 base 10 = 11010 base 2
Octal to decimal conversions

240 base 8 to decimal
8^2 8^1 8^0
2 4 0
=(8^2x2)+(8^1x4)+(8^0x0)=160 base 10.
Decimal to octal conversions

160/8=20 rem 0
20/8=2 rem 4
2/8=0 rem 2
Therefore 160 base 10 = 240 base 8.

Octal to binary conversions

The following table summarises the three bit binary equivalents for each octal
digit. The table is used for octal to binary conversions and vice versa.
Octal Digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Equivalent
5 3 2
101 011 010
Hence 532 base 8 = 101011010 base 2
Binary to octal conversions

Group the given binary bits into threes starting from the LSB. Append one or
two zeros to the left of MSB in cases where the binary number does not have
even groups of threes.
Example 1
101011010 base 2 to octal
101 011 010
5 3 2
Therefore 101011010 base 2= 532 base 8
Example 2
1110010 base 2 to octal
001 110 010
1 6 2
Therefore 1110010 base 2= 162 base 8

Hexadecimal Number Systems

Hexadecimal notation uses 16 symbols namely 0-9, A-F. Additionally, a group
of four binary digits represent a certain hexadecimal symbol. The following
table is a summarised relationship among binary, decimal and hexadecimal
notations.
Hexadecimal Decimal Binary

0 0 0000
1 1 0001
2 2 0010
3 3 0011
4 4 0100
5 5 0101
6 6 0110
7 7 0111
8 8 1000
9 9 1001
A 10 1010
B 11 1011
C 12 1100
D 13 1101
E 14 1110
F 15 1111
Hexadecimal to Decimal conversions
Example 1
290 base 16 to decimal
16^2 16^1 16^0
2 9 0
(16^2x2)+ (16^1x9) + (16^0x0)
=656 base10

Example 2
37AF base 16 to decimal
16^3 16^2 16^1 16^0
3 7 A F
(16^3x3) + (16^2x7) + (16^1x10) + (16^0x15)
12288+1792+160+15
14 255 base 10
Decimal to hexadecimal conversions
Example 1
656 base 10 to hexadecimal
656/16=41 rem 0
41/16=2 rem 9
2/16=0 rem 2
Hence 656 base 10= 290 base 16
Example 2
14255/16=890 rem 15
890/16=55 rem 10
55/16= 3 rem 7
3/16=0 rem 3
Hence 14255 base 10 =37AF

Hexadecimal to binary conversion
Example 1
BA6 base 16 to binary
B A F
1011 1010 1111
=101110101111 base 2
Example 2
82CD base 16 to binary
8 2 C D
1000 0001 1100 1101
=1000000111001101 base 2
Binary to hexadecimal conversion

Group the given binary bits into fours from the LSB and append zeros to
MSB in cases where the given number cannot be divided into groups of fours.
Example 1
0001 0101 1111
1 5 F
Therefore 101011111 base 2 =15F base 16

Example 2
0110 0111 0001
6 7 1
Hence 11001110001 base 2= 671 base 16.
Activity 1.2
1. Convert 64.75 base 10 to binary.
? 2. Convert 8157 base 10 to hexadecimal then to binary.
3. Convert 100001110110101 base 2 to octal and hexadecimal.
4. Convert ABCD base 16 to octal.
5. Convert 765 base 8 to hexadecimal
6. Convert C43 base 16 to binary.
1.4 Boolean algebra

It is the system of using symbols and operators (inputs) to describe logical
decisions (outputs) that are either true(1) or false(0). Symbols that are used
include variables such as A, B, C etc. that represent logical expressions that
are either true or false. Boolean algebra is used for the synthesis, analysis,
implementation and documentation of logic circuits and systems. It is Boolean
algebra that is used to analyse logic gates and designing combinations of logic
gates connected as logic circuits.
Logic gates are the building blocks for logic circuits and digital systems. These
logic gates are constructed from diodes, transistors and resistors connected
in such a manner that the circuit output results from basic operations per-
formed on the input variables.
There are three basic logic operations on Boolean algebra namely OR, AND
and NOT.

Truth tables
These are combinations that describe a logic circuit’s output in relation to the
circuit’s input. The input combinations on a truth table are denoted as 2^N
where N is the number of variables or inputs. For example, if we have three
variables A, B, C then 2^3=8. This means that we have 8 different combina-
tions on the input values.
The OR operation
Suppose we have two inputs/variables A and B. Let x denote the output.
Then x=A+B is defined as x equals A OR B. The truth table of the OR opera-
tion has an output of 1 provided that one of the inputs is a 1 otherwise the
output is a zero. The OR gate as depicted in the diagram performs an OR
operation on the circuit’s inputs as defined on the truth table.
Two input truth table and the corresponding OR gate.
Truth Table
A B x=A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1 Logic gate

Three input truth table and the corresponding OR gate.
Truth Table
A B C x=A+B
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Logic gate
A
C X=A+B+C
The AND Operation

Suppose we have two inputs A and B. Let x be the output. Then x=A.B is
defined as x=AAND B is sometimes written as x=AB. This operation has a
1 only when both or all inputs are 1s otherwise the output is zero. Likewise,
the AND gate is a circuit that has 1 as the output if all the input variables are
1s.
Two input truth table and the corresponding AND gate
Truth Table Logic gate
A B x=AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Three input truth table and the corresponding AND gate
Truth Table
A B C x=AB
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
Logic gate
A
B X=ABC
1.5 Algebraic Logic Circuits.

Logic circuits can be described fully through the use of the OR, AND and the
NOT gates.
Example1
X=A (B+C)
B B+C
C A (B+C)
A

Example 2
x= (AB)+(CD)
A AB
B
x= (AB)+(CD)
C CD
D
Suppose input variables have not been put in brackets, then the ordinary law
of algebra applies.
For example E.F+C. We firstly perform the AND operation and then lastly
address the OR operation. Please take note that operator precedence has
been observed to avoid wrong interpretation of the circuits.
1.6 Circuit Inverters

The NOT operation (inverter) can be applied to a single variable A or the
output,
A Ᾱ
x=Ᾱ+B
B
Example 2

1.7 Circuit Diagrams

Example 1
Example 2
x= (A+B) (B+C)
A
B
B x
1.8 Evaluating Logic Circuits Outputs

Procedure
1. Perform inversions for single terms for example =1; =0
2. Address operations in brackets or parenthesis.
3. Perform the AND operation before the OR operation unless other-
wise.
4. Suppose an expression has a bar over it, first perform the operations
inside the expression and then invert the result.

Example 1
x= [D + ] .E. Assume that A=0, B=0, C=1, D=1, E=1
Solution
x= [1+ ].1= [1+ ].1= [1+1].1=1
=1.
Example 2
x= (A+ ) (B+ ). Assume A=1, B=0, C=1
= (1+ ) (0+ ) = (1+1) (0+0)
= (1) (0) = 0
The NOR Gate

Truth Table
The NOR truth table and ways of representing the NOR gates.
A B A+B
A
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 B
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 A
B
Determine the Boolean expression for a 3 input NOR gate followed by an

inverter.

The NAND Gate

The NAND truth table and ways of representing the NAND gates.
A B AB
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 A
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 B
Determine the Boolean expression for a 3 input NOR gate followed by an

inverter.
1.9 Circuit Diagrams involving NAND and NOR

Operations.
Example 1
Draw the circuit diagram for the following:
=x
Circuit Diagram
x
D A
B

Activity 1.3
? 1. Design the timing diagram of a two input AND operation.

2. Design a logic circuit for the following expressions:
a) x=(A+B) ( + )
b) x= .
3. Draw the circuit diagrams for ( +B) (B+ ) =x. Find the output of the
circuit suppose A=0, B=0, C=1.
4. Simplify the following expressions and draw the simplified logic circuits:
a) x=
b) x=
c) x= B +AB +B D
1.10 Combinational and Sequential Circuits

So far we have been discussing circuits that are based on combinations of
different logic gates. Combinational circuits are circuits whose output depend
on the combinations of logic levels available on the input values. It should be
stressed that combinational circuits have no memory and the output depends
only on the current input values.
Sum of Products (SOP) form

A given logic expression is in SOP form if it satisfies the following:
 The expression has two or more AND terms that are ORed together.
 Each variable in the AND terms should individually appear in either the
complemented or uncomplemented form. A variable is in an
uncomplemented form if it is not inverted. In other words, an expres-
sion is in SOP if the inversion sign does not cover more than one vari-
able; for example the expression + CD is not in SOP..
Product of Sums (POS) form

This is a process whereby two or more OR terms are ANDed together. Please
note that each OR term should have one or more variables that are in the
complemented or uncomplemented form. For example:

1. (A+ ) (C+ )
2. (A+ )(C+ +E)
However, SOP is more common and used frequently as compared to POS.
1.11 Simplification of Logic Circuits

It is reducing a logic circuit to have fewer variables preserving the fact that the
resultant circuit will be equivalent to the original circuit but rather having fewer
gates. Suppose we have the circuit x=AB ( ). This expression can be
simplified to x=AB which is very easy to implement.
There are two ways of simplifying these algebraic expressions namely Theo-
rems (that have been studied earlier) and the use of Karnaugh Maps. The
simplification of circuits using theorems can be summarised as follows:
 Apply De Morgan’s laws and multiply terms to convert the expression
to SOP.
 If the expression is now in SOP, factor out common factors as and
when appropriate and simplify. This automatically eliminates one or
more variables from the expression.
Example :
Simplify the logic expression x=ABC+A ( )
=ABC+A (By Theorem 17)

=ABC+A (A+C) ( =A)
=ABC+A A+A C
=ABC+A +A C (A.A=A; Expression now in SOP)
= ABC+ A C+ A
=AC (B+ )+A
=AC+A
=A(C+ ) (Final simplified circuit diagram that is drawn)

1.12 Designing Combinational Logic Circuits.

Steps undertaken:
1. Interpret the problem properly and design a truth table that describes
fully the given narration.
2. Write the product (AND) term for each case where the output is 1.
3. Write the sum of the product (SOP) expression of the output.
4. Simplify the output expression where possible.
5. Draw the circuit for the simplified expression.
Example
Design a three input logic circuit whose output value is 1 provided that the
majority of the inputs are 1s.
Step1
A B C X
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 BC
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 A C
1 1 0 1 AB
1 1 1 1 ABC
Step 2
Refer to the truth table. The product (AND) term for each case where the
output is 1 has been written on the last column of the truth table.
Step 3
x= BC+ A C+ AB ABC

Step 4
Rearrange the expression as follows:
x= BC+ABC+ A C+ABC+ AB +ABC
=BC ( +A) +AC ( +B) +AB ( +C)
=BC+AC+AB
Step 5
Draw the circuit diagram for the expression x=BC+AC+AB using the knowl-
edge that was learnt earlier in this chapter.
1.13 Karnaugh Maps (K Maps)

K maps are graphical tools that are used to convert truth tables or logic equa-
tions to their corresponding simplified logic circuits. In other words, K maps
show relationships between logic inputs and the associated outputs. In most
cases, K maps have 2, 3 or 4 variables.
Each row in the truth table corresponds to the specific square in the K map.
K maps squares are structured in such a way that horizontally adjacent squares
differ only in one variable. Thus, there is a defined order which K maps vari-
ables should be arranged.
The top to bottom labelling should be in the order , B, AB, A for a

four variable K map. Likewise, the labelling from left to right for a four vari-
able K map should be , D, CD, C .

Two variable K maps

Truth table K map
A B x B
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
A
1 0 0
1 1 1 AB
Three variable K map

Truth table K map C
A B C x 1 1
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 C 1 0
0 1 0 1 B
0 1 1 0 1 0
AB
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 AB
1 1 1 0
x= + C+ B +ABC
Four variable K map
A B C D x
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 D
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 1 B D
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 x= D+ B D+ AB D+ABCD
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 AB D
1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 ABCD

1.14 Looping
The process of simplifying logic circuits by combining adjacent 1s in a K map.
Looping eliminates the variable that appears in the complemented and
uncomplemented forms.
Example1 x= B +AB
Method 1 Simplification by factoring

=B ( +A)= B (1)= B
Method 2 K Map
0 0
1 0
1 0
AB
0 0
From the above loop, A is appearing both in the complemented and

uncomplemented forms whilst B and C are remaining unchanged.
Hence x=BC.
Example 2 x= B + BC
0 0
1 1
AB 0 0
0 0

C is appearing in both complemented and uncomplemented forms whereas

B remains unchanged.
Hence C= B.
Example 3
x= +A
1 0
0 0
AB 0 0
1 0
Hence x=
Example 4
x= CD+ C +A +A C
CD
0 0 1 1 C
0 0 0 0
AB 0 0 0 0
A
1 0 0 1

Hence x= C+A
Example 5
x= C+ BC+ ABC +A C
0 1
0 1
0 1
0 1
Hence x=c
Example 6
X= B D+ BCD+AB D+ABCD
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
Hence x=BD

Example 7
x= + C +A +A C
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
Hence x=
Example 8
Simplify the following:
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0
Hence x= C +ACD+BD
Summary for constructing K maps

1. Insert 1s at the appropriate positions in the squares based on the truth
tables values and insert zeros on other remaining positions in the squares.
2. Loop isolated 1s. These are 1s that are not adjacent to any other 1.
3. Search for 1s that are adjacent to only one other 1 and loop the pair.

4. Loop any octets (8 ones that are adjacent) even if the loop contains
some 1s that have already been looped.
5. Loop any quad that has one or more 1s that have not already been
looped. Always aim to use the minimum number of loops as is possible.
6. Loop any pairs necessary to accommodate 1s that are not yet looped.
Take in mind again to use a minimum number of loops as is possible.
7. Construct the OR sum for all the terms from each loop.
Designing K maps from output expressions
Example 1
Simplify the following expression using a K map
( +D)+ A C+
Solution
( +D)+ A C+
= + D+A C+
1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
Hence x=A + +

1.15 Don’t care conditions

These are cases whereby there are no specific output values for certain input
values from the truth table or the given information. Hence an ‘x’ is normally
appended to such cases to denote the don’t care condition. In most cases,
these are conditions that never occur in circuits thus they are not given out-
puts.
It is the duty for circuit designers to insert either a zero or a one to the don’t
care condition in such a manner that the resulting K map will be the simplest
but with the best output expression.
Example
Suppose we have a circuit as depicted by the following truth table:
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 X 0 x
1 0 0 X
1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 x 1
The following K map depicts the best decision circuit designers can insert zeros and
The following K map depicts the best decision circuit designers can insert
zeros and ones for the best possible output expression
0 0
0 0
1 1
1 1
Hence y=A

Activity 1.4
? 1. Design a 4 input logic circuit A, B, C, D whose output is high only

when the input A is zero and at the same time that exactly two other
outputs are zeros.
2. Simplify the following K map for the best possible output expression:
0 1 x 1
1 X x x
0 X x x
0 0 x 0
3. Design a K maps that satisfies the following truth tables:

A B C x
A B x
0 0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 0 0 1
a) 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1
b)
4. Determine the minimum expression for the following K map:
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1
5. Design a logic circuit whose output is high provided A and B are 1s

and C and D are either both 1s and both zeros.

Summary
In this chapter we defined the AND, OR and NOT gates as the building
blocks for logic design and switching circuits. Combinations of these gates
depicted circuits that constitute everyday applications. Further, different meth-
ods of simplifying these circuits were discussed namely the use of theorems
and Karnaugh maps. Don’t care conditions were implemented in the chapter
where output values are not defined from the inputs. Thus the chapter centred
on application, design and simplification of logic circuits.

References
Kohari, Z., & Jha N. K. (2010). Switching and Finite Automata Theory.
New Delhi: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, S.C. (1977). Digital Circuits and Logic design. USA: Prentice Hall.
Roth, C.H.J., & Kinney, L.L. (2013). Fundamentals of Logic Design. USA:
Cengage Learning.
Taub, H., & Schilling, D. (1977) Digital Integrated Electronics. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Tocci,R.J., Widmer,N.S., & Moss, G.L. (2009). Digital Systems: Princi-
ples and Applications. Chennai: Pearson.

Unit Two
Motherboards
2.0 Introduction
T
he motherboard is the building block of any given machine. Peripherals
are linked to each other via the motherboard. Desktops, laptops and
palmtops all have different building blocks. However, the fundamental
principle is that motherboards link the physical components of a computer
ranging from inputs, processing and outputs together with the components’
associated interrelationships that yield a computer that works in unison.
2.1 Objectives
Upon completion of the unit, you should be able to:
♦ Identify the ports and connectors found on the motherboard.

♦ Explain the importance of different ports and connectors on the
motherboard.
♦ Distinguish between different types of motherboard form factors.
♦ Install and configure the motherboard.
♦ Relate motherboards to compatible computer cases.
2.2 Motherboard
It is a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) or system board where different types of
drives, memory, BIOS, other different parts of a computer and peripheral
devices are attached. The main role of the motherboard is to relay informa-
tion between different parts of a computer system. The motherboard houses
sockets, connectors and slots where components such as the RAM and proc-
essor are attached.
2.3 Components of a Motherboard

The motherboard is the framework for building a computer. The diagram
below depicts the basic architecture of a motherboard.

Unit 2 Motherboards
2.4 Connectors and Ports

These are outlets that connect the motherboard to peripheral devices of a
computer. The serial port, the parallel port and the IDE connectors are typi-
cal examples of connectors and ports found on the motherboard.
Northbridge
It is the chipset that facilitates communication of the CPU with RAM and the
graphics card. Thus, it is also referred to as Memory Controller Hub. Mod-
ern day motherboards embed the Northridge on the CPU.
Southbridge
It is the chipset that facilitates communication of the CPU with the following
connectors and ports: Ethernet ports, USB ports, PCI slots, SATA connec-
tors and on board audio. Hence the Southbridge also referred to as the Input
/ Output Controller Hub.
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slot

These are slots where expansion cards such as sound, network, connectors
and graphic cards are added.
AGP slot
These are dedicated expansion slots where video cards and 3D accelerators
are installed. A dedicated link between the AGP slot and memory exists that
guarantees high speed execution. The AGP and the monitor determines the
quality of the computer video display.
IDE connectors
These are standard interfaces for connections to storage devices such as hard
disks DVD drives. Normally, motherboards have two IDE connectors namely
the primary and the secondary IDE. The primary IDE connector is where the
hard drive connects to the motherboard. Likewise, the DVD drive and other
storage devices share the secondary IDE connector.

CMOS battery
The CMOS battery powers CMOS even if power has been switched off
from the motherboard. CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semi-conduc-
tor) is a small memory on the motherboard that stores BIOS settings that
include system date, time and hardware settings. In other words, CMOS
battery supplies power to store BIOS settings that keep the real-time clock
running.
CPU socket
It is a socket where the CPU is installed. Standard installation procedures
have to be observed otherwise socket pins can be damaged.
ATX power connector

It is a connector interface between the motherboard and the power supply.
DRAM slots
These are slots where RAM is installed. Correct installation procedures for
the RAM need to be observed to avoid damaging the motherboard or the
RAM itself.
CPU fan and heat sink mounting points

The fan and the heat sink work in collaboration to maintain an optimum tem-
perature for the motherboard. The heat sink strives to maintain a constant
optimum temperature for the CPU. However, when the CPU executes for
prolonged periods at high speeds, both the heat sink and the processor may
be heated. The fan now cools both the heat sink and CPU by blowing away
the surrounding hot air from the heat sink and the CPU and generating some
cool air.

Unit 2 Motherboards
Activity 2.1
? 1. Discuss the primary functions of the motherboard.

2. Briefly explain the significance of a CMOS battery and detail the
procedure of installing a new CMOS battery.
3. Examine the steps involved when removing the motherboard from the
PC.
4. Differentiate the following:
a) Northbridge and Southbridge
b) Desktop motherboard and server motherboard
c) BIOS and CMOS
5. Briefly explain the steps involved when installing and configuring the
motherboard.
2.5 Types of Motherboards

Motherboards are broadly classified as integrated and non-integrated. If con-
nections to various devices can be done via peripheral device slots, input and
output slots and serial and parallel ports then the motherboard is integrated
else it is non-integrated. Non- integrated motherboards have only the RAM
being installable on the motherboard whereas all other remaining ports can be
connected via expansion cards. Modern day motherboards are integrated
and they have proved to be very efficient.
eXtended Technology (XT) Motherboard

These are very old motherboards whose RAM slots are DIMMS, proces-
sors are slot type, and they have a 12 pin power supply connector and no
other additional motherboard ports. Typical examples of such motherboards
include Pentium II and Pentium II motherboards.
Advanced Technology (AT) Motherboard

These types of motherboards have PGA processor sockets, 20 pin PCI slots
for power connection, ISA slots and SD RAM slots. It only has the keyboard
connector on the motherboard and no other ports making it difficult to
troubleshoot problem if need be. Pentium III motherboards are examples of
AT motherboards.

Baby AT Motherboards
It is two thirds the size of an AT motherboard and it exhibits features of both
XT and AT motherboards. Thus, baby AT motherboards have a mixture of
SD and DDR RAM slots, PCI and ISA slots 12 pin and 20 pin power supply
connectors and slot type and PGA processor sockets. Pentium III and Pentium
IV machines have baby AT motherboards.
Low Profile eXtended (LPX) Motherboard

This is a specialised variant of the baby AT motherboard that was used to
assemble low profile slim case desktop machines. This type of a motherboard
is characterised by a riser card that is mounted at the centre of the motherboard
as expansion slots. The slim fit case together with the installation of central-
ised riser triggered cooling and space problems for these type of motherboards.
Hence, the emergence of NLPX.
New Low Profile eXtended (NLX) Motherboard

This type of motherboard was designed to address the problems of the non-
standardised LPX motherboard, to meet latest technologies whilst keeping
costs low and to ease maintenance problems. These newly designed
motherboard by then had peripherals connectors, power cables and expan-
sion slots being installed on an edge mounted riser card that would be easily
detached from the motherboard. Additionally, the motherboard had AGP and
USB slots. NLX was an officialised standard with easy access to internal
components. Pentium III motherboards are examples of NLX motherboards.
ATX Motherboard
These are the recent types of motherboards characterised by DDR RAM
slots, PCI slots, AGP slots, 20 pin and 24 pin ATX power supply connectors,
MPGA processor sockets and numerous connector port to peripherals. The
types of motherboards that fall into this category include Pentium IV, dual
core, core 2 duo quad core, i3, i5 and i7.
Micro ATX motherboards

The micro ATX motherboard was designed to fit both standard ATX cases
and the newly designed micro ATX cases. The design of micro ATX
motherboards resulted in quantities of memory modules, expansion slots and
integrate components being scaled down. For example, the micro ATX

Unit 2 Motherboards
motherboard has 4 expansion slots compared to 7 for ATX. The micro ATX
can use a smaller sized power supply with lower wattage that minimizes power
consumption and heat production. However, the standard ATX power sup-
ply can still be mounted and used on the micro ATX motherboard without any
problems.
Flex ATX Motherboard

The design of Flex ATX is backward compatible with both ATX and micro
ATX. Flex ATX even uses the same mounting holes for the motherboard as
micro ATX. Motherboard dimensions for Flex ATX has the dimensions 229mm
x 191 whereas micro ATX has the dimensions 244mm x 244mm. The smaller
the size of dimensions as depicted by flex ATX resulted in lowered systems
production costs thus promoting the design of smaller systems. However, flex
ATX motherboard only catered for socket oriented designed processors and
can support up to a maximum of 4 expansion slots.
BTX Motherboard
The design of BTX motherboards maximised on lining heat producing com-
ponents between air intake vents and the power supply exhaust fan. This
design gave the assurance that some heat generating components were now
being cooled by passive heat sinks. Additionally, the design made it easier to
cool the heat sink and hot components and chips by a single air flow stream.
This new heat sink and fan combination was termed Thermal Module. This
design has low power CPU consumption, fewer fans and a very efficient air
flow path. The BTX motherboard is highly flexible as it supports a family of
motherboard sizes for different PCs. For example, the micro BTX has the
dimensions 264mm x 266mm supporting up to a maximum of 4 add in card
slots and the Pico BTX has the dimensions 203mm x 266mm supporting up
to a maximum of one add in card slot.

Activity 2.2
? 1. Discuss the importance of a computer case and a motherboard to

share a compatible form factor.
2. Describe the scenarios where one would use a slim line form factor of
the motherboard.
3. Synthesise how cooling is done in motherboards.
4. Briefly discuss the generic structure of the motherboard.
5. Briefly explain the purpose of an anti-static foam in reference to the
motherboard
Summary
In this chapter we gave an insight that the motherboard is an attachment point
to different parts of the computer and peripherals. In other words, we high-
lighted that all components of the PC are attached to the machine via the
motherboard. The generic structure of the motherboard was discussed which
showed the positions of different connectors and ports. Different form factors
of motherboards were outlined in the chapter as they evolved from the XT
type up to the latest. The strengths and weaknesses of each motherboard
form factor were noted.

Unit 2 Motherboards
References
Andrews, J. (2014). A+ Guide to Hardware: Managing, Maintaining and
Troubleshooting. USA: Cengage learning.
Bhardwaj, P.K. (2007). A+, Network+, Security+ Exams. Sebastopol:
O’Reilly Media Inc.
Clarke, G.E.,Tetz, E.(2007). CompTIA A+ Certification All in one Refer-
ence for Dummies. Canada: John Wiley and Sons.
Goel, A. (2010). Computer Fundamentals. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley
Pvt Limited.
Mueller, S. (2010). Upgrading and Repairing PCs. Indiana: Que
Soper, M.E. (2007). Absolute Beginners Guide to A+ Certification. USA:
Que


Unit Three
The Internal Structure and

Functions of the CPU
3.0 Introduction
T
he CPU also known as the processor or the microprocessor controls
and coordinates the fetching of the correct instructions from main memory,
decodes (interprets correctly) and the execution of these instructions. A
network of buses connects the CPU with the memory and other devices
which include the address bus, the data bus and the control bus. The main
components that constitute CPU include the ALU, the control unit and regis-
ters. The microprocessor is the most expensive single component which costs
up to more than four times the value of the motherboard. Intel, AMD and
Cyrix are some of the common designers and manufacturers of the different
types of microprocessors.
3.1 Objectives
 Outline components that constitute a processor

 Analyse the functions performed by the different components of the
processor.
 Match a socket/slot on the motherboard with the appropriate
corresponding type of processor.
 Critically discuss the history in the development of processors up to
the present era.
 Install a new processor on a machine that needs upgrading or repair of
the processor.
3.2 Components of the processors
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU is the core of the processor. It is responsible for executing arithme-
tic, logic and comparison operations. Arithmetic operations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division of numbers. Logic operations are com-

Unit 3 The Internal Structure and Functions of the CPU
putations that perform logic functions such as AND, OR and NOT. Com-
parison operations include the relational operators such as equal to, less than
and greater than. The ALU houses an accumulator that temporally stores
intermediate results from many operations before they are finally stored on
memory. General purpose registers are also found in the ALU and they are
responsible for holding data where the above specified operations are per-
formed.
Control unit
This is a specialised electronic circuitry that manages or controls through con-
trol signals the fetching of instructions and data from memory, interprets via
the instruction decoder operations to be done on the data and then executes
the respective operations. In other words, it controls the fetch-Decode –
Execute cycle. The Instruction Register (IR) and the Programs Counter (PC)
constitutes the control unit. The PC is incremented by one after the end of
each cycle points to the address of the next instruction that is to undergo
execution via the address bus. Instructions regarding execution are fetched
from main memory through the data bus into the IR. The IR then sends vari-
ous control signals to relevant CPU parts taking part in the respective opera-
tions. The control unit is responsible for sending signals that control input/
output devices. In addition to that, it controls the movement and operations
on data within the ALU.
Memory address register

This register holds the address of the memory location where an instruction is
to be fetched or written to.
Memory buffer register

The memory buffer register also referred to as Memory Data Register tem-
porarily stores the data that is read from or written to the memory. The proc-
essor and memory operates at different speeds hence the need of a buffer to
avoid data loss.

Activity 3.1
1. Critically discuss the basic characteristics of processors.
? 2. Examine the components of a processor.
3. Explain the importance of the processor within a computer organisation.
3.3 CPU and System Buses
Bus
It is a set of wires that interconnect the different subsystems of a
computer.

Address bus
This is a unidirectional bus that sends out the physical address of the memory
location or I/O port that is to be written to or read from by the processor. In
other words, the processor outputs the location of the data on the address
bus. The memory address may be on RAM, ROM, hard drive or any other
peripherals. The width of the address bus determines the amount of memory
that can be addressed.
Data bus
A group of bidirectional wires that are used to transfer data between the
processor and memory or other input/ output devices. Suppose the proces-
sor fetches data from memory, it outputs the address of the desired data on
the address bus and then the memory outputs the data on the data bus from
which the processor will read the data from.
Control bus
This is a dedicated bidirectional bus which is responsible for controlling and
synchronising data transfer processes. It carries commands from and returns
status signals to the processor. Common control signals are the memory read
/write and input or output read /write.
3.4 Speed of Processor

Processors are referenced to using their clock speed, make and model. The
clock speed is used to measure the performance of the microprocessor in
GHZ. The speed of a processor is defined as the rate at which the processor
executes instructions per given clock cycle. For example the specifications
1.2GHZ AMD Athlon denote that the speed of the processor is 1.2GHZ,
AMD is the make and Athlon is the model of the microprocessor. The higher
the clock speed, the more instructions executed per clock cycle. Processors
can be of the same make and model but different clock speeds to cater for
different customer needs and costs. For example, 2.58 GHZ Intel Celeron
and 1.10 GHZ Intel Celeron processors. However, the higher the speed of
execution, the more the heat that is generated by the processor hence the
greater the need to have an efficient heat sink and fan mechanism for cooling
purposes.

3.5 Types of Processors

A machine can have at least one processor. Each processor is referred to as
a core. Multiple cores can be placed on the same chip where they share the
same motherboard resources. Processors can be classified as single core,
dual core, quad core, hexa-core, octal-core and so on.
Single core processor

A processor chip with one core is referred to as a single core processor.
These types of processors range from the oldest types of processors that did
not support multitasking to the late Pentium 4 processors that supported hyper
threading. The old energy efficient single core processors could only run one
operation at a time and the performance of the processor degraded with the
increase of invoked applications by the user. However, single core proces-
sors such as Intel Pentium 4 670 supports hyper threading and new opera-
tions can be started before existing operation is completed. Machines that
support hyper-threading are capable of creating two virtual processors from
the single core which appear to the operating system as two independent
cores. Threads can now undergo simultaneous execution at these two virtual
processors independently. In addition to that, if one virtual processor is wait-
ing for resources to undergo execution, the other virtual processor will be
undergoing execution. Hyper threading single core processors have an im-
proved performance compared to ordinary single core processors but they
do not perform equally well as dual core processors.
Dual core processor

It is a processor chip that integrates two cores on the same processor. The
cores can undergo execution independently of one another thus efficiently
supporting multi-tasking. Each core has its own cache and controller hence
the cores efficiently function as single independent processors. Dual core proc-
essors are twice powerful as single core processor but they do not perform
twice faster as single core processors. In most cases, they perform one and a
half times faster than single core processors because the operating system
mechanism cannot optimize fully to cater for the two cores. Dual core proc-
essors work with operating systems that support multi-threading where the
software must support Simultaneous Multithreading Technology (SMT) that
recognises parallel multi-threading instructions. Additionally, a dual core proc-
essor with hyper threading has four virtual cores and performs better than
dual core processor. The Intel i3 processor is a dual core processor that
supports four way multitasking.

Quad Core
It is a processor chip where four cores are integrated on the same processor.
Processor manufacturers noted that increasing the number of processors im-
proves the performance of the processor without increasing the processor
clock speed. Quad core processors are not necessarily four times faster than
the single core. The processors have been designed to cater for users that run
high performance and demanding applications which consumes a lot of re-
sources. Such applications include video editing, facial recognition, file com-
pression, 3D stereo games just to mention a few. An Intel i7 is a quad core
with an eight way multi-tasking that has a dedicated video card meant for
videos and gaming.
Activity 3.2
?
1. Discuss the relevance of the different types of buses that are connected
to the processor.
2. Briefly explain how you would figure out the type of a given processor.
3. Is there a significant difference between types of processors and
execution speed? Justify fully your thinking.
3.6 Processor Connections on the Motherboard

Processor connections are interfaces between the motherboard and the proc-
essor. They are two forms of these interfaces at the motherboard namely
sockets and slots. The interfaces provide mechanical support and electrical
connections between the processor and the motherboard. Interface connec-
tions explained are found on servers, desktops and laptops and there should
be motherboard processor compatibility when upgrading or repairing proc-
essors.
Socket connections
The sockets are built around pin grids resulting in a square grid. During the
installation or removal of the processor, there is Zero Insertion Force (ZIF)
or Low Insertion Force (LIF) that is facilitated by a lever during installation or
uninstallation. Minimum or no force at all is used thus reducing the likelihood
of bending or damaging the processor. The variations for socket connection
motherboard includes PGA, SPGA, LGA and DIP.

Pin Grid Array (PGA)

It is an architecture that results in pins being aligned in uniform rows forming a
square array around the integrated square circuit. The following figures depict
the PGA socket and associated processor that fit into that socket.
Land Grid Array (LGA)

The design replaces pins with base gold plated base copper pads that inter-
face with the motherboard. The design eliminated the likelihood of bending
processor pins. The figure that follow depicts the LGA processor with the
associated socket where it fits.

Dual in Line Package (DIP)

These are the earliest chips on the 8088 processor within Pentium 1 ma-
chines. The chip is rectangular with 2 rows that has 20 pins each. During
installation, administrators had to make sure that pin 1 on the chip matched
with pin 1 on the socket before applying some force. Thus, there were high
chances of damaging the pins during installation. The figures below depict the
DIP socket and the processor.
Slot connections

A processor slot connection was an expansion slot that was meant to make
the upgrading of a processor easier. The user would install the processor
sliding the chip onto the slot. The following figure depict an Intel Slot 1 that
was designed for Pentium I processors. Sockets architecture have replaced
the slot architecture.
Sockets and slots summary.

The table below is a summary of a few selected processor sockets and slots,
year they were introduced, the number of pins and the processors they sup-
ported.

Slot/Socket Name Year Number of pins Processors supported

Introduced
DIP 1970s 40 Intel 8086

Intel 8088
Socket 1 1989 169 Intel 80486

(PGA Package)
Socket 3 1991 237 Intel 80486

(PGA Package)
Socket 7 1994 321 Intel Pentium

(PGA Package) Intel Pentium MMX
AMD K6
Socket 8 1995 387 Intel Pentium Pro

(PGA Package)
Slot 1 1997 242 Intel Pentium II

(Slot Package) Intel Pentium III
Slot 2 1998 330 Intel Pentium II Xeon

(Slot Package)
Slot A 1999 242 AMD Athlon

(Slot Package)
Socket 370 1999 370 Intel Pentium III

(PGA Package) Intel Celeron
VIA Cyrix III
VIA C3
Socket T 2004 775 Intel Pentium IV

(LGA Package) Intel Core 2 Duo
Intel Core 2Quad
Intel Pentium D
Intel Celeron D
Intel Pentium XE
Intel Xeon
Socket G1 2008 988 Intel core i7 (600,700,800 and

(rPGA) 900 series)
Intel core i5 (400 and 500 seies)
Intel i3 (300 series)
Intel Pentium(P6000 series)
Intel Celeron (P4000 series)
Socket H3 2013 1150 Intel Haswell

(LGA Package) Intel Broadwell

3.7 Installing a Processor

The following steps are guidelines for installing a processor.
1. Wear an anti-static wrist strap and remove the cover for the computer
casing.
2. Analyse the configuration of the processor.
3. Examine the mechanisms to safely remove and re-install the heat sink
and the cooling fan. Gently remove the cooling fan and the heat sink
using the appropriate mechanisms.
4. Identify the processor lever on one of the sides of the processor that is
used to install and uninstall the processor using the Zero Insertion
Force(ZIF)
5. Gently pull the processor lever up to uninstall the processor from the
socket.
6. Carefully remove the processor from the socket and place it under
protective cover.
7. Examine the correct orientation that your processor can be installed.
8. Remove the processor to be installed from the protective cover and
hold it by its edges only. Do not get into contact with the pins.
9. Insert the processor into the socket as per correct orientation as exam-
ined in Step 7.
10. Gently push down the socket lever to install the processor into the
socket using Zero Insertion Force (ZIF).
11. Install the heat sink and the cooling fan on their respective positions
observing the correct procedures as stipulated by the processor pack-
age. Make sure that the heat sink is dust free and the cooling fan can
rotate freely.
12. Lock the heat sink and the cooling fan using the appropriate mecha-
nisms provided on the motherboard.
13. Connect the wire for the cooling fan to the respective connector on the
motherboard.
14. Power on the computer. The initial BIOS test should reflect the correct
processor speed if the installation has been successfully done.
15. Reinstall the computer case cover.

Activity 3.3
?
1. Are there any advantages of utilising sockets compared to slots for
processors? Table your arguments clearly.
2. Is it possible to upgrade a machine’s processor? Justify why or why
not.
3. Differentiate PGA from LGA.
Summary
The processor is one of the most important part of a machine that is respon-
sible for controlling how instructions are fetched from main memory, inter-
preted and executed via different buses. The components that constitute the
processor include ALU, control unit and registers. Different processors ex-
ecute different speeds depending upon the type of the processor. Lastly, it
was noted that there are two types of connections for processors to the
motherboard namely the socket and the slot connections.

References
Clarke, G.E.,Tetz, E.(2007). CompTIA A+ Certification All in one Refer-
ence for Dummies. Canada: John Wiley and Sons.
Pvt Limited.
Karbo, M. (2002). PC Architecture. France: Know Ware.
Mueller, S. (2001). Upgrading and Repairing PCs. USA: Que.

Unit Four
Memory
4.0 Introduction
C
omputer memory is a block of storage space where data to be proc
essed and program instructions required for processing are stored.
The block of memory is divided into units referred to as cells that are
assigned unique addresses as from zero up to the memory size minus one.
Computer performance is determined by the size of the memory. Computer
memory is of three types namely cache, primary memory and secondary
memory. The hierarchy and characteristics of different types of memory are
explained in this unit.
4.1 Objectives
♦ Arrange computer memory in hierarchy

♦ Classify computer memory
♦ Distinguish different types of memory characteristics
♦ Install memory to the computer
♦ Figure out the symptoms of a faulty RAM
♦ Optimise memory performance
♦ Synthesise RAM error detection and correction
4.2 Hierarchy of Computer Memory
The figure depicts the low capacity memory such as the cache memory is
quickly accessed by the processor for immediate execution of instructions.
Despite this type of memory having a low carrying capacity, it is very expen-
sive. As we get down the hierarchy, as evidenced by disk and tape storage,
the rate at which the processor accesses the memory is lowered and the
carrying capacity increases. Additionally, as we move down the hierarchy, the
memory becomes less expensive.

Unit 4 Memory
4.3 Types of Memory

Cache memory
This is very high speed memory that acts as a buffer between the processor
and main memory. Cache memory is made up of Static RAM which is a type
of a RAM that retains its state as the system is powered on. It holds the data
and programs that are frequently being used by the processor and quickly
releases these when needed by the processor. The operating system is re-
sponsible for forwarding frequently assessed data and programs from the
disk to cache. Cache memory can be synchronous or asynchronous. Asyn-
chronous cache was designed in such a manner that the timing was not syn-
chronised with the processor’s clock. This type of cache was used on early
motherboards and had problems on working with processors that have very
fast clock speeds. The synchronous cache is synchronised with the processor
clock and no delays are experienced in waiting for the data to be ready for
program execution.
L1 Cache
It is also called primary cache. This fastest type of memory is embedded on
the processor and is used for the temporal storage for frequently accessed
instructions and data with a zero interface delay. Most processors nowadays
are embedded with at least 32KB of L1 cache.
L2 Cache
L2 cache refers to secondary cache memory that used to be the external
cache soldered on the motherboard or as a cache module in a socket. How-
ever, nowadays L2 cache is now being embedded on the processor as is with
L1 cache and has a minimum size of 512KB. It is further away from the
processor compared to L1 cache hence a greater delay due to distance when
resources are being fetched.
L3 Cache
L3 cache is found in multicore processors. It is crucial for managing inter core
communication. It is basically shared between all the cores on the same chip.
L3 is slower than L2 but larger in size (on average at least 8MB) hence
capable of storing data for all the cores. When the processor retrieves infor-
mation, it first checks whether it is stored in the L1 cache and if not, it checks

the next level of cache which is the L2 cache. If information not found again,
it references the L3 cache then finally the RAM. In other words, the RAM
feeds the L3 which feeds the L2 that in turn feeds L1 that finally responds to
processor. The figure below is an Intel core i7 -390X processor that has six
cores and a shared L3 cache.
4.4 Primary Memory (Main Memory)

The main memory is a work memory that holds data and instructions that the
processor would be working on. Generally, the main memory is made up of
semi-conductor devices that are not as fast as registers. The main memory is
connected to the processor via the address bus and the data bus. Primary
memory is subdivided into RAM and ROM.
Random Access Memory (RAM)

Unit 4 Memory
RAM is made up of semi-conductor electronic chips that are mounted on

small printed circuit boards called modules as the one shown above. RAM is
then installed on the motherboard using sockets. This type of memory is vola-
tile meaning that data is lost when the system is switched off. RAM consti-
tutes a collection of cells called memory location that users can access any
time provided that they know the address of that cell. Users can write infor-
mation to it and can also read information from it. There are two basic types
of RAM namely SRAM and DRAM.
Static RAM (SRAM)

Static denotes that this type of memory is capable of retaining its contents
provided that power is supplied. SRAM is made up of six transistor cells and
there are no capacitors. The strength of transistors is that they do not require
power to prevent leakages hence there is no need for SRAM to be refreshed
periodically. SRAM uses more chips than DRAM due to the extra space in
the matrix for SRAM. Hence SRAM is very expensive to manufacture. Ad-
ditionally, SRAM has high power consumption. Despite some of these nega-
tives, SRAM is used to build the processor speed sensitive cache.
DRAM
This is an integrated circuit that constitutes millions of transistors and capaci-
tors. Each dynamic memory cell is made up of a pair of a transistor and a
capacitor that forms a single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit informa-
tion that is either a 0 or 1. The transistor performs the functions of a switch
that regulates the circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or observe
the changes in state. Capacitors need to be read and observed as they leak
electrons at a very high rate. Capacitors can be full of electrons denoted one
or empty denoted zero due to leaks. The memory controller is responsible
for recharging the capacitors before they discharge by reading the memory
and writing it right back, a principle referred to refreshing. The refreshing of
DRAM is an automated process that is done several thousand times per sec-
ond lest contains held by the memory may be lost. The need of periodic
refreshments by this type of memory makes it slower compared to SRAM.
However, DRAM is less expensive to produce compared to SRAM and is
the most common type of computer memory. Both DRAM and SRAM are
volatile as their state is reset or lost when power is switched off.

Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM)

This type of RAM chip uses the same clock rate as the processor.. In other
words. The clock rate for this type of RAM is synchronised with that of the
processor. This guarantees that no delays in data transfer are experienced as
the RAM chip transfers data when the processor expects it to be ready.
DDR-SDRAM
It is also known as DDR1-SDRAM. This type of SDRAM is capable of
transferring data on both the rising and falling edge of the clock. This poten-
tially doubles the throughput of the memory chip thus improving memory speed
to at least 200MHZ. DDR-SDRAM consumes less power and is suitable for
both desktop and notebook machines.
DDR2-SDRAM
This is an enhancement of DDR1. It transfers data four times per clock cycle
compared to two times per clock cycle for DDR1. Input/output buffers present
perform multiplexing that doubles the data transfers per clock cycle. DDR2
has an increased memory bandwidth but has the same operational frequency
as DDR1-SRAM and SRAM. The bus connecting memory cells with the
buffer is twice wider compared to DDR1-SRAM. Multiplexing is being done
on a bus where data is coming from a very wide buffer and going out through
the buffer that has the same width as DDR1. DDR2 SDRAM has an average
data rate of at least 400MHZ and this memory is not backward compatible
with DDR1.

Unit 4 Memory
DDR3-SDRAM
It is the most common and fastest type of memory in use for desktop comput-
ers today. Power consumption was cut by approximately 30% compared to
DDR2.The memory sizes drastically grew from 512 MB to 8GB at present.
DDR1 had 184 pins, DDR2 and DDR3 have both 240 pins.DDR3 is neither
forward nor backward compatible the earlier SDRAMs due changes in sig-
nalling voltages and timings. DDR3 supports1.5V, DDR2 support 1.8V and
DDR3 support 2.5V. DDR3 transfers data at twice the rate of DDR2 by
offering two transfers per cycle of within the quadrupled clock signal.
RDRAM
The RDRAM was developed by Rambus Company and can only be used on
motherboards specifically designed for them. 16 bit RDRAM has 64 pins
and 32 bit RDRAMS have 232 pins. The chip is very expensive and capable
of transmitting data at speeds such as 10GHZ per second. It makes use of a
synchronous bus capable of transferring data at both edges of the clock. Due
to the very high speeds of transmission, too much heat is generated and there
is great need for heat spreaders to dissipate the heat. RDRAM also makes
use of multiple memory banks for concurrent memory access within different
row addresses. The sophisticated electronic design renders fast clock speeds
hence this type of memory is optimized for usage on video memory on graph-
ics accelerator cards, cache memory and server memory.
Activity 4.1
? 1. Briefly discuss the significance of cache memory within a machine.

2. Compare and contrast the different types of RAM.
3. Suppose RAM has been removed from your machine. Briefly explain
the signs of a missing RAM when the machine is switched on.

4.5 Memory Modules

Single inline memory Module (SIMM)
30 Pin SIMM
72 Pin SIMM
SIMM is a small integrated circuit board with chips on one or both sides and
a single row of pins along one edge of the module resulting in one row of
electrical contact. Memory chips on SIMM can be DRAM or SDRAM.
These types of modules were found on early machines in the 1980s and 1990s.
SIMM circuit board houses six to nine memory chips where the ninth chip
specialised on error checking. The SIMM came in two variants namely the
30 pin which that was smaller compared to 72 pin which was large. The 30
pin SIMM supported 16 bit data transfer, 5V, access speed ranging from
60ns to 80ns whereas the 72 pin SIMM supported 32 bit data transfer rate,
5V or 3.3V and access speed ranging from 60ns to 70ns.
DIMM
The DIMM consists of a series of integrated chips similar to the SIMM.

However, DIMM is longer, the pins are on both sides of the module and

Unit 4 Memory
electronically isolated from each other. In most cases, SDRAM and DRAM
are packaged using the DIMM form factor. The 168 pin DIMM transfers
data at 64 bits at a time which is twice SIMM data transfer rate. DDR1
DIMMs and DDR2 DIMMs have 184 pins and 200/240 pins respectively.
The socket on the motherboard where a DIMM is installed is completely
different from a SIMM slot. Only one DIMM is installed per socket whereas
SIMMs were installed in inline pairs. DIMMs have a faster data transfer rate
hence they replaced SIMMs.
Small Outline DIMM (SODIMM)
SODIMMs are smaller integrated circuit boards that are alternatives to the
DIMM. They are roughly half the size of DIMM but they have equally the
same performance speeds as DIMM. These types of modules are installed
on motherboards that have limited space such as notebooks and routers.one
of the popular modules installed on laptops. Some of the variants include the
72pin, 100pin, 144pin and the 200 pin. The 72 and 100 pin SODIMM offer
32bit data transfer rate whereas the 144 and 200 pin support 64 bit data
transfer rates. Nowadays, 204 pin and 256 pin SODIMMS support DDR3
and DDR4 form factors respectively. The power voltage for SODIMMs is
mostly 3.3V meaning that they consume less power. SODIMMs support the
DRAM and the SDRAM form actors with different storage capacities for
example 2GB, 4GB and 8GB.

Micro DIMM
These are one of the smallest type of memory modules. They are half the size
of SODIMMs. They are mainly used on mini notebooks and Personal Digital
Assistants (PDAs) to cater for space and power needs. They support 1.8V
low power usage for longer working periods meant for travellers. Some vari-
ants of micro DIMM have 144 and 172 pins that support a 64 bit data bus.
Memory sizes range from 256MB, 2GB, 4GB and so on.
RIMM
RIMM is not an acronym but a term chosen by Rambus company to describe
their memory module. The memory chip package supports the Ball Grid Ar-
ray (BGA) form factor. RIMM has two variants namely the 16 bit single
channel bus and the 32bit dual channel bus. The 16 bit module have 184 pins
and are installed as pairs on the motherboard. The 32 bit module has 232
pins and can be installed as a single module on the motherboard. Data trans-
fer can be done on both the rising and falling edges of the clock as in DIMM.
RIMMs operate at very high frequencies hence they have aluminium heat
spreaders dissipate the elevated operating temperature thus preventing over-
heating. Most Rambus memory controllers are designed in such a manner
that modules are installed in sets of two. The remaining open memory slots
must be filled with continuity RIMMs (CRIMMs) as the one shown below.
CRIMMs do not provide any extra memory but they are responsible for
propagating the signals to terminating resistors that are found on the

Unit 4 Memory
motherboard. If CRIMMs are not installed, dead end exists and signals re-
flect as a result of very high speeds.
Small Outline RIMM (SO-RIMM)

This is a small memory module that is compatible with RDRAM. SO-RIMM
is similar to SO-DIMM but is Rambus technology supported. SO-RIMM is
a 160 pin module targeted for use in constrained electronic systems such as
notebooks and printers. The module supports very high bandwidth and low
latency warranting the need for heat spreaders to be installed to dissipate the
heat.
Installing the RAM
4.6 Steps for installing the RAM

1. Establish the RAM specifications that are compatible with your
motherboard. For example DDR2 or DDR3.Verify the number of sock-
ets that can be installed RAM and the maximum memory carrying ca-
pacity that can be supported.
2. Purchase quality RAM with the correct specifications from reputable
suppliers.
3. Shutdown, unplug the machine and any peripherals connected.

4. Remove the machine from its casing.

5. Wear the antistatic wrist strap to discharge any static forces.
6. Locate the RAM slots and remove the old RAM by unclipping the
clamps on both sides of the socket.
7. Hold by its edges as you remove new RAM from its protective pack-
aging. Do not touch RAM circuitry.
8. Gently insert the RAM into the socket by aligning the notch or notches
on the RAM with the respective breaks on the socket.
9. Use compressed air to remove dust that might have accumulated on
the machine and would hinder the smooth functioning of the machine.
10. Replace the computer casing and power on the machine.
11. Verify whether your RAM installation was successful. Your RAM speci-
fication installed should tally with the RAM settings on the machine. If
your machine uses Windows operating system, go to Start, My Com-
puter then right click Properties.
4.7 Symptoms of a faulty RAM

1. An error or error code clearly displaying that a RAM module is faulty.
2. The screen displays a blank screen after the system boot and beep
once.
3. Three short beeps signifying RAM failure
4. Registry errors, automatic system reboots, missing system files and
scrambled data.
5. Memory specifications will not be tallying with the system specifica-
tions as the system will not be recognising the installed memory.
6. Frequently used files being randomly corrupted.
4.8 RAM error detection and correction

Errors occur as a result of noise and interference on the RAM as data is
stored and retrieved. As from early systems, mechanisms were embedded on
the RAM so as to detect and recover from these errors. Two mechanisms to
date have been embedded on the RAM to cater for error detection and cor-
rection. These are the Parity Checks that were implemented on early RAM
and the Error Checking and Correction (ECC) that is advanced method used
on our RAM nowadays.

Unit 4 Memory
Parity Check
The RAM used on earlier systems was either parity RAM or non-parity RAM.
Non parity RAM used 8 bits to store a byte of data. On the other hand, parity
RAM for every 8 bits of data, and an additional bit is added to the data that
is meant for error detection. Hence for parity RAM, 9 bits are used to store
a byte of data. In other words, the parity bit was used to validate the integrity
of each byte. Parity RAM has an additional chip on the circuit board meant
for these calculations hence this type of RAM has an increased size and is
more expensive. Two types of parity check exists namely even parity and
odd parity. The parity bit is either set to a 0 or a 1.
If the protocol has been set to even parity, then the number of ones including
the parity bit should be even. For example, 11001011 is the data to be writ-
ten onto the RAM. When using even parity, a 1 has to be appended as a
parity bit before the data is stored as the number of ones is not even. Thus the
stored data on the RAM will be 110010111. When the data is now being
retrieved, the total number of ones is added and if the number of ones is odd
and the parity is 1, then data is assumed to be valid and is sent to the CPU. In
other words, the computed parity is compared against the stored parity and if
they tally, it is assumed that no errors were encountered otherwise an error
would have happened.
Odd parity is contrary to even parity. Parity check only detects errors but is
not able to correct even a one bit error on the memory.
Error Checking and Correction (ECC)

ECC is an advancement of the parity check. It utilises multiple parity bits to
assess the validity and integrity of a block of data. ECC generates a 7 bit
checksum code for every 64 bit block of data stored on the RAM. When the
data is now being retrieved from memory, a 7 bit checksum code for the data
is again computed and compared against the original stored code. If the two
7 bit checksum codes match, the data is error free. If they do not match, it
signifies that an error or errors have occurred and the two seven bit codes are
compared to detect and correct the error. ECC can detect and correct 1 bit
error. This avoids data retransmission that severely degrades the perform-
ance of the system. However, ECC detects two bit errors but is not able to
correct these types of errors. The Hamming Code is one of the popular algo-
rithms that is implemented by ECC to calculate the 7 bit checksum.

The ECC RAM module have addition chip responsible for error detection
and correction as is the case for the parity check.
ECC RAM is on average 2% slower that non-ECC RAM due to the addi-
tional facility for error detection and correction. ECC RAM is mainly used for
high speed and high end applications on servers and other workstations that
are used for storing very high value data.
Activity 4.2
? 1. Explain the process involved when troubleshooting a faulty RAM.

2. Is error detection and correction important in RAM? Justify your
thought.
3. Briefly discuss the safety precautionary measures undertaken when
installing RAM.
4. Justify the differences in structure and size for memory modules.
4.9 Read Only Memory (ROM)

This is a type of memory where user are only able to read and they cannot
write to it. The memory contents which mainly constitute instructions are per-
manently stored to the chip during manufacture. These include instructions
for:
 Power On Self-Test (POST).
 Command interpretation from keyboard inputs.
 Information display on the visual display unit.

Unit 4 Memory
 Storing and extracting data from RAM to the processor.
ROM is found on a BIOS chip that is plugged to the motherboard.
4.10 Types of ROM

Masked ROM
These chips are integrated circuits that are manufactured using a procedure
that directly write instructions to the silicon plate using a mask. They were the
first type of ROM to be designed and was very cheap to manufacture once
the template has been designed. It is impossible to change the instructions on
the MROM once fabricated.
PROM
PROM is a variant of ROM manufactured as a blank chip on which data or
instructions are written to using a PRO programmer. However, it is only pro-
grammed once by the user after manufacture. Suppose errors have happened
during programming, the PROM is discarded. The programming process burns
open small fuses of the PROM chip at high voltage as instructions are perma-
nently stored. All fuses correspond to 1 at PROM manufacture but those
fuses burnt during programming corresponds to 0 and those that are not burnt
remain as 1. Hence the process is permanent and cannot be erased. Early
systems computer BIOS is a typical example of the PROM.
Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)

EPROM is a PROM where an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated

gate region during its programming process. This electrical charge does not
have a leak path and is retained on this position for a duration more than 10
years. EPROM charge can be erased by exposing ultra-violet light at certain
wavelength through the crystal window for about 40 minutes thus the charge
is dissipated as the fuses are reconstructed and memory bits return to 1.
When the machine is being used, the glass panel is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM
This type of EPROM can be programmed and erased electrically on average
for about ten thousand times. The EEPROM chip can be erased and repro-
grammed whilst it is on the motherboard and this takes on average about 4
milliseconds. This type of memory is very flexible as it can be selectively
erased by a simple electric current and reprogrammed. Selective erasure and
reprogramming is slow compared to erasing and programming the whole chip.
EEPROM is used on computer BIOS nowadays as shown in the above pic-

ture.

Unit 4 Memory
4.11 BIOS
It is a chip located on the motherboard that contains a set of instructions and
setup that governs how the computer boots and operates. When power is
switched on, the BIOS takes control. The bootstrap process begins where
the computer initialises by self-organising itself from a chaotic state to an or-
dered state. It then performs the Power-On Self-Test (POST) which first
checks whether the video card is functioning properly to facilitate the proper
display of errors to the user. Suppose the video card does not work properly,
then BOIS will beep as a way of signalling respective types of errors. BIOS
will then check the next proper connection and functionality of major input
devices that include the keyboard and the mouse. If these are working well,
BIOS then checks RAM functionality. BIOS confirms the functionality of the
RAM by writing and reading the same data on specific memory locations. If
this has been successfully completed, BIOS confirms main memory storage
devices connected to the machine. These are devices like DVD ROM / CD
ROM and the hard drive.
At this stage, BIOS now searches for the operating system to load first from
DVD/CD ROM then the hard drive. If the operating system has been lo-
cated, the operating system instructions and data are loaded from the main
storage device to the memory and BIOS instructs the processor to take over
from there the execution of other instructions.
4.12 Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

(CMOS)
It is a special type of battery power semi-conductor memory chip that con-
sists of integrated circuits on the motherboard. Sometimes, it is referred to as
the NVRAM or Real Time Clock, CMOS uses the N-type the P-type tran-
sistors in a complementary way to form a current gate with an effective means
of electrical control. This CMOS technology has a very low power con-
sumption as power is only needed when switching between the on and off
states. In addition to that, the technology has high noise immunity thus being
used in microcontrollers, microprocessors and static RAM.

CMOS memory is powered by an on board CMOS battery like the one

shown above that has an average life span of ten years thus it is non-volatile.
This memory chip is responsible for storing system date, time and hardware
settings.
4.13 Secondary Memory

It is non-volatile memory that permanently stores large volumes of data. Sec-
ondary memory also referred to as auxiliary or external memory includes the
hard disk drive, optical disks, magnetic disks and the USB flash drive. Data
from secondary memory is first loaded to main memory for the processor to
access it. Hence, the processor takes time to retrieve data from secondary
memory. However, this type of memory is cheaper than primary memory.
The secondary memory is covered in more detail on the unit for storage de-
vices.

Unit 4 Memory
The above is a hard disk drive showing visibly the IDE connectors, the jumper
block and the power connectors. Refer to the storage devices section for a
detailed explanation.
Activity 4.3
1. Briefly explain the importance of virtual memory within the machine.
? 2. Describe the process of memory optimization.
3. Discuss the relevance of BIOS and CMOS within the computer
organisation.
4. Narrate the evolution of ROM chips up to the present day era.
Summary
The chapter has outlined the hierarchy of computer memory clearly spelling
out the characteristics of each type of memory. The installation procedure for
RAM has been tabled with features that signal faulty and missing RAMs.
Different error detection and correction methods that are used by RAM such
as parity check and ECC were discussed. Conclusively, ROM types, char-
acteristics and their applications were analysed.

References
Pvt Limited.
Kamra, A., & Bhambri, P. (2008). Computer Peripherals and Interfaces.
Pune: Technical Publications.

Unit Five
Ports
5.0 Introduction
P
orts are interfaces on the motherboard with a set of signal lines used by
the processor to exchange data with other peripherals. They are found
at the back of PCs and are colour coded in most cases. They perform
different functionalities hence different ports operate at different speeds.
5.1 Objectives
♦ Identify different ports found on a PC.
♦ Differentiate the functions of each port.
♦ Match the cable and connectors for each port.
♦ Distinguish different versions of the same port.
♦ Relate the colour of the port to the type of the port
♦ Compare and contrast speed and functionalities of different ports
5.2 Types of Ports.
The figure above shows the different types of ports. The ports are now being
addressed in more detail in this section.

Unit 5 Ports
Activity 5.1
1. Match each port on the motherboard by its respective colour.
? 2. Differentiate input ports from output ports.
3. Are the number of ports and type of ports the same on all
motherboards? Justify.
Serial Port
This is an asynchronous interface that was designed as a system to system
communication port that transfers information in and out one bit at a time. It
was sometimes referred to as a COM port. This system did not use clocking
signals or synchronisation but rather utilised start and stop bits. This meant
that characters sent over a serial interface were framed in between the start
and stop bits. A single zero bit signified the start bit and meant that the eight
bits that followed (the byte) was being transmitted. Normally after the eight
bits, the one or two last characters signified the stop bits. Thus, given a byte
of data, serial ports transmits the eight bits in a byte one bit at a time. This
asynchronous type of communication yields on average 25% overheads ema-
nating from the utilisation of the start and stop bits. Serial interfaces are in two
standard variants namely the 9 pin connector and the 25 pin connector and
they are colour coded blue. The cable below connects to the serial interface.
The serial interface makes use of the Universal Asynchronous Receiver /Trans-
mitter (UART) to convert the parallel output of the computer system to a

serial format that can be transmitted through the serial interface. The UART
chip utilises their in-built buffers to control the flow of the data conversion by
caching data from the computer system bus whilst processing data moving
out from the serial port. The data is then converted back to parallel format at
the receiving end.
The maximum transfer rate for Standard Serial Ports (SSP) is on average
115Kpbs whilst high speed serial ports such as the Enhanced Serial Port
(ESP) and the Super Enhanced Serial Port (SESP) have an average transfer
rate of 460 Kbps.
Serial ports have since been overtaken by USB ports and they are no longer
found on machines nowadays. However, these were used to connect a ma-
chine to the modem, routers and switches to PC for console configuration or
connecting to server computers as control consoles for diagnostics.
Parallel port
This is sometimes referred to as a printer port or Centronics port. Parallel
ports have 8 transmission lines hence the eight bits of a byte are transmitted
parallel to each other. Thus the interface is very fast when transmitting and
receiving data. They are found in 25 pin and 36 pin variants. However, paral-
lel ports can transmit data over short distances before signals are amplified to
prevent high data error rates. Parallel ports both send and receive data. For
example, a printer port sends data that is to be printed to the printer. Suppose
the printer has run short of paper or a paper jam has occurred, then the
printer has to send signals back to the PC via the printer port thus communi-
cation in a parallel port is bi-directional. The following is the male connector
to the printer port.

Unit 5 Ports
Standard Parallel Ports (SPP) were the first parallel ports to be produced.
They had a transfer input rate of average 50Kbps and an output rate of
150Kbps. Communication was unidirectional that is from the PC to the printer
only. However, Enhanced Parallel Ports (EPP) and Enhanced Capabilities
Port (ECP) are the improved versions of the parallel port that are half duplex,
bidirectional and capable of transmitting at very high speeds. These types of
ports make use of a status bit that indicates the direction of data flow within
the channel. EPP have a transfer rate on average of 2 Mbps that is meant for
connections of parallel port peripherals such as tape backups, LAN adaptors
and disk drives. The ECP offers very high speeds and is meant for connec-
tions to very high performance scanners and printers. However, ECP require
special hardware logic and the Direct Memory Access (DMA) channel to
support the high throughput. The DMA channel and the parallel port now
regulate the transfer of data instead of the busy processor handling this job.
Hence, the transfer rate for ECP is on average 2.5 Mbps. These ECP ports
can be converted to EPP and SPP via the BIOS. Parallel ports are burgundy
colour coded.
Activity 5.2
? 1. Discuss the differences in structure, speed and application domain of

the serial and parallel ports.
Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port

USB is a product of a consortium of companies whose aim was to advance
computer connections to peripherals. The consortium of the companies that
developed, promoted and supported USB are Intel, Compaq, IBM, Digital,
Microsoft, NEC and Northern Telecom. USB supports hot plugging and plug
and play that is the connection, configuration and usage of devices without
restarting the PC hence USB overtook serial and parallel ports. Additionally,
USB was favoured because it came as a standard for different devices in a
one cable specification.
USB 1.0 was introduced in January 1996 but did not gain any mileage to the
market. The versions of USB that penetrated the market include USB 1.1 in
September 1998, USB 2.0 in April 2000, USB 3.0 in November 2008 and
USB 3.1 in July 2013. The following is the cable male head connector to the
USB port:

The following table summarises USB data rates and backward compatibility
with respective USB predecessors.
USB Speed USB Protocols Data Bi-Directional Charging Capacity

supported Rate Data transmission
Low USB 1.1; 2.0 1.5 Half Duplex 100mA

and 3.0 Mbps
Full USB 1.1; 2.0 12 Mbps Half Duplex 100mA
and 3.0
High USB 2.0 ; 3.0 480 Half Duplex 100mA
and 3.1 Mbps
SuperSpeed USB 3.0; USB 5 Gbps Full Duplex 900mA
3.1
SuperSpeed+ USB 3.1 10Gbps Full Duplex 1500mA
With respect to the above table, USB 2.0 has a maximum speed of 480Mbps
in high speed mode and backward compatible with USB 1.1 and capable of
working at 1.5Mbps. USB 3.1 matches the speed of the original Thunder-
bolt. A single USB port can connect up to 127 peripherals. USB 3.1 power
specifications range up to 20V, 5A; USB 3.0 as 5V, 1.8A and USB 2.0 as
2.5V, 1.8A. USB 2.0 and 3.0 are the most common ports nowadays and
they are colour coded black and blue respectively.
Viewing USB specifications on a Windows 8 Platform

Suppose you are using Windows 8 on your machine:
1. Double Click the Control Panel on your desktop.
2. Click Hardware and Sound
3. Open the Device Manager and click the device controllers icon.

Unit 5 Ports
4. Navigate through different USB Root Hubs and open the respective
properties window.
5. Click the advanced tab to view the respective port speed.
6. Click the power tab to view the power specifications of the USB de-
vice.
Activity 5.3
? 1. Briefly discuss the features of USB ports.

2. How does one differentiate USB ports?
3. Briefly explain the plug and play technology.
Visual Graphics Adaptor (VGA) Port

It is an interface that uses 256KB of the on board video memory to convert
graphic patterns or bit maps into signals that can be displayed on the visual
display units. VGA ports are colour coded blue and they are used to connect
the PC to the monitor. The following is a cable that connects to the VGA port.
VGA is found in two resolutions. The 640 x 480 pixels resolution is capable
of displaying 16 colours with a refresh rate of 60 Hz. The lowered resolution
of 320 x 200 pixels displays 256 colours. VGA has 15 pins that are displayed
in three rows and uses analogue signals. The VGA replaced earlier display
standard such as Monochrome Display Adaptor (MDA), Colour Display
Adaptor (CDA) and Enhanced Graphics Adaptor (EGA) that used digital
signals. VGA was replaced by Super VGA that initially supported 800 x 600
pixels with 16 colours. With the advancement of technology, SVGA had a
resolution of 1024 x 768 pixels that supported 256 colours still on the same
15 pins arranged in three rows. The advent of flat screens triggered the need
for new specifications and paved way for the introduction of DVI and HDMI
port that replaced the VGA standard.

Digital Video Interface (DVI) port

It is a video connection standard that was developed by the Digital Display
Working Group. Most DVI ports support both analogue and digital displays.
Suppose that the visual display unit is analogue, then the DVI connection
converts the digital signal to analogue output signals. Most visual display units
nowadays support digital signals.No conversion is necessary in the case that
the visual display unit is digital. The following figure depicts the DVI interface
together with the associated cable hat is inserted into the respective port.
DVI interfaces are found in three main formats namely DVI-D that is digital
only, DVI-A that is analogue only and DVI-I that is integrated and capable of
supporting both analogue and digital signals. The DVI –I interface has two
variants that is the single link and the dual link. DVI interfaces support high
bandwidth specifications such as 160MHz hence they are used for high reso-
lution displays not only on PCs but on other high resolutions applications such
as television sets. It should be noted that DVI specifications are compatible
with the VGA interface.

Unit 5 Ports
High Definition Media Interface (HDMI) Port

This is an integrated digital audio/video interface that has high resolution graph-
ics and digital audio. The interfaces transfers uncompressed high definition
digital video and audio from the source to the visual display unit. It was devel-
oped in 2002 by companies which included Toshiba, Sony, Silicon, Hitachi,
Image, Philips and Panasonic. Before the invention of the HDMI standard,
three separate video cables and two separate audio cables were used in con-
junction to undertake this job. Functionalities of all these cables were embed-
ded into the HDMI interface. The ports for HDMI have 19 pins that are
availed in three most common types namely Type A which is the standard,
Type C which is the mini and Type D which is the micro. Type A is the most
common that is used on desktops, laptops and television sets. Type C is
mainly used on notebooks whereas type D is found on tablets and smartphones.
There are four most common types of HDMI cable namely Standard HDMI,
Standard HDMI with Ethernet, High speed HDMI and High Speed HDMI
with Ethernet. The standard HDMI cable provides a reliable sufficient band-

width of 720p and 1080i video. HDMI with Ethernet cable have the same
cable specifications and additionally has a dedicated Ethernet channel for
directly streaming videos from the Internet. The High Speed HDMI cable
provides a high bandwidth that is capable of carrying video with a resolution
of 1080p or higher, supports 3D video and the display of deep colours. How-
ever, the capability these signals degrades with distance. High Speed HDMI
with Ethernet have the same specifications as High Speed HDMI but addi-
tionally provides an Ethernet connection.
Ethernet Port
It is a standard port for connecting a PC to the wired network. This interface
connects PCs, switches and routers linked by Ethernet cables creating a net-
work for communication referred to as the Local Area Network (LAN). An
Ethernet cable has RJ45 connectors on both ends and one side is plugged on
the Ethernet port of the machine whilst the other side is plugged onto the wall
socket.
Ethernet cables have multiple standards that use the same Ethernet port. Some
of the Ethernet cable specifications include 10 Base T that supports 10Mbps,
100 Base T that supports 100Mbps and the 1000 Base T which is also
referred to as Gigabit Ethernet that supports 1000mbps. Ethernet devices are
backward compatible. A machine that has an Ethernet port that supports 10
Base T specifications can be connected to 100 Base T Ethernet LAN al-
though the machine can only send and receive packets at 10Mbps.
Power Port
The power port powers the machine. One end of the cable is plugged onto
the power port on the machine that directly links to the power supply whilst
the other end is connected to the power wall socket.

Unit 5 Ports
The above pictures show the power port of a desktop machine with the asso-
ciated cable that is plugged into that port. Different power ports exists that
are not even compatible with one another.
Activity 5.4
? 1. Compare and contrast the VGA, DVI and HDMI ports.

2. Justify the relevance of an Ethernet port on the motherboard.
3. Discuss how wireless technology can be integrated on desktop
machines.
Audio Ports
Audio ports are jacks on which audio devices are connected. These audio
devices include head phones, microphones and speakers that are meant for
privacy and improved sound quality. These jacks are colour coded as de-
picted below.

The orange jack is a 3mm receptacle meant for analogue line level audio
output specifically for the centre channel speaker and the subwoofer. The
light blue jack is a 3mm receptacle sometimes referred to as stereo line and
thus an analogue audio input. An arrow going into a circle symbolises this
jack. The pink coded 3mm jack is symbolised by a microphone. It is meant
for analogue microphone audio input. The lime green 3mm jack is used for
analogue line level audio output that is meant for front speakers and head
phones. An arrow that is going one side of a circle into a wave symbolises this
jack. The black coded 3mm jack is an analogue line level audio output that is
meant for rear surround speakers. The gold coded 15 pin port is a game port
/ MIDI where the joystick is connected. A machine may not have all these
audio ports. These audio ports can be inbuilt on the motherboard or can be
found on sound cards that are inserted on expansion slots on the motherboard.
Sound cards convert the digital signals to analogue signals which is output for
example on speakers. Some of the uses of these ports include entertainment,
music composition and video editing. However, USB ports found nowadays
are used as audio ports and they are digital audio ports compared to these
that are analogue audio ports.

Unit 5 Ports
PS/2 Port
This is a mini DIN type of a port that has six pins developed by IBM in
1987as a Personal System/2 (PS2) series and adopted for usage as a stand-
ard. Before the emergence of this type of port, the serial ports were used for
connecting the mouse and the keyboard. The introduction of PS/2 ports paved
way for serial interfaces to be used for modem connections. These circular
ports are colour coded purple for the keyboard and green/teal for the mouse.
Apart from these colours, pictures of these devices were normally found next
to the respective ports. The following are PS2 cable heads that were plugged
onto the PS/2 port.
The PS/2 interface transports serial signals at frequencies ranging from 10-16
KHz. Like serial interfaces, it makes use of one start bit, one stop bit and a
parity bit for error detection. However, PS/2 were not hot swappable as it
was potentially harmful to remove PS/2 devices whilst the machine was pow-
ered on. Additionally, they were port specific.
Hence, PS/2 ports have since been replaced by USB ports that are hot
swappable and either the keyboard or the mouse can be connected on any
USB port.
Thunderbolt Port
It is a peripheral technology interface developed by Intel in collaboration with
Apple. This port combines the PCI Express and display ports architectures
that are capable of outputting audio, video, data and power on a single inter-
face connection. The PCI Express architecture facilitates direct connection to
the PCI Express bus that yields very high speed connections. The embedded
display port facilitates very high speed transmission of high definition videos.
Thunderbolt is a bidirectional two channelled port that has a data transfer rate
or throughput of 10Gbps. The following pictures show the thunderbolt port
and the respective cable that fits into the port.

A lightning arrow is normally used to depict this type of port. A maximum of

six devices can be super daisy chained and connected to the same thunder-
bolt port. Thunderbolt 2 series combined the two ten gigabit bidirectional
channels into a single bidirectional 20Gbps channel throughput port. USB 3.1
has an equivalent throughput of 10Gbps to the original thunderbolt. The thun-
derbolt port supports high speed performance, high resolution, flexibility and
super daisy chaining hence it is now very popular in today’s machines.
FireWire port
This is a high speed port that is used to connect peripherals at very high data
rates as well as preserving total quality. It is sometimes referred to as the
IEEE 1394 standard. These ports are specialised for transferring data on
professional scanners, printers, video and audio equipment. The ports are in
two variants namely FireWire 400 and FireWire 800.

Unit 5 Ports
FireWire 400 has a data rate of 400Mbps and are almost rectangular in shape
with six pin conductors. The curved end will be pointing downwards when
the respective cable is being inserted. It supports a maximum distance of 4.5
metres. FireWire 800 is the latest version that supports 800Mbps, has nine
pin conductors and almost square in shape that has a groove on one side.
The maximum cable length of 100 metres is accepted by this type of port.
The groove has to be facing the user when FireWire 800 is being inserted into
the port. FireWire port can connect up to 63 devices through a maximum of
16 hopped daisy chained scenario. FireWire interfaces also provides power
to devices connected them.
These types of ports can be used to upload images from a digital camera onto
the PC preserving the original quality of the images. In addition to that, FireWire
ports can be used to connect directly two independent devices. For example,
the small printers that are connected directly to digital cameras utilise FireWire
ports for their connections during printing.

FireWire 2 has greater speed compared to USB 1.1. Likewise, FireWire 2

outplayed both USB2.0 up to USB 3.1 with respect to speed. Thus FireWire
port is specifically meant for high speed isochronous application areas at a
greater distance. FireWire 2 is backward compatible with FireWire. How-
ever, the costs incurred in building FireWire ports is more compared to USB
port and thus USB ports have become more popular. As is with USB ports,
FireWire is a plug and play port that is hot swappable.
Activity 5.5
? 1. Figure out the devices that were connected through the PS2 ports and
synthesise the reasons why PS2 ports were overtaken by USB ports.
2. Is there any difference between plug and play and hot swappable?
Justify your reasoning.
3. Evaluate the relevance of using the thunderbolt port and fire wire port
in specific application domains.
Summary
Ports are specialised interfaces that were designed for particular situations.
Improvements are constantly being developed that address speed, maximum
distance, efficiency and effectiveness for the movement of data. Different ports
have different functionalities and operate at different speeds depending upon
the time they evolved.

Unit 5 Ports
References
Bhatnagar, S. (2008).Textbook for Computer Science for Class XI. New
Delhi: Prentice Hall.
Pvt Limited.


Unit Six
Expansion Slots and Cards
6.0 Introduction
T
hese are sockets that are found on the motherboard where additional
circuit boards are added to expand the capabilities of a computer. These
additional circuit boards, also referred to as expansion cards have elec-
trical connections that facilitate communication with the motherboard. Some
of the capabilities of computers that can be expanded on these slots include
video, sound, network interface adaptors and RAM. Utilisation of these slots
customises machines to precisely address the needs of specific users as new
functionalities can be added on these slots in future. On average, desktops
have a minimum of one expansion slot and a maximum of seven slots. These
slots have different sizes and processing speed and moreover still evolving.
Different types of slots are now discussed in this Unit.
6.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, candidates should be able to:
♦ Identify the different types of slots on a machine.

♦ Explain the importance of the different types of expansion cards on a
machine.
♦ Install expansion cards on these expansion slots.
♦ Draw a clear distinction between the performances of a machine that
was installed certain expansion cards from those that were not.
6.2 Types of Expansion Slots

Industrial Standard Association (ISA)
This is the oldest type of expansion slot that was developed by IBM in 1981
on their PC XT motherboard. This original version had an 8 bit bus that had
a clock speed of 4.77 MHZ. Later in 1984, IBM improved this type of slot
to a 16 bit bus that ran at a maximum speed of 8.33 MHZ when they intro-
duced their PC AT motherboard. The following are the 8 bit and 16 bit ISA
slots respectively.
The 16 bit ISA slot was backward compatible with the 8 bit ISA as can be
seen above. It supported 16 MB of memory and interrupts were not shared
by more than one card hence it was widely used then. The interfaces that
were housed on an ISA slot included the VGA or EGA display controller
adaptor, two serial ports, one parallel port, the disk drive interface, the game
port, sound card and network card.
The emergence of 32 bit operating systems such as Windows NT needed

high performance systems to handle large amounts of data. The ISA system
was not fast enough to cope up to the specifications hence was replaced by
newer versions.

Unit 6 Expansion Slots and Cards
The above pictures depict the ISA 16 bit card and slot. These have since
been replaced by PCI slot and cards.
Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA)

It is an architecture that improves the ISA interface to a 32 bit architecture.
This slot was developed as an alternative to the IBM product, MCA by a
consortium of companies that included Compaq, AST, Epson, Hewlett-
Packard, NEC, Olivetti, Tandy, Wyse and Zenith in September 1988. EISA
architecture has the same size connectors as ISA but has four row compared
to the two rows for ISA. Hence EISA connectors are deeper and backward
compatible with ISA.

As a result of the 32 bit address bus, ISA has a maximum data transfer rate of
33 megabytes per second. Additionally, more than one processor would share
the bus. One major strength of EISA was it being a plug and play device that
automatically configured adaptor cards. The bus mastering for greater effi-
ciency was adopted by this slot supported a memory access of 4GB. This
type of slot shared interrupts. However, it was expensive to build such an
interface such that it was mainly found on servers it was meant for high band-
width intensive applications then. These expansion slots are no longer imple-
mented as improved versions of slots that perform better have been devel-
oped.
Micro Channel Architecture (MCA)

It was an IBM proprietary standard that was introduced in 1987 for their PS/
2 machines. This standard supported both 16 bit and 32 bit buses which had
a data transmission rate of 10MHZ. This standard was not popular because
it was not compatible with ISA technology and required MCA compatible
technology. It being an IBM proprietary made it very expensive compared to
ISA. Additionally, the standard did not only consume too much space but
also was difficult to upgrade thus causing other manufacturers to team up in
coming up with the EISA standard. Hence this type of slot did not gain a good
market share. The figures below show the slot with the associated card.

On the other hand, the major strength of MCA was auto configuration and
bus mastering. Bus mastering entails the ability of a peripheral device to tem-
porarily take control of the bus from the processor. Auto configuration was
the ability of any device connected to the bus to automatically configure them-
selves. This meant that owing to this principle, it was no longer necessary for
jumpers and switches to be set on either cards or motherboards. The 16 bit
bus had a transfer rate of 20 Mbps whilst the 32 bit bus had a transfer rate of
40Mbps.
Video Electronics Standard Association (VESA)

VESA a non-profit making organisation developed the VESA Local Bus
(VLB) in 1992. This local bus was meant to provide graphics cards direct
access to the processor and memory thus improving graphics performance as
it ran at the same speed as the processor. The VLB is an additional slot and
card that is aligned to and augments the ISA or the EISA. This extension to
the ISA or EISA was colour coded brown. The pictures below depict the
VLB bus and the associated VESA card.
It was backward compatible with ISA and ran on a 32 bit data bus that had
a maximum speed of 66MHz. VESA by then provided more bandwidth for
video and graphics and was considered a very fast interface. On average, a
maximum of three VESA cards were normally installed at a time to address
problems of timing glitches. It was highly dependent on the processor thus
limited to the 386 and 486 models and was not compatible with Pentium
motherboards. In most cases, there were one or two VLB capable ISA slots
from an average total of about six ISA slots. VESA had an increased slot
length and number of pins hence difficult to install. This standard was re-
placed by PCI and AGP.

Activity 6.1
? 1. Justify the relevance of expansion slots on machines.

2. Briefly explain how one can figure out that a certain type of expansion
slot is compatible with a given expansion card.
3. Compare and contrast the following:
a) ISA and EISA
b) VESA and MCA
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

This standard was introduced by Intel in 1992 as an improvement to the ISA
and VESA slots. This local computer bus was meant for attaching hardware
devices that included sound cards, network cards, USB and disk controllers.
PCI had an improved version 2 in 1993 that had a 3.3 voltage instead of 5V.
In 1995, version 2.1 was released that had high specification meant for serv-
ers for that time. The PCI standard came in two variants namely a 32 bit data
width that had 124 pins and a 64 bit data width that had 188 pins. The 32 bit
connections operated at 33MHz and 66MHz that yielded a bandwidth of
133Mbps and 266Mbps respectively. The 64 bit data width operated at
66MHz and had a peak transfer of 532Mbps. The figures below depict a 32
bit 5V expansion slot and the associated PCI card.
The PCI Extended (PCI-X) is a variant of the PCI that was meant for servers
with high speeds that utilised speeds of more than 532Mbps. The mini PCI
was used for laptops. PCI slots were meant for future customer expansions
that would improve the performance of the computer. The PCI buffers pro-
vided isolation and amplification of signals that warranted multiple device con-
nections to the PC. This standard supported plug and play. The PCI standard
made use of a latency timer that calculated the maximum time the device
would use the bus. However, the PCI standard had limitations to users who

played music, games or other programmes that consumed vast amounts of

graphics resources. The PCI had a parallel architecture which had the above
limitations that were addressed by future standards.
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

The AGP slot was derived from the PCI slot and the motherboards had nor-
mally only one AGP slot and other PCI slots. The AGP slot was a dedicated
interface that had direct connections to the processor and memory. These
types of slots have utilised a 32 bit bus that ran at 66MHZ. AGP 1.0 was
introduced by Intel in 1996 and supported speeds of AGP 1X and AGP 2X
that had 266Mbps and 533Mbps bandwidth respectively. This first version
was compatible with both 3.3V and 1.5V. AGP 2.0 was launched in 1998
that had an additional speed of 4X apart from 1X and 2X. The AGP 4X
supported either a 1.5V or 0.8V that achieved a maximum bandwidth of
1066Mpbs. AGP 3.0 was later released in 2000 and supported only the
speeds AGP 4X and AGP 8X. The AGP 8X offered a bandwidth of 2133Mbps
on a 0.8V. Different AGP versions have different voltages and the cards were
not compatible with each other. To prevent damages due to difference in
voltages, AGP edge connectors were keyed. Apart from having a dedicated
link, AGP implemented pipelining to improve the rate of data transmission.
This principle entails the concurrent execution of multiple instructions. The
figures that follow depict an AGP slot and the associated AGP card.
AGP Pro was another variant of AGP that was used on high power specifica-
tions such as CAD workstations in the engineering discipline. All AGP slots
were located very close to the processor for fast execution of instructions.

PCI Express (PCI-E)

It is a standard that was introduced in 2001 by the PCI-SIG that superseded
PCI, PCI-X and AGP. The PCI-E interfaces are serial oriented compared to
the previous architectures which were parallel. Most motherboards nowa-
days are installed both PCI-E and PCI slots. To date PCI 1.0, PCI 2.0 and
PCI 3.0 have penetrated the market successfully. The most common speed
for each of these versions includes 1X, X4, X8, X16 or 32X. For example
PCI 1.0 X16 denotes that the slot is a version 1 and that it has 16 lanes
carrying data to and from the slot. A lane is defined as a bidirectional dedi-
cated serial link that transmits data simultaneously in either direction. PCI-E
cards are designed in such a manner that they are compatible with their re-
spective configuration or higher. For example, an X1 fits into X1, X4, X8,
X16 and 32X slots. An X4 card fit into X4, X8, X16 and 32X slots but is not
compatible with an X1 slot. The figure below show sample PCI-E slots and
an PCI-E X16 card.
The table below depicts the different versions and form factors of lanes of
PCI-E with the associated clock speeds and maximum bandwidth rendered.

Slot Type Clock Speed(GHZ) Maximum bandwidth(Mbps)

PCI 1.0 X1 2.5 250
PCI 1.0 X4 2.5 1000
PCI 1.0 X8 2.5 2000
PCI 1.0 X16 2.5 4000
PCI 2.0 X1 5 500
PCI 2.0 X4 5 2000
PCI 2.0 X8 5 4000
PCI 2.0 X16 5 8000
PCI 3.0 X1 8 1000
PCI 3.0 X4 8 4000
PCI 3.0 X8 8 8000
PCI 3.0 X16 8 16000
The PCI-E interface supports both hot plugging and hot swapping. The mini
PCI-E is a form factor for PCI-E specially designed for laptops, notebooks
and other portable devices with limited space.
PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International

Association)
It is a trade association organisation that was born in 1989 that comprised of
500 companies that jointly developed a credit card sized device referred to
as a PC card. The PC card standard was originally designed for the addition
of memory to portable devices. However, the functionalities were later ex-
tended for modems and NICs expansions just but to mention a few. The
following is a parallel printer port PCMCIA card for laptops with 54mm
slots.

Normally, PC cards are sized 85.6mm by 54mm and they come in three
variants namely Type I, Type II and Type III. Approximately, Type I PC
cards are 3.3mm thick and they are commonly used for memory modules.
Type I slot is compatible with Type I cards only. Type II PC cards are on
average 5mm thick and are used for modems and as network adaptors. Type
II slot is compatible with both Type I and Type II cards. Type III cards are
approximately 10.5mm thick and are used for portable disk drives. Type III
slots are compatible with Type I, II and III cards. However, PC cards had a
16 bit data width that was further improved to a 32 bit data width referred to
as the Card Bus. The Card bus was then improved to yield the serial based
Express Card that supports very high bandwidth, supports USB2.0, uses
less voltage and has a very much reduced cost of production.
Additionally, the Express Card is hot swappable.
6.3 Installing Expansion cards

1. Shut down and unplug your machine. Leave the machine to cool down
for a while.
2. Open your computer casing.
3. Identify correctly the respective expansion slot that you want to install
your expansion card. For example the AGP slot, PCI or PCIE slot.
4. Remove the slot cover or the metal bay cover at the rear of the ma-
chine corresponding to your identified expansion slot.
5. Wear an anti-static wrist strap.
6. Carefully remove the expansion card from its package and avoid get-
ting contact with the card circuitry.
7. Line up appropriately the contacts into the expansion slot.

8. Gently push the expansion card into the slot.

9. Secure the card bracket by replacing the screw.
10. Power the machine and the card will be automatically configured or the
machine guides you on installing the required drivers.
11. Connect external devices to the installed expansion slot.
Activity 6.2
? 1. Identify and explain the different types of cards that can be installed on
expansion slots. Briefly describe the relevance of each type of card
identified above to the PC user.
2. With reference to the expansion slots discussed in this unit, differentiate
the parallel mode of data transmission from the serial mode of data
transmission.
3. Compare and contrast the Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
with the Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) interface. Further, discuss
the significance of these interfaces to expansion slots and relate each
interface to expansion slots that it is compatible with.
4. Is it possible to implement hot plugging and hot swapping on expansion
slots? Justify your reasoning.
5. Suppose one of your subordinates is stuck with his/her laptop that
does not have a Network Interface Card (NIC). He /she proposes to
you that a NIC be added via an expansion slot. Advise accordingly
your subordinate how best to solve this problem.
6. Compare and contrast the following expansion slots:
a) PCI and PCI-E.
b) AGP and PCI-E
Summary
The Unit starts by explaining the relevance of expansion cards and slots to
users. It then expands by demystifying the evolution of expansion slots and
cards as from the earliest ISA slots and cards, EISA, MCA, VESA, PCI,
AGP and the latest PCI-E. These form factors are discussed in depth by
spelling out the structure of the slot, data bus width, speed of the clock, the
maximum bandwidth and other important characteristics rendered by the con-
cerned slots. It is important to note that earlier slots implemented a parallel
architecture whereas the recent slots utilise the high performance serial lane
architecture. The increasing demand for 3D technology will continuously re-

quire new specifications that are in tandem with the ever-changing technology
hence the need to be always abreast with video graphics technology. Thus,
expansion slots and cards will continuously evolve for the benefit of different
user specifications.

References
Andrews, J. (2014). A+ Guide to Hardware: Managing, Maintaining and
Troubleshooting. USA: Cengage learning.
Bhardwaj, P. K. (2007). A+, Network+, Security+ Exams. Sebastopol:
Mueller, S. (2010). Upgrading and Repairing PCs. Indiana: Que.
Rosenthal, J., & Irwin, K. (2007). PC Repair and Maintenance Guide.
Networking Series. New Delhi: Laxmi Publishers Pvt Limited.
Zacker, C., & Rourke, J. (2001). PC Hardware: The Complete Reference.
USA: Osborne/ McGraw-Hill.


Unit Seven
Input Devices
7.0 Introduction
A
n input device is any hardware component that allows a user to enter
data and instructions into a computer. The input is the data and instruc
tions that are fed into the computer memory. Input devices help a user
to easily interact with a computer because without it, a computer would only
be a display device and not allow users to interact with it. There are a number
of input devices that we are going to discuss next.
7.1 Objectives
♦ Define an input device.

♦ State the various input devices and what they are used for.
7.2 Keyboard
The keyboard is one of the primary input devices used to enter data into a
computer. It has its own processor and circuitry that carries information to
and from the processor. The key matrix is a grid of circuits underneath the
keys. When you press a key, it presses a switch, completing the circuit and
allowing a tiny amount of current to flow through. It tells the processor the
position of each key in the matrix and what each keystroke or combination of
keystrokes represents. Most keyboards have between 80 and 110 keys.
These keys include typing keys, numeric keypad, function keys and control
keys. Using a keyboard, a person can type a document, use keystroke
shortcuts, access menus, play games and perform a variety of other tasks.
Keyboards can have different keys depending on the manufacturer, the oper-
ating system they are designed for or whether they are attached to a desktop
computer or part of laptop.

Unit 7 Input Devices
Keys on the keyboard are as follows:
Keys Description
Typing keys/ alphanumeric keys These keys include letter keys (A-Z) and
digit keys (0-9) which generally give same
layout as that of typewriter.
Numeric keypad Used to enter numeric data or cursor
movement. Generally it consists of a set of
17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding machines
and calculators.
Function keys The twelve function keys (F1-F12) are
present on the keyboard which are arranged
in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each
function key has unique meaning and is used
to some specific purpose.
Control keys/ cursor movement keys These keys provide cursor and screen
control. It includes 4 directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
Delete, Page-Up, Page-Down, Control (Ctrl),
Alternate (Alt), Escape (Esc)
Special purpose keys/ modifier keys Keyboard also contains some special purpose
keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num
Lock, Spacebar, Tab and Print Screen
7.2.1 Types of keyboards

Keyboards are categorized under the following types: standard keyboard,
laptop keyboard, gaming and multimedia keyboard, thumb-sized keyboard,
virtual keyboard and foldable keyboard.
Standard keyboard
Standard keyboard are desktop keyboards such as the 101-key US tradi-
tional keyboard or the 104-key Windows keyboards which include alpha-
betic characters, punctuation symbols, numbers and a variety of function keys.

Laptop keyboard
The laptop computer keyboard is a small version of the typical QWERTY
keyboard. A typical laptop have the same keyboard type as a normal key-
board, except for the fact that most laptop keyboards condense the symbols
into fewer buttons to accommodate less space.

Gaming and multimedia keyboard

The gaming keyboards are designed for the convenience of the gamers and
these types of keyboards provide the required controls on the keyboard like
backlighting.
Thumb-sized keyboard
Smaller external keyboards have been introduced for devices without a build-
in keyboard such as PDAs and a smartphones. Small keyboards are also
useful where there is a limited space.
Virtual keyboard
The virtual keyboards are not actually physical keyboards but they are simu-
lated using a software.
Foldable keyboard
Foldable keyboards are extremely good for travelling. Simply roll them up
and then unroll them when you need them again.

7.2.2 Keyboard layouts

Keyboard layouts are named according to the first keys in the pattern. The
keyboard layouts we are going to discuss are: QWERTY, QWERTZ, AZERTY
and DVORAK. Some sources also talk of the ABCDE layout and the XPeRT
layout. We will not discuss these in this module, but rather research on these
two.
QWERTY
The QWERTY layout is the common layout we know. The pattern of the
alphabetic keys starts with the keys that make up the word “QWERTY”,
therefore the name QWERTY keyboard.

QWERTZ
Used in Germany, Hungary and Czech Republic. The alphabetic pattern also
starts with the keys that make up the word “QWERTZ”.
AZERTY
Used by most French speakers based in Europe. Likewise the alphabetic
pattern starts with the keys that make up the word “AZERTY”.

DVORAK
The DVORAK layout is an alternative to the QWERTY. DVORAK layout
uses less finger motion, increase typing speed and reduces errors compared
to the standard QWERTY. It is named after the person who created it, Dr
August Dvorak. The idea behind the DVORAK layout is to have the most
commonly typed keys under the fingers and make it as easy as possible to
type common words and combinations of letters. As such the layout places
the most commonly used letters in the home row where they are easy to reach
and the least commonly used letters on the bottom row where they are hard-
est to reach.
Here is a brief explanation which led to the creation of the Dvorak layout.
Dvorak believed that there were many problems with the original QWERTY
keyboard claiming that it was a problem that:
 Many common letter combinations require a finger to jump over the
home row.
 Many English letter combinations require awkward finger motions
 Many common letter combinations are typed with one hand (for exam-
ple was, were) instead of spreading the load across all the fingers.
 Most typing is done with the left hand which for most people is not the
dominant hand.

Dvorak studied letter frequencies and the physiology of people’s hands and
created a layout to alleviate the problems he believed were part of the
QWERTY layout. The layout he created adheres to the principles that:
 Letters should be typed by alternating between hands which makes
typing more rhythmic, increases speed, reduces error and reduces fa-
tigue. On the Dvorak, vowels are all on the left home row, the most
used symbols are on the left, while the most used consonants are on the
right.
 For maximum speed and efficiency, the most common letters and
bigrams should be the easiest to type. This means that they should be
on the home row (which is where the fingers rest) and under the strongest
fingers.
 The least common letters should be on the bottom row which is the
hardest row to reach.
 The right hand should do most of the typing because most people are
right handed.
So the Dvorak keyboard layout addressed problems that were said to be
brought about by the QWERTY layout.
Activity 7.1
1. What is an ergonomic keyboard?
? 2. Research on ABCDE and XPeRT keyboard layouts.
3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of keyboards.
7.3 Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device that control movement of a cursor on the screen
when it is moved horizontally over a flat surface. The cursor on the screen can
take several shapes for example
I-beam, block arrow, pointing hand and many more. A mouse is the widely
used pointing device in a graphical user interface environment on personal
computers. A user can simply point to options and objects and click a mouse
button. Buttons on the mouse let you select options from menus and drag
objects around the screen and so on.

7.3.1 Types of mouse
Mechanical
A mechanical mouse have a rubber or metal ball on its underside that can roll
in all directions to detect movement of the mouse.

Optical
Optical mouse uses devices that emit and sense light to detect the mouse’s
movement. It is more precise than mechanical.
Cordless/ wireless mouse

The cordless mouse is either mechanical or optical and it transmits data using
wireless technology such as radio waves or infrared light waves.
Activity 7.2
? 1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of a mouse.
7.4 Trackball
A trackball is a stationary pointing device consisting of a ball held by a socket
containing sensors to detect a rotation of the ball about two axes-like an
upside-down mouse with an exposed protruding ball. Instead of moving the

whole mouse around, the user rolls the trackball only which is on the top or
side. To move pointer/ cursor, rotate ball with thumb, fingers or palm of hand.
Trackball is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer instead of a mouse.
Activity 7.3
? 1. Research on the advantages and disadvantages of trackball.
7.5 Light pen

A light pen is a computer input device in the form of a light-sensitive wand
used in conjunction with a computer’s CRT display. It allows the user to point
to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a similar way to a touch screen
but with greater positional accuracy. A light pen can work with any CRT
based display but not with LCD screens, projectors and other display de-
vices.

7.6 Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)

A magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) reader can read text printed
with magnetized ink. MICR is most exclusively used by the banking industry
where there is large amounts of cheque processing daily. The cheque number,
bank number and account number are printed at the bottom of the cheque
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable by the MICR reader. The main advantage of the MICR is
that no matter how bulk the cheques may be, it is fast and less error prone to
process the cheques.

Activity 7.4
? 1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of MICR.
7.7 Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically
character by character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores
the text on the system memory.

Most OCR readers include a small optical scanner for reading characters and
sophisticated OCR software for analyzing what is read. Advanced OCR sys-
tems cam recognize hand printing though hand printing is much more difficult
to analyze than machine-printed text. With OCR, hard copies can be read
directly into the computer without retyping and the characters converted can
be edited by a word processing software.
Activity7.5
1. Outline the advantages and disadvantages of OCR.
?
7.8 Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR reads hand-drawn pencil marks such as small circles or rectangles on
pre-printed forms in certain places. The OMR reader first reads the answer
key sheet to record the correct answers based on the patterns of light and
then reads the remaining documents and matches their patterns of light against
the answer key sheet. OMR readers are often used for marking multiple choice
answer sheets, capturing data from questionnaires, enrolment forms and lot-
tery tickets.

Activity 7.6
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of OMR.
?
7.9 Bar code reader
A bar code reader or scanner also known as point of sale scanner is a hard-
ware device capable of reading a bar code and printing out the details of the
product and or logging that product into a database so that a company can
easily keep track of its inventory. A bar code reader reads bar coded data
using light patterns that pass through the bar code lines. The bar code reader
uses laser beams to read bar codes. A bar code is data coded in the form of
small lines that act as identification code that consists of a set of vertical lines
and spaces of different widths and sizes that determines what the scanned
object is. Bar codes are often used to help organize and be able to index
information or prices about an object. So the bar code system is widely used
in point of sale in supermarkets, department stores, libraries and so on. The
bar code reader may be a hand held scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner. Bar code reader scans a bar code image, converts it into
an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code
reader is connected.

Activity 7.7
? 1. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of bar code reader.

2. Discuss all other input devices not covered in this section.
Summary
This chapter covered the different input devices that we use in the computer
system. The input devices are crucial because they capture different kinds of
information into the computer system for it to be processed and be able to
produce output which will be used for different purposes.

References
Pvt Ltd.


Unit Eight
Storage Devices
8.1 Introduction
I n this unit we cover storage devices. Storage devices are categorized into
primary and secondary storage. Secondary storage is further categorised
into magnetic storage, optical storage, solid-state storage and cloud storage.
8.2 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Define storage devices

 Explain the various storage devices and what they are
used for.
 Differentiate primary and secondary storage devices
 Explain the various secondary storage technologies
8.3 Storage Devices

A storage device is any computing hardware that is used for storing, porting
and extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information both
temporarily and permanently, and can be internal or external to a computer,
server or any similar computing device.
A storage device may also be known as a storage medium.
There are two different types of storage devices:

 Primary Storage Devices: Generally smaller in size, are designed to
hold data temporarily and are internal to the computer. They have the
fastest data access speed, and include RAM and cache memory
(covered in previous chapters).
 Secondary Storage Devices: These usually have large storage capacity,
and they store data permanently. They can be both internal and external
to the computer, and they include the hard disk, compact disk drive
and USB storage device.
Secondary storage devices can be further categorized based on the storage
technology used that is magnetic storage, optical storage, and solid-state
storage and cloud storage.
8.3.1 Magnetic storage

Magnetic storage is the storage of data on a magnetized medium. Magnetic
storage uses different patterns of magnetisation in a magnetisable material to
store data. The information is accessed using one or more read/write heads.
The basic approach to magnetic data storage, however, is very similar for the
different types of media. A read-write head moves very close to the magnetic
surface, the distance is often no more than tens of nanometers. The head is

Unit 8 Storage Devices
able to detect and modify the magnetization of the material. The magnetic
surface is divided into very small regions, each of which has a mostly uniform
magnetisation. As the head moves relative to the surface, the changes in
magnetisation from region to region are detected and recorded as zeros and
ones. Different technologies vary in how the head moves relative to the surface
of the media and how the regions on the media are organized, but the basic
principle is the same.
Magnetic storage is a form of non-volatile storage. This means that the data is
not lost when the storage device is not powered. Magnetic storage is widely
used because it is relatively cheap in comparison with other storage
technologies. Magnetic storage is read-write, which makes it possible to re-
use the storage capacity over and over again by deleting older data. The
storage capacity is also very large, making it attractive for storing very large
amounts of data. The major limitation of magnetic storage is that accessing
the data can be quite slow. As a result, most computer systems use magnetic
storage for non-volatile storage of large amounts of data (typically in a form
of a hard-disk drive) but a different type of storage for system memory, such
as read-only memory (RAM), which is much smaller but can be accessed
much faster.
Magnetic storage media are diskettes, hard disks and magnetic tapes.
Magnetic storage devices hold data even when the computer is turned off so
the data can be used whenever needed. Storage involves writing data to the
medium and reading from the medium. Writing data is the recording of data
on the surface of the disk where it is stored for later use. Reading is the
retrieving of data from the surface and transferring it into the computer’s
memory for use.
Hard disk drive (HDD)
A hard disk drive (HDD) is a data storage device used for storing and

retrieving digital information using rapidly rotating disks called platters that
are coated with magnetic material. These disks spin extremely fast (typically
at either 5400 or 7200 RPM-revolutions per minute) so that data can be
accessed immediately from anywhere on the drive. The data is stored on the
hard drive magnetically, so it stays on the drive even after the power supply is
turned off. Data is read in a random access manner, meaning
individual blocks of data can be stored or retrieved in any order rather
than sequentially. An HDD consists of one or more rigid (hard) rapidly rotating
platters with magnetic heads arranged on a moving actuator arm to read and
write data to the surfaces. Nowadays HDD offer quite a large capacity up to

even several terabytes. HDD can be internal or external. Those that are internal
are mounted on the motherboard using IDE or SATA cables and those that
are eternal are connected to the CPU usually using USB ports. Examples of
internal HDDs are Seagate, Toshiba, Western Digital and many more.
External structure of an Internal HDD
Internal structure of the Internal HDD

Platter
Platters are the actual disks inside the drive that store the data contained on
the hard disk drive. They are shaped like a record with a magnetic surface. A
HDD can contain one or more platters depending on its capacity. A spindle
holds the platters together and a motor rotates them at a certain speed
measured in Revolutions Per Minute (RPM).
Spindle
The platters in a drive are separated by disk spacers and are clamped to a
rotating spindle that turns all the platters in unison. The spindle motor is built
right into the spindle or mounted directly below it and spins the platters at a
constant set rate ranging from 3,600 to 7,200 RPM. The motor is attached to
a feedback loop to ensure that it spins at precisely the speed it is supposed to.
Actuator
The actuator is designed to move the read/write arm to the correct position
on the platter to read the data. The actuator moves the actuator arm (read/
write arm) to the correct position on the platters using voice coils motivated
by electric currents. When no electric current is being received, the actuator
causes the actuator arm to place the read/write heads in the parked position.
Actuator arm (read/write arm)
The read/write arm contains many heads on the end of the arm which are
designed to float above the platter and read data from the platter. It is the
actuator arm that helps position the read/write heads at the correct location
on the platter to read the data. The heads never actually touch the platters when
accessing the data. They function at approximately 5 microns above the surface
of the platter.
Read/Write heads
The read/write heads read and write data to the platters. There is typically

one head per platter side, and each head is attached to a single actuator shaft
so that all the heads move in unison. When one head is over a track, all the
other heads are at the same location over their respective surfaces. Typically,
only one of the heads is active at a time, that is, reading or writing data. When
not in use, the heads rest on the stationary platters, but when in motion the
spinning of the platters create air pressure that lifts the heads off the platters.
The space between the platter and the head is so minute that even one dust

particle or a fingerprint could disable the spin. This necessitates that hard
drive assembly be done in a clean room When the platters cease spinning the
heads come to rest, or park, at a predetermined position on the heads, called
the landing zone.
External HDD
External hard drives are mostly used to backup data stored on a computer

and expand the total amount of space available to them. They are portable
which makes it easy to transfer files between different computers without
using a network. External drives are often stored in an enclosure that helps
protect the drive and allow it to interface with the computer, usually over USB.
Examples of external HDD are Western Digital, Seagate, Toshiba, Sony,
Samsung etc.
Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tape is a sequential storage medium used for magnetic recording

(or data collection, backup and archiving) made of a thin magnetizable coating
on a long narrow strip of plastic. It is a key technology in early computer
development, allowing unparalleled amounts of data to be mechanically
created, stored for long periods and to be rapidly accessed. Over the years,
magnetic tape can suffer from deterioration called sticky-shed syndrome caused
by absorption of moisture into the binder of the tape which can render the
tape unusable. Magnetic tapes are mostly used by large organizations that
need to back up large volumes of data daily, so large that a CD, DVD or flash
cannot handle. Magnetic tape can back up a system in a bank, school or any
large organization. It can store up to 1 terabyte of uncompressed data or
more. Magnetic tapes use serial-access to find a piece of data. This means
that to find a specific piece of data, the tape reader has to start at the beginning
of the tape and continue fast forwarding until it gets to the piece of data that is

needed. Serial access makes it fairly slow to find and retrieve data so it would
not be much useful to store data that is needed quickly, however it is excellent
for archiving data not likely to be needed instantly.
8.3.2 Optical storage
Optical storage is any storage method in which data is written and read with
a laser for archival or backup purposes. The writing or reading of data is
done in the CD-ROM drive or DVD-ROM drive of a PC. Data is written to
optical media such as CDs, DVDs etc. Data is recorded by making dots in a
pattern that can be read back with the aid of light, usually a beam of laser light
precisely focused on a spinning disc. The data on the storage medium is read
by bouncing the laser beam off the surface of the medium. If the beam hits a
dot it is reflected back differently to how it would be if there were no dot.
This difference can be detected, so the data can be read.
Dots can be created using the laser beam (for media that is writable such as
CD-Rs). The beam is used in a high power mode to actually mark the surface
of the medium, making a dot. This process is known as burning data onto a
disc.
Optical storage media offer very limited storage capacity as compared to

other storage media like magnetic storage for example a single CD have a
capacity of around 700MB and a DVD up to 4GB which is far much less
than other storage media. However a number of new optical formats such as
Blu-ray and UDO (Ultra Density Optical) use blue laser to dramatically
increase capacities.
The current optical disc technologies such as DVD, DVD-R and DVD-RW
rely on red laser to read and write data whilst new formats use blue violet
laser instead. The benefit of using a blue violet laser (405nm) is that it has a
shorter wavelength than a red laser (650nm) which makes it possible to focus
the laser spot with even greater precision. This allows data to be packed
more tightly and stored in less space, so it is possible to fit more data on the
disc even though it’s the same size as a CD or DVD.
Read Only Optical discs
CD/DVD
The most basic form of optical storage is the CD or DVD that can hold data
that can only be read. Formally it is CD-ROM or DVD-ROM. ROM stands
for read-only memory which translates also as non-writeable. CD-ROMs and

DVD-ROMs are permanently pressed/molded when manufactured thus data

cannot be altered (non-volatile) and cannot be accidentally deleted. Both
CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs are random access devices. CD-ROM discs
can hold around 700MB of data and DVD-ROM discs can hold around
4GB of data. Since DVD-ROMs hold more data, they can also be used to
store high quality video.
Recordable Optical discs
CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R
A CD-R, DVD-R or DVD+R may be recorded (written on), but only a single
time. The R stands for recordable. This write-once process uses a light-
sensitive dye recording layer to which information is irreversibly written by
means of a laser heating and altering it, to create a pattern of marks
mimicking those of a prerecorded (pressed/molded) CD or DVD. This is
why the writing process is sometimes called burning. Recordable optical discs
can have data written onto them (burnt) by a computer user using a special
disc drive called a disc burner. Data can only be burnt but cannot be erased.
You can keep adding data until the disc is full but you cannot remove any data
or reuse a full disc.
CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW
A CD-RW, DVD-RW or DVD+RW may be recorded (written on) many

times. The RW standards for rewriteable. The rewriting process employs a
metallic phase-change recording layer that can be repeatedly altered and
restored by the writing laser (approximately 1000 times). CD or DVD
drives capable of writing (as opposed to just reading) can write to either R
or RW discs. Rewritable discs can have data burnt onto them and also erased
so that the discs can be reused.
DVD RAM
DVD-RAM discs are a type of rewritable DVD. They often come in a floppy-
disc style case to protect the disc. DVD-RAM also uses phase-change
technology but can be rewritten roughly 100,000 times. With its hard sectors,
random access capabilities and optional cartridge, DVD-RAM more closely
resembles traditional hard drive storage media than do DVD-RW and
DVD+RW. The discs have a similar capacity as DVDs and are random access
devices. DVD-RAM discs are used in many camcorders (video recording
cameras). The discs have a much higher quality than normal DVD-RW and

can reliably store data for up to 30 years. This means that they are often used
for video data backup and archiving.
High Capacity optical discs
Blu-Ray
Blu-Ray disks are a recent replacement for DVDs. A Blu-Ray disc can hold 25
to 50GB of data (a dual-layer Blu-Ray disc can hold twice that). Blu-Ray
discs are random access devices. Blu-Ray discs are used in the same way
as DVD-ROMs but, since they can hold more data, they are also used to
store very high-quality, high-definition (HD) video.
The Blu part of Blu-Ray refers to the fact that the laser used to read the disc
uses blue light instead of red light. Blue light has a shorter wave-length than
red light (used with CDs and DVDs).
Using a blue laser allows more data to be placed closer together on a Blu-
Ray disc, than on a DVD or CD, so Blu-Ray has a much higher storage
capacity than the older discs.

HD DVD
High-density DVD (HD-DVD) discs can hold around 15GB of data (a dual-

layer HD-DVD can hold twice that). HD-DVDs are random-access devices.
HD-DVD discs are used in the same way as DVD-ROMs but, since they
can hold more data, they are also used to store very high-quality, high-
definition (HD) video.
The HD-DVD format was launched at the same time as Blu-Ray. For about
a year they competed to be the next DVD. For various reasons, Blu-Ray
won the fight, and the HD-DVD format has been abandoned.
8.3.3 Solid-state storage

Solid-state storage is the storing of information on media such as USB memory
sticks, memory cards and smart cards. Solid-state storage devices are based
on electronic circuits with no moving parts (no reels of tape, no spinning discs
or no laser beams). Solid-state storage devices store data using a special
type of memory called flash memory.
Flash Memory
Flash memory is a type of Electronically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only

Memory (EEPROM). Flash memory is non-volatile (like ROM) but the data
stored in it can also be erased or changed (like RAM).
Flash memory can be found in many data storage devices.

1) USB Memory Sticks

 Memory sticks have made many other forms of portable storage almost
obsolete (there is no point to burn a CD or DVD when you can more
easily copy your files onto a memory stick).
 Memory sticks are non-volatile, random-access storage devices.
 Each of these small devices has some flash memory connected to a
USB interface. Plug it into your computer and it appears as a drive.
You can then add files, erase files, etc. You can use it to move any type
of file between computers.
 Flash memory used to be very expensive, but in recent years it has
become much cheaper and you can now buy a 16GB memory stick
for just a few dollars.
2) Memory Cards
 Many of our digital devices (cameras, mobile phones, MP3 players,
etc.) require compact, non-volatile data storage. Flash memory cards
provide this and come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
 One of the most common formats used by digital cameras is the SD
Card. The cards store the digital images taken by the camera.
 Mobile phones contain a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card that
contains the phone’s number, the phonebook numbers, text messages,
etc.
 Many phones also have extra memory cards to store music, video,
photos, etc. (e.g Tiny Micro-SD cards).

3) Smart cards
 Many credit cards (e.g. ‘chip-and-pin’ cards), door entry cards, satellite
TV cards, etc. have replaced the very limited storage of the magnetic
strip (the dark strip on the back of older cards) with flash memory.
This is more reliable and has a much larger storage capacity.
 Cards with flash memory are called smart cards.
8.3.4 Cloud storage

Cloud storage is a term used to refer to all file hosting services on the internet.
These services typically store massive amounts of data on huge servers that
are housed in one or more data centres. It is also commonly known as online
storage. An individual or company wishing to back up their data on the cloud
can do so by paying a fee to a cloud storage service provider in exchange for
a certain amount of storage space where you can upload your documents and
files. Storing of data online is secure in that data can be shared via shared user
logins or by providing authorized users with links to the files. Again there is
better security in the sense that data is encrypted during both downloads and
uploads which makes it difficult for hackers to steal information. Another
advantage that cloud storage have is that it makes it possible for users to

upload and download information from anywhere where there is an internet

connection and using any device be it a laptop, desktop computer or mobile
phone. Again there is reduced or no data corruption and loss due to hardware
failures or malfunction because on cloud storage, data is backed up on multiple
servers and the servers at the data centres where your data is kept are
monitored and maintained by well trained professionals. However a greater
disadvantage with cloud storage is that of speed during data transfers. The
speed of data transfer, whether it is on upload or download will always depend
upon the internet connection at your location as well as the amount of traffic
the file hosting service is currently experiencing. A connectivity problem on
the user’s side or on the host’s side will prevent data transfers and will even
interrupt downloads and uploads while they are in progress.

Activity 8.1
? 1. Explain the storage devices that fall under primary storage

devices.
2. Discuss magnetic storage, optical storage, solid-state
storage and cloud storage.
8.4 Summary
In this unit we discussed that data can be stored on temporary basis in the
RAM or cache memory. Data on the RAM is data that is currently being
used. It is stored on the RAM for easy access. When data needs to be stored
for later use, it can be stored in secondary storage that is magnetically, optically,
in a solid-state or in the cloud.
References
Pvt Ltd.

Unit Nine
Output Devices
9.1 Introduction
O utput devices are devices or hardware that communicate results of

processed data into human-readable form as hard or soft copies.
Softcopy is output shown on the screen and hardcopy is output printed on
paper.
9.2 Objectives
 Define output devices.

 State the various output devices and what they are used
for.
 Outline monitor performance measurements aspects.
 Discuss different types of monitors.
 Discuss different types of printers.
 Explain different printer interfaces.
 List the steps of installing a printer.
9.3 Softcopy
Softcopy is an unprinted/ electronic version of a document. It is output in the
form of displays on monitor screens. It is viewed through an appropriate
editing program like adobe reader software, word processing programs or
PowerPoint programs depending on the type of file. One can update a soft
copy document at any time and transfer of documents can be done between
two or more computers so easily and very fast using ftp programs, emails or
through memory sticks etc. Softcopy documents have paved way for paperless
office since all documents will be stored on the computer.
9.3.1 Monitors
A monitor is an output device that displays information from the CPU on the
screen. Thus it works as an interface between CPU and user. It is also known
as visual display unit. A monitor is more like a television but differ in that the
monitor displays information at a much higher resolution. Monitors are
connected to the CPU through video adapter or video card which is mounted
on the motherboard. The connections are done through different kinds of
ports like HDMI, DVI or VGA depending on the type of connection. The
CPU sends instruction to the video adapter telling what needs to be displayed
on the screen. The video adapter converts the instructions into a set of
corresponding signals and sends to the monitor. The Monitor contains a circuitry
that generates the picture on the screen from the set of signals. Monitors
usually are not user serviceable, so for your safety it is not wise to open and
work on a monitor.

Unit 9 Output Devices
Measurements of performance
Monitor performance is measured using the resolution, dot pitch, refresh rate,
response time, aspect ratio, luminance, contrast ratio, power consumption
just to name a few.
Resolution
Resolution refers to the number of dots of colour (known as pixels) that are
displayed in the X (across) and Y (down) co-ordinates. It tells how densely
pixels are arranged on a screen. It is expressed in terms of horizontal pixels x
vertical pixels. For example typical screens are capable of displaying 800x600
pixels. For a given display size, maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch.
Dot Pitch
Dot pitch is the measurement of how close together the pixels or phosphor
dots are that make up an image. The smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the
image.
Refresh rate
Refresh rate is the vertical frequency or the rate at which each pixel on a
screen is redrawn. A low refresh rate results in an image that flickers resulting
in eye strain. A refresh rate of 60Hz means the image is redrawn 60 times per
second. Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time.
Response time
Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to change, that is from
active (white) to inactive (black) and back to active again. It is measured in
milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster transition and therefore fewer visible
image artefacts.
Aspect ratio
Aspect ratio is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length. It is
written as horizontal length followed by a full colon (:) then vertical length.
Monitors usually have the aspect ratio 4:3, 5:4, 16:10, 16:9. This means that
the ratio of the width of the display screen to the height is 16 to 9 for example.
9.3.2 Types of monitors

Monitor types are determined by the type of technology used on them. These

technologies are CRT, LCD, Plasma, LED and OLED.
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
CRT monitors use CRT technology to create a display. The CRT (also known
as the picture tube) receives the signals through a cable and the signal is
decoded by the display controller which finally appears on a phosphor screen.
CRTs have a conical shape and there is an electron gun or cathode ray gun at
the back end of the monitor and a phosphor screen in the front. The electron
gun fires a stream of electrons towards the display screen through a vacuum
tube. This stream of electrons is also known as cathode rays. At the middle of
a monitor there are magnetic anodes which are magnetized in accordance
with the instruction from the display controller. When electrons (cathode rays)
pass through the magnetic anodes, they are pushed or pulled in one direction
or other depending on the magnetic field on the anodes. This directs the
electrons towards the correct part of phosphor coating inside the display
glass. When electrons strikes the phosphor coated screen passing through
the mesh (shadow mask or aperture grill), the phosphor lights up making a
displayable dot on the computer screen. There are three different coloured
phosphors (Red, Green and Blue) for each pixel and the colour of the pixel
depends on the phosphor on which the electrons strike.
Aperture grill and Shadow mask

CRTs incorporate a metal sheet behind the display screen which affects the
pixels on the screen as well as brightness on the screen. Shadow mask is an
obsolete technology in which there is a sheet with millions of holes to pass
electrons in order to hit the phosphor coating. The shadow mask covers the
entire screen thereby protecting the phosphors from stray ions (due to vacuum)
and also limits the strengths of the rays reducing the brightness on the monitor.
Aperture grill is a mesh of wires rather than any metal sheet with holes in it.
Although the grill is fragile, it allows a brighter display.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
An LCD monitor is a thin, light, flat display that uses LCD technology to
show clear images and is used on laptops, cell phones, calculators, digital
cameras and flat screen displays. LCD technology allows displays to be much
thinner than CRT technology. LCD screens are based on the principle of
blocking the light rather than emitting it and because of that they use up much
less power than CRT or LED monitors. The image on an LCD screen is
created by sandwiching an electrically reactive substance between two
electrodes. The colour of this substance can be changed by increasing or
reducing the electrical current. A colour monitor is typically made up of five
layers: a backlight, a sheet of polarized glass, a mask of coloured pixels, a
grid layer of responsive liquid crystal solution and a second polarized sheet of
glass. Images are created by manipulating the orientation of the crystals through
precise electrical charges of varying degrees and voltages. They act like tiny
shutters, opening or closing in response to the stimulus, thereby allowing
degrees of light that have passed through specific coloured pixels to illuminate
the screen. As LCD technology has evolved, different technologies for
producing colour have emerged. Passive matrix screens which were the first
to be invented, use two transistors one for each row and one for each column
of pixels to activate a particular point on the LCD grid. Active matrix screen
usually use thin film transistor (TFT) technology in which each point on the
grid has its own transistor. This allows only the desired pixels to be activated.
Passive matrix screens tend to respond more slowly than active matrix screens
and are not able to produce the same level of image quality.

Plasma display
A plasma display is a flat panel display in which each pixel on the screen is
illuminated by a tiny bit of charged gas (plasma), somewhat like a tiny neon
light. Plasma displays are thinner than CRTs and brighter than LCDs. A plasma
display panel is common to large TV displays of 30 inches (76cm) or larger.
They are called plasma displays because they use small cells containing
electrically charged ionized gases called plasmas.
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
LED is a new type of screen that has been introduced to supersede the LCD
and Plasma screens. Its name relates to the way the display is being illuminated.
LED monitors still use the same liquid crystals as the previous LCD displays.
The way the backlight works however with the LEDs led to a number of
improvements in the display. LEDs are energy efficient and have a long lifespan.
The energy efficient nature of LEDs allows them to produce brighter light than
other types of bulbs while using less energy. For this reason traditional flat
screen LCD displays have started to be replaced by LED displays which use
LEDs for the backlight. LED TVs and computer monitors are typically brighter
and thinner than their LCD counterparts. LEDs has been around for decades
and is used in some laptops as backlighting. You probably know it best from
its use as the backlighting in your cell phones. The advantage of using LED
lighting primarily centre on its ability to provide uniform lighting that offers a
wide range of angles for viewing. Simply put, with LED lighting you can look
at your laptop display from almost any angle and still make sense of what you
see. Both LCD and LED screens are TFT LCD (discussed earlier) screens
but using different backlight. LED version is a LCD screen using LED backlight
instead of florescent backlight that is used in normal LCD.

OLED (Organic LED)
This is the latest technology for display screens. Using polymers that can be
made from almost any organic material, the OLED technology is superior to
other types of display lighting since it requires no backlighting. That change
has the benefit of reducing the power consumption of any laptop with the
technology which should not only save power but improve the battery life of
laptops. OLEDs are made from organic (carbon based) materials that emit
light when electricity is applied through them. Since OLEDs do not require a
backlight and filters (unlike LCD displays), they are more efficient, simpler to
make and much thinner. OLEDs have a great picture quality, brilliant colours,
fast response rate and a wide viewing angle.
Activity 9.1
? 1. Explain other monitor performance measurements aspects
in detail.
2. Differentiate the different screen technologies.
9.4 Hardcopy
A hardcopy is a computer output printed on paper, film or other permanent,
tangible medium as distinguished from information on a computer disk or in
computer memory. It is sometimes referred to as printout. Hard copies are
often preferred to electronic versions for reproductions purposes. They can
be read by anyone at any time as it requires no assistance from external
devices. Important and official documents are usually preserved in this form
to create a tangible record of the material. Hardcopy is again not subject to
failure of an electronic system, and while it can be physically lost or damaged,
it cannot be corrupted or lost in the same way that a computer document can.
For this reason many people generate electronic and printed versions of
important material. Hard copy/ printouts are made out through different types
of printers.
9.4.1 Printers
A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical
medium such as paper or transparency film. Printers can be categorized into
two:
i) Impact printers

ii) Non-impact printers
9.4.2 Impact Printers

An impact printer is a type of printer that operates by striking a metal or
plastic head against an ink ribbon. The ink ribbon is pressed against the paper
marking the page with the appropriate character, dot, line or symbol. Impact
printers form characters and graphics by striking a mechanism such as print
hammer, wheel or pin against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper. Its
mechanisms resemble those of a typewriter. Impact printers are fading out,
that is if they are not already out of the system. Examples of impact printers
are dot matrix, daisy wheel, line printers, drum printers, chain printers and
band printers.
Dot Matrix printer
Dot matrix printer is an impact printer that uses print heads containing from 9
to 24 pins. These pins produce patterns of dots on paper to form the individual
characters. The 24 pin dot matrix printer produces more dots than a 9 pin dot
matrix printer which results in much better quality and clearer characters. The
general rule is the more the pins the clearer the letters on paper. The pins
strike the ribbon individually as the print mechanism moves across the entire
line in both directions that is from left to right then right to left and so on. The
user can produce a color output with a dot matrix printer (the user will change
the black ribbon with a ribbon that has color stripes). Dot matrix printers are
inexpensive and typically print at speeds of 100 to 600 characters per second
(cps).

Daisy wheel printer
The daisy wheel printer is called so because the print mechanism looks like a
daisy, at the end of each petal is a fully formed character which produces
solid line print. A hammer strikes a petal containing a character against the
ribbon and the character prints on the paper. Its speed is slow, typically 25-
55 cps. As the characters on the wheel are fixed, the size and font can only be
changed by using a different wheel. To print a character, the printer rotates
the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then the hammer strikes
the disk forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the
character on the paper.
9.4.3 Non-impact printers

Non-impact printers do not use a striking device to produce characters on
the paper and because these printers do not hammer against the paper they
are much quieter and faster. Examples of non-impact printers are inkjet and
laser printers.
Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers work in the same way as dot matrix printers in the form of
images and characters with little dots. However on inkjet printers, the dots
are formed by tiny droplets of ink. Characters on paper are formed by spraying
ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that arranges the charged ink
particles into characters at the rate of approximately 250cps. Characters are
formed as a result of electrically charged or heated ink being sprayed in fine

jets onto paper. The ink is absorbed into the paper and dries instantly. Various
colors scan be used.
Laser printer
Laser printer works like a photocopy machine. The printer produces images
on paper by directing a laser beam at a mirror which bounces the beam onto
a drum. The drum has a special coating on it to which toner (an ink powder)
sticks. Using patterns of small dots, a laser beam conveys information from
the computer to a positively charged drum to become neutralized. From all
those areas of drum which become neutralized, the toner detaches. As the
paper rolls by the drum, the toner is transferred to the paper printing the
letters or other graphics on the paper. A hot roller bonds the toner to the
paper. The speed of laser printers is high and they print quietly without
producing much noise. Laser printers produce high quality output as compared
to other printers.

Activity 9.2
? 1. Explain the differences between impact and non-impact

printers.
2. Outline any other printer types not covered in this unit.
9.5 Printer Interfaces

Printers are connected to computers using standard interfaces such as parallel,
serial, SCSI or USB. Network capable printers have a built-in network
interface and are connected directly to a network port. Below are different
interfaces that can be used to connect printers to computers.
Parallel
A parallel interface (IEEE1284) works by sending an 8-bit parallel data stream

to the printer. It uses a parallel printer cable, which has a DB-25 connector
for connection to the computer and a 36-pin Centronics connector for
connection to the printer. The maximum length of the parallel cable is usually
limited to 10 feet.
Serial
A serial interface sends data to the printer one bit at a time. These interfaces
need to be configured to serial communication parameters such as baud rate,

parity bit or start and stop bits. Serial printers are rarely used these days.
USB
The USB is the most common type of printer interfaces used on small and
medium-range printers and many other peripherals. USB is faster than other
types of interfaces. USB printers come with PnP-compatibility and can be
automatically detected and configured by the Operating System.
IEEE1394
The IEEE1394 is also known as firewire interface. This interface is not built-
in on many printers or computers. It is mainly used where highly demanding
printing applications are used.
Network interface
Most high-end printers come with a built-in network adapter or can be

upgraded by installing one. These printers can be directly attached to one of
the free network ports and can be assigned a network identification such as
an IP address. The printer uses a standard network cable with an RJ-45
connector. In busy offices, a dedicated computer that is used to route all print
jobs to the printer is called a print server.
Wireless interface
Computers and printers can also be connected using wireless connections

that support 802.11, Bluetooth or Infrared standards. The main advantage of
wireless connections is that both the computer and the printer can be moved
freely so long as they remain within the coverage area of the wireless network.
Wireless networks mainly rely on radio signals and are prone to electromagnetic
and radio frequency interferences.
SCSI interface
Very few printers have a SCSI interface. These printers are becoming obsolete
due to other faster technologies such as the USB and the IEEE1394. SCSI
printers use the SCSI interface on the computer and an SCSI ID is used to
identify the device on the SCSI bus that can have more than one device
attached to the SCSI chain.

Activity 9.3
? 1.
2.
Discuss the various printer interfaces.
What is the purpose of a printer interface?
9.6 Printer Software

Printers come with their own software. These are discussed below:
BIOS
The printer BIOS or firmware is just like the computer BIOS that detects
various components of the printer during startup. The BIOS is usually located
on a semiconductor chip on the motherboard or logic board of the printer.
Printer driver
A printer driver acts as an interface between the operating system and the
printer. It converts print jobs into a format that the printer can understand.
When you install a printer on a windows XP or a windows 7 desktop, you
will also be required to install the printer driver if the operating system does
not automatically configure it for you. Installing an incorrect printer driver
results in garbled printing or no printing at all.
Page description language (PDL)
The PDL is used to convert an incoming print job into electrical signals so that
the text or the image can be reproduced on paper. Common PDLs include
PostScript and Printer Control Language (PCL).
Printer Memory
Printers use RAM to temporarily store print jobs during printing. High-end
printers have large amounts of RAM to accept large print jobs. Some printers
also have a built-in hard disk that further helps improve printing performance.
Some printers allow you to upgrade the printer memory to enhance its
performance.
9.7 Installing a printer

Below are guiding steps for installing a printer:

1. Check the compatibility of the device with the operating system installed
on the computer.
2. Obtain necessary hardware, connection cables and device drivers.
3. Connect the printer to an appropriate port such as parallel, serial, USB,
IEEE1394, SCSI, wired or wireless network port.
4. Install the device driver if it is not automatically installed by the operating
system.
5. Configure the printer
6. Verify the installation and test its functionality by printing a test page.
Activity 9.4
? Outline the steps to install a printer on a PC and observe

the steps that are followed in the process.
9.8 Summary
In this unit, we discussed about the various output devices. We outlined that
output come in two forms either as softcopy or hardcopy. Softcopy output is
shown on the screen and hardcopy output is printed on paper. We also
discussed that the type of monitor is defined by the screen technology used
on that monitor. Again we discussed two types of printers impact and non-
impact printers. Most printers we use in our offices for different purposes fall
in these two categories. However there are other various types of printers not
covered in this unit. Further research on them.

References

Pvt Ltd.


Unit Ten
Disk System Architecture
10.1 Introduction
I n this chapter we equip you with the knowledge of various disk system
architectures that were once used in the computer system. It is important to
have an appreciation of these architectures though they may be obsolete
because as a computer technician you may encounter them in one way or the
other during the servicing process and you do not have to get stuck when you
encounter such architectures. It also gives an insight to students regarding the
evolution of disk architectures.
10.2 Objectives
 Figure out the types of floppy disk system architectures.

 Differentiate IDE disk system architecture from SCSI
disk system architecture.
 Analyse the features of each disk system architecture.
10.3 Floppy Disk System

Floppy disks are now obsolete from the world of computers. They were
used in the same way that memory sticks are used today. They were used in
most systems as a system installation and configuration device. Floppy disks
were also used in the transfer of data from some digital cameras. A device
called the Flash Path adapter was used to allow PCs to read Smart Media
Flash memory chips via the floppy drive.
10.3.1 History of the floppy

Alan Shugart is generally credited with inventing the floppy disk drive in 1967
while working for IBM. One of Shugart’s senior engineers, David Noble
actually proposed the flexible medium (then eight inches in diameter) and the
protective jacket with the fabric lining. Shugart left IBM in 1969 and in 1976
his company, Shugart Associates introduced the minifloppy (5 ¼ inch) disk
drive. It of course became the standard eventually used by personal computers
rapidly replacing the eight inch drives. He also helped create the Shugart
Associate System Interface (SASI) which was later renamed SCSI (Small
Computer System Interface) when approved as an ANSI standard. Sony
introduced the first 3 ½ inch microfloppy drives in 1983. The first significant
company to adopt the 3 ½ inch floppy for general use was Hewlett-Packard
in 1984 with its partially PC-compatible HP-150 system. The industry
adoption of the 3 ½ inch drive was furthered by Apple using it in the first
Macintosh systems in 1984 and IBM putting the drive into its entire PC product
line starting in 1986.
10.3.2 Types of floppy disks

Types of floppy disks were determined by their sizes. The floppy disk drive
shares the name with the size of the floppy disk that it uses. For example the

Unit 10 Disk System Architecture
floppy disk drive that uses the 3 ½ inch floppy disk is called the 3 ½ inch
floppy disk drive. There are three types of floppy disks namely 8 inch, 5 ¼
inch and 3 ½ inch disks.
8-inch floppy disk
This was the first disk with 8 inches in diameter. It was protected by a flexible
plastic jacket and was a read-only device used by IBM as a way of loading
microcode. Early microcomputers used for engineering, business or word
processing often used one or more 8-inch disk drives for removable storage.
The CP/M operating system was developed for microcomputers with 8-inch
drives. The family of 8-inch disks and drives increased over time and later
versions could store up to 1.2MB. Many microcomputer applications did
not need that much capacity on one disk, so a smaller size disk with lower
cost media and drives was feasible. The 5 ¼-inch drive succeeded the 8-inch
size in many applications and developed to about the same storage capacity
as the original 8-inch size using higher density media and recording techniques.
5 ¼ inch floppy disk
Older systems used the 5 ¼ inch floppy disk drive to read and write data to
the 5 ¼ inch floppy disk. This drive had a lever on the front of the drive that
must be turned clockwise to lock the floppy disk in after inserting the disk in
the drive. Turning the lever anti-clockwise would remove the floppy disk from
the drive.
3 ½ inch floppy disk
The 3 ½ inch floppy disk drive can read and write data to the 3 ½ inch floppy
disk. The 3 ½ inch floppy drive spins the floppy disk at a speed of 300
rotations per minute. This enables the floppy to be formatted with 80 tracks
on each side of the disk. Each track is alienated into 18 sectors. The sector
can hold 512 bytes. The 3 ½ inch floppy disk drive also had an eject button
that is used to remove the floppy disk from the drive. The 3 ½ inch floppy had
a high density and could hold 720KB of data. The floppy disk was then
improved and the density increased to create a high-density floppy disk that
could hold 1.44MB of data. The 3 ½ inch floppy was again further improved
and the double-sided floppy disk was created that could store data on both
sides of the floppy disk.
10.3.3 Floppy connectors

Nearly all floppy disk drives had two connectors, one for power to run the
drive and the other to carry the control and data signals to and from the drive.
These connectors are fairly standardized in the computer industry. The cable
used to connect the floppy disk drive(s) to the controller on the motherboard
is quite strange. To support various drive configurations, the cable typically
has five connectors on it, two edge connectors and two pin connectors to
attach to the drives and one pin connector to connect to the controller. The
cable has redundant connectors for each of the two drives (A and B) supported
by the standard floppy disk drive controller, so you can install any combination
of the 5 ¼ inch and 3 ½ inch drives.

In addition to the connectors, the cable on most systems has a special twist
that inverts the signals of wires 10-16. These are the wires carrying the Drive
Select and Motor Enable signals for each of the two drives. Floppy disk
drives have DS (Drive Select) jumpers that were designed to enable you to
select whether a given drive should be recognized as A or B. You might not
even know that these jumpers exist because the twist in the cable prevents
you from having to adjust them. When installing two floppy disk drives in one
system (admittedly a rarity nowadays), the cable electrically changes the DS
configuration of the drive that is plugged in after the twist. Thus a twist causes
a drive physically set to the second DS position (B) to appear to the controller
to be set to the first position (A) and vice versa. The adoption of this cable
has made it possible to use a standard jumper configuration for all floppy disk
drives, regardless of whether you install one or two drives in a computer. If
you install only a single floppy disk drive, you use the connector after the twist
which will cause the drive to be recognized as drive A.

Activity 10.1
? 1.
2.
Differentiate the various floppy disk types.
Explain what is meant by floppy connectors and which
are they.
10.4 IDE disk system

IDE is a standard electronic interface used between a computer motherboard’s
data paths or bus and the computer’s disk storage devices. The IDE interface
is based on the IBM PC Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) 16-bit bus
standard, but it is also used in computers that use other bus standards. IDE
was adopted as a standard by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in November 1990. The ANSI name for IDE is ATA. IDE supports
8/16-bit interface that transfer up to 8.3 mb/s for ATA-2 and up to 100mb/s
for ATA-6.
10.4.1 An overview of the IDE interface

The primary interface used to connect a hard disk drive to a modern PC is
typically called IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics). An interesting fact is that
the true name of the interface is called ATA (AT Attachment) which refers to
the fact that this interface was originally designed to connect a combined
drive and controller directly to the bus of the 1984 vintage IBM AT computer.
IDE is a term originated by the marketing department of some drive
manufacturers to describe the drive/controller combination used in drives with
the ATA interface. Integrated Drive Electronics refers to the fact that the
interface electronics or controller is built into the drives themselves. IDE/ATA
did not spring up overnight, it is actually an evolutionary version of earlier
interfaces that used separate drives and controllers. Note that the terms IDE
and ATA both describe the same interface and as such can be used
interchangeably. Although IDE is the more colloquially used and perhaps more
widely recognized term, technically ATA is the true name of the interface.
Today IDE is used to connect not only hard disk drives but also CD-ROM
drives, DVD drives, high capacity SuperDisk floppy drives and tape drives.
Even so, IDE is still thought of primarily as a hard disk interface and it evolved
directly from the separate controller and hard drive interfaces that were used
prior to IDE.

10.4.2 Precursors to IDE

There are different kinds of HDD interfaces used prior to IDE but many older
designs are no longer viable in newer systems. As a technician, you need to
know all these interfaces from the oldest to the newest because you may
encounter them whenever upgrading or repairing systems.
Interface When used

ST-506/412 1978-1989
ESDI 1983-1991
SCSI 1986-
ATA/IDE 1986-Present
SATA 2010-Present
Activity 10.2
? Research on each of the above interfaces
ST-506/412 and ESDI are what you could call true disk-controller-to-drive
interfaces. SCSI and IDE are system-level interfaces that usually incorporate
a chipset-based variation of one of the other two types of disk controller
interfaces internally. For example most SCSI and IDE drives incorporate the
same basic controller circuitry used in separate ESDI controllers. The SCSI
interface adds another layer of interface that attaches the controller to the
system bus whereas IDE is a direct bus attachment interface.
IDE is different than SCSI and ESDI (Enhanced Small Device Interface)
because its connectors are on each drive meaning the drive can connect directly
to the motherboard or controller. IDE and its updated successor EIDE are
common drive interfaces found in IBM compatible computers. IDE/ATA is
also known as PATA (Parallel ATA). Below is a picture of the IDE connector
on the back of a hard drive, a picture of what an IDE cable looks like and the
IDE channels it connects to on the motherboard.

40-pin IDE connector and cable
In data recovery it helps to know the disk interface you are working with

because many data recovery problems involve drive setup and installation
problems. Each interface requires a slightly different method of installation
and drive configuration. If the installation or configuration is incorrect or
accidentally altered by the system user, it can prevent access to data on a
drive. Accordingly anyone who wants to become proficient in data recovery
must be an expert on installing and configuring various types of hard disks and
controllers.
SATA (Serial ATA)
SATA is an evolution of the Parallel ATA physical storage interface. SATA is a

serial link-a single cable with a minimum of four wires that creates a point-to-
point connection between devices. Transfer rates for SATA begin at 150MB/
s. The serial interface also reduces the amount of wires needed to transmit
data, making for much smaller cable size and making it easier to route and
install SATA devices. The IDE cables used in Parallel ATA systems are bulkier
than SATA cables and can only extend to 40cm long while SATA cables can
extend up to one meter. In addition to cabling, a new design of connectors is
also used that reduces the amount of crosstalk between the wires and the
connector design also provides easier routing and better air flow.
10.4.3 ATA standards

ATA-1: The first standard which was developed by Compaq, Control Data
Corp and Western Digital. It used an 8-or-16 bit interface. It instituted the
use of master/slave configuration and defined multi-word Direct Memory
access (DMA) mode and Programmed I/O (PIO) modes 0-2. It is considered
obsolete.
ATA-2: Better known as EIDE. EIDE outlined PIO mode 3 and PIO mode
4.
ATA-3: Improved the reliability of high speed transfers and added Self-
Monitoring Analysis and Reporting Technology (SMART).
ATA/ATAPI-4: Increased data transfer rate support to 33MB/s, known as

Ultra DMA/33 and added the AT Attachment Packet Interface (ATAPI)
feature.
AT/ATAPI-5: Supports data transfer rates of up to 66MB/s.
ATA/ATAPI-6: Supports Ultra DMA/100 which lets drives theoretically reach

100MB/s.

Activity 10.3
? 1.
2.
Differentiate IDE and SATA.
What are the advantages of SATA over IDE?
10.5 SCSI Disk System

10.5.1 SCSI Interface
SCSI stands for Small Computer System Interface and is a general purpose
interface used for connecting many types of devices to a PC. This interface
has its roots in SASI, the Shugart Associates System Interface. SCSI is the
most popular interface for attaching high speed disk drives to higher
performance PCs such as workstations or network servers. SCSI is also
very flexible, it is not only a disk interface but also a systems-level interface
allowing many different types of devices to be connected. SCSI is a bus that
supports as many as 7 or 15 total devices. Multi-channel adapters exist that
can support up to 7 or 15 devices per channel. For years the parallel interface
has been widely used in storage systems. A parallel interface is a channel
capable of transferring data in parallel mode that is transmitting multiple bits
simultaneously. Almost all PCs come with at least one parallel interface.
Common parallel interfaces are SCSI and ATA. SCSI is a parallel interface
standard used by Apple Macintosh computers, UNIX systems and any PCs
for attaching peripheral devices to computers.
Below is a SCSI adapter expansion card with an internal and external

connection. Once installed in the computer this adapter would allow multiple
SCSI devices to be installed in the computer.

Although SCSI has been popular in the past, today many users are switching
over to SATA drives.
10.5.2 SCSI standards

SCSI-1: is the original standard developed back in 1986 as ANSI X3.131-
1986. SCSI-1 is capable of transferring up to 8 bits/sec.
SCSI-2: was approved in 1990, added new features such as fast and wide
SCSI and support for additional devices.
SCSI-3: was approved in 1996 as ANSI X3.270-1996.
SCSI standards are usually backward compatible. This means that, if an older
peripheral device is attached to a newer computer with support for a later
standard, the older device will work at the older and slower data rate.
Activity 10.4
? 1.
2.
Give the full form of SCSI.
Name the devices that are used to connect through SCSI
ports.
3. What are the three components of the SCSI system?

10.6 Summary
This unit discussed about the floppy disk architecture whereby we focused
on the overview of floppy disks, their history and the different floppy disk
types that were used in the computer system. It further went on to discuss the
main internal interfaces that were used to connect a computer motherboard’s
data paths or bus and the computer’s disk storage devices that is the IDE and
SCSI interfaces. We discovered that IDE is the same as ATA or PATA and it
has been superseded by SATA which is the interface widely used to connect
for example HDD internally to the motherboard. SCSI is said to be obsolete
but it is still being used in some computer systems. SCSI is the most popular
interface for attaching high speed disk drives to higher performance PCs such
as workstations or network servers.
References
Field, G., & Ridge, P. M. (2000). The book of SCSI. USA: William Pollock.

Unit Eleven
Networking Hardware
11.1 Introduction
I n this unit we are going to cover all equipment that builds up a network
from as simple as the Network Interface Card, to the cables that are used
to connect the computers in a network, to the switches, routers, firewalls,
gateways and all other equipment that make from as smaller a network as
possible to the big network that we call the internet.
11.2 Objectives
 Define a network.
 Differentiate various network types.
 Understand various cables used in networking and where
each cable is appropriate.
 Understand the wiring standards used when preparing
UTP cables.
 Demonstrate how to wire a UTP cable.
 Explain various networking equipment and where each
is appropriate.
11.3 Network Types

In the world of computers, networking is the linking of two or more computing
devices in order to exchange information and share resources. The linked
devices are known as the network. There are different types of networks
which we are going to discuss now:
i) LAN (Local Area Network)
A LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs
are confined to one building or a group of buildings. Each individual computer
in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it also is able
to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many
users can share expensive devices such as laser printers as well as data. Users
can also use the LAN to communicate with each other by sending email or
engaging in chat sessions. LANs are capable of transmitting data at very fast
rates, much faster than data can be transmitted over a telephone line but the
distances are limited and there is also a limit on the number of computers that
can be attached to a single LAN. Below is a diagram that shows a LAN.

Unit 11 Networking Hardware
ii) WAN (Wide Area Network)
WANs span large geographical areas such as states, provinces or countries

via telephone lines, fibre optic cables or satellite links. WANs can often be
composed of smaller LANs that are interconnected. The Internet is the world’s
most popular WAN. Some segments of the internet like VPN-based extranets
are also WANs in themselves. Many WANs are corporate or research networks
that utilize leased lines. WANs generally utilize different and much more
expensive networking equipment than do LANs. Below is a diagram to show
a WAN.

iii) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
A MAN is a network confined to a town or city. Its geographical breadth is

larger than that of a LAN but smaller than a WAN. MANs are characterized
by high speed connections using fibre optic cable or other digital media. A
good example of a MAN is a CCTV system that provides internet and
television services. The network could be the size of an entire town connecting
homes and businesses. Those homes and businesses would contain small to
large local area networks (wired or wireless) that are connected by equipment
to the WAN which in turn provides an uplink to the internet. In cities, MAN
links between LANs can be achieved also using microwave or radio wireless
communication.
iv) Wireless LAN/ Wireless WAN/ Wireless MAN
These networks are similar to the ones mentioned above respectively, only
differ in that the wireless networks are formed without the use of cable
connections or physical media to connect hosts with the server. Data is
transferred over radio transceivers.

Now that we know what a network is, we need now to explore the hardware
or equipment that makes it possible for devices within a network to be able to
communicate and share resources.
11.4 Cables
Cables are the medium through which information usually moves from one
device on a network to the other. The type of cable chosen for a network is
related to the network’s topology, protocol and size.
Coaxial cables
Coaxial cabling is the primary type of cabling used by cable television industry
and is also widely used for computer networks such as Ethernet. Though
more expensive than standard telephone wire, it is much less susceptible to
interference and can carry much more data. It consists of a Centre core made
of a solid copper or stranded copper surrounded by a dielectric insulator.
The insulator is covered on top by a braided metal shield or wire mesh of
aluminium or copper. The shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing
the stray electromagnetic signals or noise, so that the noise does not get to the
core and distort the data.
Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted

pair cables. Attenuation is the loss of signal strength which takes place as the
signal travels along the cable. There are two types of coaxial cables.

i) Thin Ethernet (Thinnet)

ii) Thick Ethernet (Thicknet)
Thinnet (10 base 2)
The 10 base 2 Ethernet architecture is a network that runs at 10Mbps and

uses baseband transmission. 10 base 2 refers to the specifications for thinnet
cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum
segment length being 200m. In actual fact the maximum segment length is
185m. Typically it is implemented as a bus topology but could be a mix of bus
and star topologies and has been popular in school networks for example.
185metres is the maximum distance per network segment and 0.5 metres is
the minimum distance between hosts. It uses CSMA/CD access method to
put data on the cable for transmission. Networks that use thinnet have the
cable connected to network adapter cards, hubs and other networking devices
using BNC connectors (British Naval Connector) or Bayonet-Concelman
connector. The 5-4-3 rule of thinnet allows for 5 cable segments of 185m
each, connected using 4 repeaters but only 3 of the segments that are populated
meaning that can have some nodes attached. The 5 cable segments allow the
network to cover a total of 925m with a total of 90 nodes on the three segments
that are populated.
Thicknet (10 base 5)
The 10 base 5 Ethernet architecture runs at 10Mbps and uses baseband

transmission as well. 10 base 5 refers to the specifications for thicknet cable
carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length which
is 500m. It allows 100 hosts per segment and 2.5m minimum distance between
hosts. It is implemented as a bus topology. Thicknet uses CSMA/CD as the
access method. The thicker copper core in the wire allows the signal to travel
further than is possible with thinnet. Thicknet has an extra protective plastic
cover that helps keep moisture away from the centre conductor. This makes
thicknet a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network.
One disadvantage of thicknet is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to
install.
Twisted pair cables
Twisted pair cable is a type of cable that consists of two independently insulated
wires twisted around one another. The wires are twisted together to help
reduce crosstalk (noise generated by adjacent pairs) and electromagnetic
induction. This is the type of cabling that is used for telephone communications

and most modern Ethernet networks. Twisted pair cables come in two varieties
that is, Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP).
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
UTP cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with
a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent
pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the
supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot.
The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/ Telecommunication Industry

association) has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of
wire (additional categories are emerging).
Category (Cat) Speed Use
Cat 1 1 Mbps Voice only (Telephone wire)
2 4 Mbps Local Talk and Telephone
(rarely used)
3 10 Mbps 10 Base T Ethernet
4 16 Mbps Token ring (rarely used)
5 100 Mbps Fast Ethernet
5e 1000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
6 10000 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet
UTP cable often is installed using a Registered Jack (RJ-45) connector.

The RJ-45 is an eight-wire connector used commonly to connect computers

onto a local area network especially Ethernets. The RJ-45 terminates straight
through or crossover cables. Straight through cable is a type of UTP cable
for LAN use for which the RJ-45 connectors at each end have the same
pinout (that is the arrangement of conductors) that is either T-568A on both
ends or T-568B on both ends. Straight through cables are used to connect
computers and other end-user devices for example printers to networking
devices such as hubs and switches. Crossover cable is again a type of UTP
cable whose wires on the cable are crossed over so that the receive signal
pins on the RJ-45 connector on one end are connected to the transmit signal
pins on the RJ-45 connector on the other end. In other words one end is
terminated using T-568A standard and the other using a T-568B standard.
Crossover cable is used to connect two like devices without the use of an
uplink port. For example computer to computer, switch to switch, hub to hub
and so on.
Wiring UTP cables
There are two wiring standards in use that are T-568A and T-568B
T-568B standard
The diagrams below shows how the wires look like in a RJ-45 8pin connector
using a T-568B wiring standard.

Color codes for T-568B

Pin Color Pair Name
1 White/orange Transmit Data +
2 Orange Transmit Data -
3 White/green Receive Data +
4 Blue Unused
5 White/blue Unused
6 Green Receive Data -
7 White/brown Unused
8 Brown Unused
T-568A standard
The T-568A specifications reverses the orange and green connections. Below
is a diagram to show how the pins look like in a RJ-45 8pin connector using
T-568A standard.

Color codes for T-568A

Pin Color Pair Name
1 White/green Receive Data +
2 Green Receive Data -
3 White/orange Transmit Data +
4 Blue Unused
5 White/blue Unused
6 Orange Transmit Data -
7 White/brown Unused
8 Brown Unused

Steps to wire Ethernet patch cables

1. Strip off about 2 inches of the Ethernet cable sheath
2. Untwist the pairs and make sure that you do not untwist beyond what
you have exposed because the more untwisted the cable you have, the
worse the problems you can encounter.
3. Align the colored wires according to the wiring standards above.
4. Trim all wires to the same length.
5. Insert the wires into the RJ-45 plug and make sure each wire is fully
inserted to the front of the RJ-45 plug and in the correct order.
6. Crimp the RJ-45 plug with the crimping tool.
7. Verify the wires ended up in the right order and that the wires extend to
the front of the RJ45 plug and make good contact with the metal contacts
in the RJ-45 plug. If not redo the steps above.
8. Cut the Ethernet cable to length and make sure it is more than long
enough to cover the required distance.
9. Repeat the above steps for the second RJ-45
10. Test the cable using cable tester to verify proper connectivity of the
cable. If not properly connected, redo the above steps.
Activity 11.1
? 1. Demonstrate how to wire a UTP cable using both
standards you have learnt in this unit.
2. Test your cables to see if they are working.
Shielded twisted Pair cable (STP)
STP is a type of copper telephone wiring in which each of the two copper
wires that are twisted together are coated with an insulating coating that
functions as a ground for the wires. It is similar to UTP but with each pair
covered by an additional copper braid jacket or foil wrapping. It combines
the techniques of shielding, cancellation and wire twisting. It is more expensive
and difficult to install as compared to UTP. STP cables come with a layer of
metallic shielding material between the cables and the sheath. STP cables
provide some degree of protection from electromagnetic interference and
radio frequency disturbances and can carry signals to greater distances. But
this advantage comes with extra cost of installation. The metallic shielding
must be grounded at both ends. If it is improperly grounded, the shield acts
like an antenna and picks up unwanted signals. Because of its cost and difficult

with termination, STP is rarely used in Ethernet networks. It is primarily used

in Europe.
Fibre optic cable
Fibre optic cable is made up of very thin glass or plastic stretched out and put
inside a sheath. The transmission in fibre optic cables is carried by light signals
and is immune to electromagnetic interference and radio frequency
disturbances. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large
amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting
networks between buildings due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and
lighting. They can also carry data signals to longer distances than coaxial and
twisted pair cables and is considered the most secure of all cable types. It is
also capable of carrying signals at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens
communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing
and interactive services. Fibre optic cables are very expensive in terms of the
cost involved in installation and maintenance. They need expensive hardware,
skilled technicians and special tools for installation.
Fibre optic cables are categorized into single-mode and multimode fibre optic
cables.
Single-mode fibre optic cable
Single-mode fibre optic cable allows one beam (or wavelength) of light to
propagate through the fibre. It is capable of higher bandwidth and greater
distances than multimode, and it is often used for campus backbones. This
type of fibre uses lasers as the light generating method. It is much more expensive
than multimode.
Multimode fibre optic cable
In multimode fibre optic cable, multiple beams of light travel through the core
and are reflected by the cladding. Some of the beams even get refracted into
the cladding causing loss of signal. It is often used for workgroup applications

and intra-building applications such as risers. It uses light emitting diodes (LED)
as a light-generating method.
11.5 Wireless Communication

Wireless communication uses radio frequencies (RF) or infrared (IR) waves
to transmit data between devices on a LAN. For wireless LANs, a key
component is the wireless hub or access point used for signal distribution.
The access point commonly known as wireless access point (WAP) is used
to authenticate and configure wireless clients that fall within its range. A special
identifier known as the service set identifier (SSID) must be configured on the
WAP and each wireless client. To receive the signals from the WAP, a PC,
laptop or server must install a wireless adapter card (wireless NIC). Wireless
signals are electromagnetic waves that can travel through the vacuum of outer
space and through a medium such as air. Therefore no physical medium is
necessary for wireless signals making them a very versatile way to build a
network. Wireless signals use portions of the RF spectrum to transmit voice,
video and data. For longer distances, wireless communications can also take
place through cellular telephone technology, microwave transmission or by
satellite. Wireless networks are beneficial in older buildings where it may be
difficult or impossible to install cables. The two most common types of infrared
communications used are line-of-sight and scattered broadcast. Line-of-sight
communication means that there must be an unblocked direct line between
the workstation and the WAP. If a person walks within the line of sight while
there is a transmission, the information would need to be sent again. This kind
of obstruction can slow down the wireless network. Scattered infrared
communication is a broadcast of infrared transmission sent out in multiple
directions that bounces off walls and ceilings until it eventually hits the receiver.
11.6 Network Interface Card (NIC)

Any computer that is to be connected to a network need to have a NIC. The
NIC is either integrated on the motherboard or it can be in form of an expansion
card (small circuit board) that is inserted to a slot on the motherboard. Below
is a picture of the NIC expansion card for wired connections.

Some computers have two NICs, one for wired connections as the one above
and one for wireless connections. Below is a picture for NIC expansion card
for wireless connections.
11.7 Workstation
A workstation is a computer on which a person performs everyday regular
assignments. A workstation is primarily a PC. It can also be a laptop. A typical
workstation is a computer that is configured with a NIC, networking software
and the appropriate cables. Workstations do not necessarily need large storage
hard drives because files can be saved on the file server.

11.8 Hub
A hub is a device that connects a number of computers together to make a

LAN. A hub is typically used at the centre of a star network or as part of a
hybrid network. It has cables plugged into it from each computer. A hub is a
dumb device, if it receives a message it broadcasts it to every computer on
the network. This means that hub-based networks are not very secure because
everyone can listen in to the communication. Also it places a lot of traffic on
the network and can lead to poor network response times. Hubs have different
number of ports. Some have 4, 5, 8, 12 or more ports.
There are two types of hubs:

i) Passive hub: serves simply as a conduit for the data enabling it to go
from one device or segment to another. A passive hub contains no
power source or electrical components. There is no signal processing
such as when the hub receives the electrical signal and there is no
regeneration of the signal to ensure that it is readable at its destination.
Regeneration of the signal is a function of the active hub.
ii) Active hub: has additional features enabling an administrator to monitor
the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the
hub. Active hubs are also known as manageable hubs. They regenerate
the data before sending it to all of the destination ports on the hub.
Using active hubs, you can increase the length of your network because
the signal weakens with distance. When the active hub receives the
signal, it regenerates the data allowing it to go a greater distance. Extra
electronics built into an active hub allow for signal regeneration.
11.9 Repeater
A repeater is a hardware device that function at the physical layer of the OSI
and that is used to connect two segments of the same network. A repeater

receives a digital signal and preamplifiers it or regenerates the digital signal

then forwards the signal out through all active ports without looking at any
data. Repeaters offer no filtering, they send every packet of data from one
cable segment to the other even if the data consists of malformed packets.
Broadcast storms also pass through the repeater from one segment to the
other. A broadcast storm is a condition that occurs in networks when some of
the computers on the network send broadcast packets that flood the whole
network causing network overload by saturating the capacity of the network
or bandwidth. Using repeaters simply allows you to extend your network
distance limitations and to regenerate signals. Repeaters require a small amount
of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay which can
affect network communication where there are several repeaters in a row. As
a result many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be
used in a row.
11.10 Bridge
A bridge is a network connectivity device that connects one LAN segment to
another that use the same protocol for example Ethernet or Token ring.
Network bridges have two purposes: connecting to LAN segments to form a
large segment and dividing a large network segment into smaller segments. A
bridge runs at the data link layer of the OSI model. It is used to filter traffic by
only forwarding traffic to the destination network segment. If a data unit on
one LAN is intended for a destination on an interconnected LAN, the bridge
forwards the data unit to that LAN otherwise it passes it along on the same
LAN. A bridge builds a routing table of computer MAC (Media Access
Control) addresses. It does this by examining the source MAC addresses of
frames it encounters on its interfaces and builds up the routing table that maps
an interface to a MAC address according to the interface on which a MAC
address is received. A bridge usually offers only one path to a given
interconnected LAN.
Just like switches, bridges perform three main functions.

i) They learn where devices are located by placing the MAC address of
a device and the identifier of the port it is connected to in a port address
table.
ii) They forward traffic intelligently, drawing on information they have in
their port address table.
iii) They remove layer 2 loops by running the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP).

Bridges can also reduce network traffic by segmenting the network (dividing
one network into segments) creating collision domains. This isolates and or
reduces traffic on both segments, making more bandwidth available. Bridges
pass on all broadcast frames that is frames with no entry in the routing table.
If the destination address of a frame is not in the bridge’s MAC address table,
the bridge forwards the frame to all interfaces except the one on which it is
received, thereby contributing to broadcast storms. Bridges are slow in
operation and there can be some data loss in bridges and if a data loss occurs,
the lost data cannot be recovered. However new technology has been
developed in the form of switches and routers that replaced bridges.
Activity 11.2
? Explain types of bridges - Transparent Bridge, Source-Routing

Bridge and Source-Routing Transparent Bridge.
11.11 Switch
A switch is a networking device that provides a central connection point for

cables from workstations, servers and peripherals. The network nodes are
connected to the switch using UTP cables. A switch learns, filters and forwards
packets only to the intended destination node rather than broadcasting to all
nodes on the LAN segment. So a switch is an intelligent device because it
learns the hardware address commonly known as the MAC (Media Access
Control) address of the destination from the data packet and sends the packet
only to the intended node. This results in data direct communication between
two nodes, improved network performance and a reduced number of collisions.
Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges and can support new
functionality such as virtual LANs. Switches can be categorized according to

the OSI layer at which they operate. Because of that, there are layer 2 and
layer 3 switches. Layer 2 switches enable data frames to be switched using
MAC address information. Layer 3 switches enable data to be switched using
IP address information, therefore they incorporate some routing functions such
as address and path determination. Each port on a switch will receive only
packets that are meant for it through the use of internal address tables.
11.12 Router
A router is a networking device that provide internetwork connectivity that is
it interconnects different networks allowing data to be moved from one network
to the other. Conceptually routers are similar to bridges, except that they
operate at the network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model and gather information
about the networks to which they are connected. Like bridges, routers provide
filtering but does so using network addresses to route data packets across
multiple networks instead of MAC addresses. Routers also do not pass on
broadcast traffic. This reduces network traffic significantly and prevents
propagation of broadcast storms. Routers are more intelligent than bridges.
They make complex routing decisions to select the optimal path to a given
destination from among multiple paths. Routers can be configured to support
single or multiple protocols. A router creates and maintains a table, known as
a routing table of the routes available to get to the different networks to which
it is connected. The router uses this information together with information
about prevailing network conditions to determine the best route for a given
packet. Routing tables can be configured manually using static routes or
dynamically using some routing protocols. Whether a router is configured
statically or dynamically or a combination of both, the objective is the same,
to facilitate communication between hosts or nodes on different networks.
Static routing requires the systems administrator to manually setup and
configure the routing table and to specify each route between networks. The
router does not have the capacity of adjusting to changes in the network (it is
not possible to learn new routes). As a result if a defined route fails or becomes
unavailable, the destination becomes unreachable. This technique is simple to
implement and simple to understand, but it becomes difficult to keep routing
tables accurate when the network is growing rapidly and too much work if
the network is very large. It has the advantage of eliminating all traffic related
to routing information updates. Static routing conserves bandwidth because
the routes do not generate route update traffic, which consumes a lot of network
bandwidth. In dynamic routing, routes have the ability to discover the best
routes using some protocols. In a network a link may fail unexpectedly or a

new link may be established. A dynamic routing protocol discovers these

changes and automatically adjusts its routing table and informs other routers
of these changes through the transmission of various messages which consists
of all or part of a routing table. The routers use this information to make
packet by packet decisions about how to send data across the network.
11.13 Brouter
A brouter is a network device that combines the functionality of a bridge and
a router but cannot be distinctly classified as either. It operates at the data link
and network layers of the OSI reference model. It can function as either a
bridge or a router depending on the network transport protocol in use. For
instance, a brouter can act like a router with routable protocols such as TCP/
IP and acts as a bridge with non-routable protocols line NetBEUI. Bridged
protocols might propagate throughout the network but techniques such as
filtering and learning might be used to reduce potential congestion. Brouters
are used as connecting devices in the networking system, so it acts as a bridge
in a network and as a router in an internetwork.
11.14 Gateway
A gateway is a network device that is responsible for translating information
from one format to another and can run at any layer of the OSI model depending
on what information the gateway translates. A typical use of a gateway is to
ensure that system in one environment can access information in another
environment, in other words it provides a remote network with connectivity
to a host network. It provides remote network or an autonomous system that
is out of bounds for the host network nodes. Any network has a boundary or
a limit, so all communication placed within that network is conducted using
the devices attached to it including switches and routers. If a network node
wants to communicate with a node/ network that resides outside of that network
or autonomous system, the network will require the services of a gateway
which is familiar with the routing paths of other remote networks. Gateways
serve as the entry and exit point of a network, all data routed inward or
outward must first pass through and communicate with the gateway in order
to use routing paths. Generally a router is configured to work as a gateway
device in computer networks. The gateway or default gateway is implemented
at the boundary of a network to manage all the data communication that is
routed internally or externally from that network. Besides routing packets,

gateways also possess information about the host network’s internal paths
and learned path of different remote networks. If a node wants to communicate
with a foreign network, it will pass the data packet to the gateway which then
routes it to the destination using the best possible path. Gateways are also
called protocol converters. The activities of a gateway are more complex
than that of a router or switch as it communicates using more than one protocol.
Activity 11.3
? Explain the differences between a gateway and a router.
11.15 Firewall
A firewall is a network security device that grants or rejects network access
to traffic flows between an untrusted zone for example the internet and a
trusted zone for example private or corporate network. In other words, a
firewall protects a computer network from unauthorized access. The firewall
acts as a demarcation point or traffic cop in the network as all communication
should flow through it and it is where traffic is granted or rejected access.
Only traffic that is defined in the firewall policy is granted access. Network
firewalls may be hardware devices, software programs or a combination of
both. Network firewalls may also be configured to limit access to the outside
from internal users, for example an organization may limit access to social
networks like Facebook during working hours. A common form of firewall is
a proxy server. A proxy server act as an intermediary between internal
computers and external networks by receiving and selectively blocking data
packets at the network boundaries. These network firewalls also provide an
extra measure of safety by hiding internal LAN addresses from the outside
internet. In a proxy server environment, network requests from multiple clients
appear to the outsider as all coming from the same proxy server address.
Activity 11.4
? Differentiate between firewall and gateway.

11.16 Servers
A server is a computer that is designed to manage network resources by
processing requests from clients and delivering data to those client computers.
Servers can serve data to systems on a LAN or a WAN over the internet.
Servers enable sharing of resources and information. They centralize file
storage, which facilitates preserving and backing up important data. Users
can be granted access to selected areas depending on work needs, which
enhances security. Servers streamline managing computers in a department.
With server management tools, IT administrators can centrally maintain
workstations on the network and automate routine tasks, which save time
and reduce costs. There are many types of servers for example web servers,
mail servers, file servers and many more. Each type runs software specific to
the purpose of the server for example a web server may run Apache HTTP
Server or Microsoft IIS which provide access to websites over the internet.
Network servers typically are configured with additional processing, memory
and storage capacity to handle the load of servicing clients. While any computer
can be configured as a server, most large businesses use rack-mountable
hardware designed specifically for server functionality. Multiple rack-mountable
servers can be placed in a single rack and often share the same monitor and
input devices. Most servers are accessed remotely using remote access
software, so input devices are often not even necessary. While servers can
run on different types of computers, it is important that the hardware is sufficient
to support the demands of the server for example a web server that runs lots
of web scripts in real time should have a fast processor and enough RAM to
handle the load without slowing down.

Activity 11.5
? Explain the purpose of a server on a network.
11.17 Summary
In this unit we discussed the different types of networks and the different
equipment that is used in order to make up a network. We discovered that
some equipment works better in some environments and worst in others so it
will be wise to choose equipment that best fits your network in order to get
effective performance of your network.

References
Bonaventure, O. (2010). Computer Networking: Principles, Protocols and
Practice. Belgium: cnp3book.
Pvt Ltd.
Kurose, J. K., Ross, K.W. (2012). Computer Networking: A top down
approach. USA: Pearson.


Unit Twelve
Configuring Network Software
12.1 Introduction
I n this chapter we mainly focus on the basics of Microsoft networking which

among other things involve networking to share files and printers. Microsoft
networking enables different hardware components to communicate with each
other over a network. It also covers networking in a broader perspective
whereby different networks are linked to one another and data communication
made possible using TCP/IP protocol suite. The integration of different
networks that are geographically spaced is what makes up the internet and
for one to be able to access the internet there is need for configuration of
internet access software.
12.2 Objectives
 Define a network software

 Describe steps to install network software
 Configure windows to share files and printers
 Use shared resources
 Define network and the internet
 Know what is TCP/IP and the protocols involved in it.
 Configure internet access software
12.3 MS Networking Basic

All Windows clients need to have a network service (Client for Microsoft
Networks), a protocol for communicating (TCP/IP), and a method for sharing
files and printers (File and Printer Sharing for Microsoft Networks) installed.
During the network card detection phase on all latest Windows installations,
the operating system auto detects the NIC and automatically installs these
services and protocol. A dialog box prompts you to either accept the default
typical settings, obtain an IP address automatically or you can choose custom
and manually configure your TCP/IP settings.
12.4 Installing Networking Software

Networking software is software that is designed to help setup, manage and
or monitor computer networks. One type of networking software allows
computers to communicate with one another while another type provides
users access to shared resources. So in other words there are many types of
networking software which do different tasks on a network. Networking
software is a key component of today’s computer networks including the
internet. Understanding the types of networking software is the first step in
understanding how your computer network really works. Network operating
system is the common example of networking software that runs on servers
and defines how resources are shared on the network. Network operating
system can be based on peer-to-peer or client/server architecture. Examples
of peer-to-peer software are Appleshare used for networking Apple products
and Windows for workgroups used for networking peer-to-peer Windows
computers. Examples of client/server software are Windows Server and Novell

Unit 12 Configuring Network Software
NetWare. So we can conclude that Appleshare, Windows, Windows Server

and Novell NetWare are examples of networking software.
Peer-to-peer network
Peer-to-peer networks allow users to share resources and files located on

their computers and to access shared resources found on other computers.
However they do not have a file server or a centralized management source in
a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal, and they all
have the same abilities to use the resources available on the network. Peer-
to-peer networks are primarily designed for small to medium sized local area
networks. This network architecture have the advantages that there is less
initial cost since there is no need of a dedicated server and it is easy to setup
for example an operating system such as Windows XP that is already in place
may only need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations. The
disadvantages are that the network is decentralized and so there is no central
repository for files and applications. It again does not provide security available
on a client/server network.
Client/Server network
Client/server network allow the network to centralize functions and applications

in one or more dedicated file. The file servers become the heart of the system,
providing access to resources and providing security. Individual workstations
(clients) have access to the resources available on the file servers. The network
provides the mechanism to integrate all the components of the network and
allow multiple users to simultaneously share the same resources irrespective
of physical location.
Advantages
 Centralized: resources and data security are controlled through the
server.
 Scalability: any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs
increase.
 Flexibility: new technology can be easily integrated into system.
 Interoperability: all components (client/network/server) work together.
 Accessibility: server can be accessed remotely and across multiple
platforms.
Disadvantages
 Expense: requires initial investment in dedicated server
 Maintenance: large networks will require a professional to ensure

efficient operation.
 Dependence: when a server goes down, operations will cease across
the network.
Installing Windows Server 2012
Step 1: Insert the Windows Server 2012 DVD into the drive and press Enter
when you see the
Message, “Press any key to boot from CD or DVD” in order to boot from
setup.
Step 2: Once the setup files are loaded, setup will start. Click Next
Step 3: To start the installation, Click “Install now”.
Step 4: On the screen with four options that appears, select Windows Server
2012 DataCenter Evaluation (Server with GUI) and Click Next.
Step 5: Tick to accept the license terms and Click Next.
Step 6: Now you will be asked for the drive (or Partition) you want to install
Windows on, if you don’t have it is advisable to create a partition to install
your Windows and Click Next.
Step 7: Once the setup is done, it will restart your machine and start your
Windows Server 2012 for the first time. It will ask you then to set up a
password for the administrator user.
Step 8: Setup finalizes your settings.
Step 9: When setup is done, you log in for the first time using the credentials
you supplied during setup process.
Step 10: Once logged in, Windows Server 2012 shows the server manager.
Step 11: Done, You now have Windows Server 2012 installed with DataCenter.
12.5 Configuring Windows to share Files and Printers

File and Printer sharing is a Windows feature wherein all the computers in
your network would be able to send communication to another computer or
send print jobs to a printer. All your computers should be part of the main

network and the same workgroup for File and Printer sharing to work properly.
File sharing allows easy access and share files and folders on computers that
belong to the same workgroup or homegroup. Printer sharing allows your
computers that are part of the main network and same workgroup or
homegroup to send print jobs to a printer connected wired or wirelessly to
your computer.
Sharing files or folders in Windows 7.
Step 1: Make sure that all options in the advanced sharing settings are on.
These options include Network discovery, file and printer sharing, public folder
sharing and so on. These options are found by following the path: Start-
>Control Panel->Network and Internet->View network status and tasks-
>change advanced sharing settings.
Step 2: Share the file/folder by right clicking the file/folder you like to share
and select Properties from the Menu that appears.
Step 3: On the window that appears, go to sharing tab and click on the share
button.
Step 4: On the drop down menu, type a name of the person or group you
want to share the file/folder with and click Add. Alternatively you can select
an already existing name and click share.
Step 5: You are done. Your file/folder should now be accessible to the users
or groups you specified.
Sharing a Printer in Windows 7
Step 1: Make sure that all options in the advanced sharing settings are on.
These options include Network discovery, file and printer sharing, public folder
sharing and so on. These options are found by following the path: Start-
>Control Panel->Network and Internet->View network status and tasks-
>change advanced sharing settings.
Step 2: Go to Start menu and select Devices and Printers.
Step 3: Locate and double-click on the icon of the printer you like to share.
Step 4: Double-click customize your printer.
Step 5: Go to the sharing tab and check the share this printer option.

Step 6: Enter a share name for your printer and click OK.
You should now be able to browse and add your printer on the other computers
within your network. All what the other users on the network need to do in
order to access the network printer is to add the printer to their computers.
To add a network printer
Step 1: Go to Start menu and select Devices and Printers
Step 2: Click on Add a Printer
Step 3: Click on Add a network, wireless or Bluetooth printer. Click the

shared printer, click Next and follow the instructions on the screen.
12.6 Using Shared Resources

Shared resources also known as network shares, refer to computer data,
information or hardware devices that can be easily accessed from a remote
computer through a LAN or enterprise intranet. Successful shared resource
access allows users to operate as if the shared resource were on their own
computer. The most frequently used shared network environment objects are
files, data, multi-media and hardware resources like printers, fax machines
and scanners. Shared file and printer access requires an operating system on
the client that supports access to its resources on a server, an operating system
on the server that supports access to its resources from a client and an
application layer (in the four or five layer TCP/IP reference model) file sharing
protocol and transport layer protocol to provide that shared access. Modern
operating systems for PCs include distributed file systems that support file
sharing, while hand-held computing devices sometimes require additional
software for shared file access. A network share can become a security liability
when access to the shared files is gained (often by devious means) by those
who should not have access to them. Many computer worms have spread
through network shares. Network shares would consume extensive
communication capacity in non-broadband network access. Because of that,
shared printer and file is normally prohibited in the firewalls from computers
outside the LAN or enterprise intranet. However by means of Virtual Private
Networks, shared resources can securely be made available for certified users
outside the local network. A network share is typically made accessible to
other users by making any folder or file as shared or by changing the file
system permissions or access rights in the properties of the folder. For example

a file or folder may be accessible only to one user (the owner), to system
administrators, to a certain group of users, to the public that is to all logged
users. The exact procedure varies by platform.
12.7 Networking and the Internet

The internet is the global collection of interconnected networks that include
LANs, MANs, WANs and many more which use the standard internet
protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide to facilitate
data communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic
mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. The internet links computers of
various types and is constantly growing. The Internet is a Wide Area network
that starts with the computer that you are using, to the switches you use to
connect with other computers in your LAN, to the routers that connect your
LAN to that of your Internet Service Provider (ISP) and the ISP’s router that
connects to other routers within the World Wide Web. With the increase in
demand for connectivity, the internet has become a communication highway
for millions of users. The internet was initially restricted to military and academic
institutions, but now it is a full-fledged conduit for any and all forms of
information and commerce. Internet websites now provide personal,
educational, political and economic resources to every corner of the planet.
12.8 A TCP/IP Primer

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. This is
the main suite of transport protocols used on the internet for connectivity and
transmission of data across heterogeneous systems. In other words it is a glue
that holds the internet together. The most common hardware systems/solutions
used for actual physical connections using TCP/IP in a LAN is Ethernet, but
TCP/IP will also run on Token-ring, serial lines (modems, serial connections)
and other systems as well. The TCP/IP suite consists of two main protocols in
the transmission of data namely TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol is a transport layer protocol, host-to-host,

connection-oriented protocol which enables two hosts to establish a connection
and exchange network data. It guarantees packet delivery and reassembles

packets back into the same order in which they were sent. TCP’s connection-
oriented properties set it apart from similar protocols such as UDP. TCP
provides error detection and recovery, flow control and guaranteed reliable
delivery of data. Network applications that require reliable, guaranteed, error-
free delivery use TCP. But TCP does this at a price. The TCP header contains
20 bytes, which means it has more overhead than UDP. Because it has more
overhead, it is slower than UDP. To choose between TCP and UDP, decide
whether you want speed (UDP) or reliability (TCP).
UDP
User Datagram Protocol is also a transport layer protocol. It is a streamlined,

economy version of TCP, earning it the nickname “thin protocol”, which means
it does not take up much bandwidth on the network. UDP is a connectionless,
unreliable, low overhead protocol but is faster than TCP. UDP does not offer
the assurance of TCP but does a very good job of getting data from one host
to another using lower bandwidth and fewer resources. It’s a good choice to
use if guaranteed delivery is not required.
Activity 12.1
? 1.
2.
Explain the meaning of internet access software
Discuss the steps involved in configuring internet access
software.
12.9 Summary
Network software is software that is designed to help setup, manage and or
monitor computer networks. Network software allows network devices to
share resources such as files and printers. Communication over the network
is made possible by the use of protocols which are the rules of communication
within a network.

References
Pvt Ltd.


Unit Thirteen
Software
13.1 Introduction
S oftware refers to programs together with their associated documentations.

The programs constitute instructions stored digitally in the computer
memory that instructs operations to be done by a computer. Hence software
also referred to as programs, procedures or algorithms with their associated
documentation. In simple terms, software acts as an interface between the
user and the hardware. Both the hardware and the software work in unison to
achieve desired goals. Software is mainly classified into three namely System
Software, Application Software and Programming Software.
13.2 Objectives
 Distinguish between the different types of software

that exist.
 Explain the importance of software in relation to
hardware.
 Summarise the function of an operating system.
 Identify, install and update device drivers for specific
hardware components.
 Verify the installation of device drivers on a machine.
 Compare and contrast GUI and CLI.
 Discuss ways of protect software from malicious
activities.
 Outline preventive maintenance procedures on
operating systems that include scheduled updates and
backups.
13.3 Types of Software

System Software
This software manages or controls the computer hardware and provides a

working environment for the execution of other types of software. System
software includes operating systems, device drivers and utilities. Linux-Ubuntu,
Linux-Redhat, Microsoft Windows XP, Microsoft Windows Vista and
Microsoft Windows 8 are examples of operating systems. Utility software
helps to maintain and protect the machine and interfaces with the hardware
via the operating system. Utility software include anti-viruses, firewalls and
disk fragmenters. A device driver is a program that controls a specific type of
device connected to your computer. The program acts as an interface between
the operating system and the specific hardware device to facilitate
communication. These include drivers for DVD ROM, printers, keyboard
and hard disk drives just to mention a few. The picture below shows a CD for
drivers and utilities CD that is used for DELL machines.

Unit 13 Software
Application software
This type of software helps user to perform desired tasks on a machine. It

executes inputs commands for specific task from the user and displays the
result thus designed to satisfy the needs of particular users. Application software
includes word processors, spreadsheets, email applications, computer games
and web browsers.
13.4 Computer Programming Tools

These are the building blocks for creating application software and systems
software. This type of software translates and combines the computer source
codes and libraries into executable programs. These include compilers and
linkers which are built from programming languages that include Java, C++
and PHP. C++ is mainly used for the development of operating systems whilst
Java and PHP are used for web driven applications.
13.5 Operating Systems (OS)

It is a collection of software that controls and manages hardware and other
types of software on a machine. Broadly, OS are interfaces between the user
and the computer hardware. The management, control and scheduling is done
by the OS on hardware resources to be used by different programs. The
shared hardware resources include the processor, memory and storage
facilities. Functions of the OS include:

 Initialising the hardware of the machine

 Maintain the integrity of the system
 Error handling
 Rendering basic routines that control devices
 Management , scheduling and interaction of tasks
Depending upon the domain that is being used, we have different types of
operating systems as earlier on stated. These OS can be categorised basing
on execution trait as summarised below.
13.6 Types of Operating systems

Single user single task
This type of operating system can be used by only one user and only one task
can be executed at a time. The operating system efficiently and effectively
manages all hardware components in such a manner that only one job can be
can be processed at a time thus being used on hand held devices and palmtops.
Typical operating systems include the Palm Operating System and the
Windows Mobile.
Single user multitasking
Within this type of interface, the user is able to simultaneously execute multiple
tasks simultaneously on a single machine. For example a user can concurrently
download an application form from a university website, typing his or her
application letter and also printing his scanned copies of certificates. Single
user multitasking operating systems include Microsoft Windows Vista,
Microsoft Windows 8 and Linux just to mention a few. These are the most
common type of operating systems found on desktop machines and laptops
on both the Windows and Macintosh (Apple) platforms.
Multi-user
These operating systems that can be invoked or accessed by multiple

workstations concurrently. In other words, these are operating systems on
servers that can render services to different workstations simultaneously. For
example, when implementing the Unix Server, multiple workstations can invoke
the Unix Shell for services. Additionally, batch processing systems and
timesharing systems fall under multi-user operating systems.

Unit 13 Software
Distributed Operating systems
Distributed operating systems are implemented on geographically spaced

networked processing nodes capable of serving multiple users. The nearest
processing node or the node that efficiently executes the job best is awarded
the job by the operating system. The processing node then timeously update
other processors via the network thus it appears as if there is a single machine
processing all the data. Solaris operating system for SUN multiprocessor
workstations is an example of distributed operating system.
Real Time Operating Systems
These are specialised multi-tasking operating systems that execute instant

response applications. In most cases, the user does not have control over the
execution of the programs due to well defined fixed time constraints. Domains
where these types of operating systems are applied include air traffic control
systems, industrial control systems and reservation systems. Real time operating
systems are further classified into two categories namely Hard Real Time
Operating Systems (HRTOS) and Soft Real Time Operating Systems
(SRTOS). HRTOS invokes the processor to process data as soon as it is
entered by the processor without any delay at all. Hence HRTOS guarantee
critical jobs to be completed on time. SRTOS is characterised by slight delays
in microseconds between the time data is entered by the user and the time an
invoked job is completed.
13.7 Type of Operating System Interfaces

The Graphical User Interface (GUI)
This is an interface that uses menus, icons, graphics, pointing devices and
windows to achieve the user desired goals. The GUI is characterised by a
start menu that has all groups of programs and a task bar that depicts programs
that are currently being used. Menus in GUI bundle and organise commands
in an efficient manner such that commands can easily be selected from this
menu compared to them being typed in as for the command line interface. A
pointing device such as a mouse direct items of interest in a specific window
and selects the desired menu choices for the user.
The GUI is capable of displaying multiple windows performing different tasks

on the same visual display unit. Icons in this interface depict the different types
of information. For example files are depicted using folders. Graphics on GUI

entails the mixture of text and graphic elements on the same visual display
unit. The three most common GUI interaction styles include menu selection,
form filling and direct manipulation. The dragging and dropping of folders in a
Windows environment is an example of direct manipulation. Windows XP,
Vista, 7 and 8 all implement the GUI. Some versions of Linux have now
adopted the GUI mode of operation.
The GUI is a user friendly environment that is easy to learn and use. However,
the user is only confined to the limited choices on the respective menus. GUI
is continuously improving emanating from the constant hardware advancement.
The Command line Interface (CLI)
This type of a user interface is navigated by the user directly typing commands
on the keyboard to give instructions to the system. It was the earliest type of
interface used on MS DOS and UNIX. This interface works as follows:
 The CLI displays a prompt signifying that the computer is ready to
execute operations.
 The user types desired commands and presses the Enter key
 The command is executed and the result of the operation displayed.
 A new prompt is displayed ready for the next input command.
The CLI was designed in such a manner that it runs on simple hardware
specifications with very much limited resources compared to GUI. Nowadays,
it is mainly used by technically advanced computer personnel such as systems
administrators and programmers. CLI supports a quick interaction between
the user and the machine and users have complete control of the interface.
However, it is difficult for new users as they have to know the correct syntax
and semantics to execute the commands. Additionally, there is a high likelihood
of typographical errors.
The CLI is mainly implemented nowadays on variants of Linux for example

Linux Red Hat. The Windows platform is a hybrid interface that accepts both
GUI and CLI. The CLI interface for Windows 8 can be accessed as follows:
 Click the Start Button
 Type the command cmd on the search field and press Enter.
 The command prompt pops up as a new window as shown below.

Unit 13 Software
 Commands can now be typed to give instructions to the computer.

 Type the command exit to close the command prompt.
13.8 The Booting Process for Windows 8

1. The firmware verifies that all Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
(UEFI) executable files and operating system loader have not been
modified.
2. The signatures of all components to be loaded are verified by the
Windows Boot Component and are not loaded if suspected that they
have been tampered with.
3. The Secure Boot Verification process in Win load and the Early Launch
Anti-Malware driver verifies the signatures for all boot critical divers.
4. Suppose the UEFI firmware and Boot Manager signing information
did not match, the Boot Manager gets replaced with a backup copy.
5. If step 4 fail, UEFI prompts appropriate remedial actions to recover
the original state.
6. The digital signature for Windows 8 Kernel is verified by the boot loader.
7. The Windows 8 Kernel verifies boot drivers, start up files, ELAM and
other relevant components of the windows start up process.
8. If any of the components on step 7 has been modified, Windows 8
automatically repairs the respective components and the machine
resumes normally.
9. The Early Launch Anti-Malware (ELAM) driver signature is verified
for authenticity.
10. ELAM now examines all boot drivers against a trusted list of drivers.
Any driver that is not available on the list is not loaded.
11. Windows 8 triggers the remote attestation client at the end of the start-
up process. (The subsequent steps are undertaken by IT personnel on
machines within a network.)
12. The attestation server sends the client a unique key.

13. The TPM digitally signs the log recorded by the UEFI using the unique
key.
14. The client sends the log to the server.
15. The attestation server verifies the integrity of the start-up process.
16. Anti-Malware is loaded.
17. Windows sign in.
13.9 Installing and Upgrading Windows 8

1. Verify that your boot sequence on BIOS setup first boot device is set
to the CD/DVD ROM.
2. Insert the Windows 8 DVD into the DVD ROM and start your machine.
3. Adjust appropriately your language, time, currency format and keyboard
or input method settings.
4. From the given two options Install or Repair, select Install.
5. The setup process starts and runs for a while.
6. Enter the product key for Windows 8 and click next.
7. Scroll down and read the license terms and tick the box that signifies
that you accepts the license term.
8. Choose the installation type as either as UPGRADE or CUSTOM.
Upgrade advances from a lower version to a higher version whilst
custom install afresh. If installing Windows 8 for the first time on your
machine choose custom.
9. Select the location for your Windows 8 installation. If there is more
than one hard drive on your machine, select the drive you want to
install the OS and go to step 13. If you have a single hard drive and you
want to partition it, go to step 10. If you do not want to partition the
single hard drive, go to step 13.
10. If you want to partition the hard drive, click new and choose the size of
the partition. Click apply.
11. Click OK and Windows 8 automatically create three partitions.
12. Partition 1 is reserved for the system, partition 2 and 3 are primary and
secondary storage respectively. Choose partition 2 (primary storage)
for the installation.
13. Windows now start copying files to the hard drive and installations
starts.
14. Windows automatically starts when all files have been copied.
15. Several information bars and information messages are prompted and
the machine automatically restarts for the second time. A few OS basic
screens are given as a guide to the user.
16. Type in the name of your PC and personalise the colour.

Unit 13 Software
17. Choose customise from the two given options customise and express
settings.
18. Click the ‘Yes turn on sharing and connect to devices’.
19. Choose your preferred options and click next on the subsequent
prompts until a Metro user interface is presented on your screen.
20. Verify that all hardware and device drivers have been detected and
installed correctly using the Device Manager. Go to the Device Manager
and click search. Type devmgmt.msc and click devmgmt on the left.
21. All hardware components are listed and a yellow exclamation mark
signifies that the device driver has not been installed
22. Search for all these drivers manually from the respective manufacturers
and install them. The configuration will be complete if all the yellow
exclamation marks have been removed from the Device Manager.
13.10 Hardware Requirements for Windows operating

systems
Hardware
Component Windows XP Windows Vista Windows 7 Windows 8
Home
Premium
Processor
300MHZ 1GHZ or faster 1GHZ or faster 1GHZ or faster
RAM
128MB 1GB 1GB(32 bit) or 1GB(32 bit) or
2GB(64 bit) 2GB(64 bit)
Hard Disk
space 1.5GB 40 GB+15GB 16GB (32 bit) 16GB (32 bit)
for installation or 20GB (64 or 20GB (64
bit) bit)
Graphics Card
Microsoft Microsoft Microsoft Microsoft
DirectX 9.0c DirectX 9 with DirectX 9 with DirectX 9 with
WDDM WDDM WDDM

13.11 Preventive Maintenance

It is the periodic and systematic inspection, debugging, cleaning and
replacement of hardware and software components meant to maintain a
consistent system performance that is free from system malfunctions or failures.
This in turn reduces repairing costs and the machine’s downtime. The procedure
also increases the safety for data protection thus increasing the life of the
machine. Preventive maintenance can be achieved by using software updates,
automatic updates, data backup and restoration, antivirus software and creating
system restore points.
13.12 Software Updates

Systems upon delivery to the client are not completely free from errors.
Software updates are meant to keep the operating system and its application
programs up to date with the latest releases from the software vendors.
Microsoft has various updates that were released as it noted problems whilst
its products had already been delivered and functioning. These software
updates are mainly implemented as hotfixes, patches or updates.
i. Hotfixes
These are small pieces of programs that are meant to solve specific
problems of the released and already operational operating system.
For example Windows Vista released a hotfix for WMI to address
operation and functionality problems for the respective operating system.
ii. Patches
Patches are pieces of programs designed to address security loopholes
or related issues with the operating systems. The security loopholes are
mainly associated with browsers. For example, Microsoft often releases
the patches for the Internet Explorer browser to address the browser’s
memory corruption and vulnerability.
iii. Service Packs

A service pack is a collection of hotfixes and updates that are designed
to correct known problems. Normally, service packs provide drivers,
updates and systems administration tools from the software
manufacturer. Some examples of service packs released by Windows
include Windows XP Service Pack 4, Windows Server 2003 Service
Pack 2, Windows Server 2008 Service Pack 2 and Windows 7 Service
Pack 1. Service packs are safe to use as they are rigorously tested by

Unit 13 Software
the software manufacturer on different hardware platforms and

compatibility verified across different platforms. Patches and hotfixes
are not subjected to rigorous testing and may cause further problems if
extreme caution is not exercised.
13.13 Windows Automatic Updates

This is a built in Windows feature where the operating system is configured to
automatically check for updates, download and install them as soon as they
are made available on the operating system manufacturer’s website. This feature
was introduced by Windows in 2000 on their OS Windows Me. Automatic
updates do not make use of a web browser but rather just need an Internet
connection. The Windows operating system can be configured to automatically
update, download updates but let the user choose when to install them, notify
the user but OS not to download or install them and to turn off completely
automatic updates. Automatic updates need to be configured in such a manner
that important and recommended updates are automatically installed otherwise
some updates utilise bandwidth and disk space whilst they are not important
to the user.
Data Backup and Restoration
Activity 13.1
? Evaluate the security properties exhibited by Windows 8
during the booting process.
13.14 Summary
In this unit we discussed about software. Software are programs and their
associated documentation and it is an interface between hardware and a
computer user. Software is classified into system software, application software
and programming software.

References
Ashdown, A. (2001). Installing Software. Bristol: Dorling Kindersley
Publishers Ltd.
Grubb, P., Takang, A. A. (2003). Software Maintenance: Concepts and
Practice. New Jersey: World Scientific Publishing.
Pigoski, T. M. (1996). Practical Software Maintenance: Best Practices for
Managing your Software Investment. New York: John Wiley and Sons
Inc.

Unit Fourteen
Application Installation and Configuration
14.1 Introduction
T his unit gives students an appreciation of the software that they use on a
daily basis. It equips students with more understanding of the difference
between application software and system software and also how to install,
configure, repair and uninstall application software.
14.2 Objectives
 Define what an application.

 Identify the different software applications.
 List steps to install and configure new software
applications.
 Repair corrupt software applications.
 Uninstall unwanted software applications.
14.3 Application Basics

An application is a type of software that allows one to perform specific tasks.
Applications for desktop or laptop computers are sometimes called desktop
applications and those for mobile devices are called mobile applications for
example WhatsApp. When an application is opened, it runs inside the
operating system (system software) until it is closed. More than one application
can be opened at the same time and this is known as multitasking. Application
software is different from System software because it does not control how
the system works, instead it allows one to do their everyday tasks on the
computer such as writing a letter, sending an email, making a poster or
downloading a web page. System software on the other hand controls how
the computer system works and it enables the user to access the system
hardware and application software.
Typical application software are:

 Word processors for example Microsoft Word, OpenOffice Writer.
 Spreadsheets for example Microsoft Excel, OpenOffice Calc.
 Graphics software for example Microsoft Paint, Adobe Photoshop,
Corel Paintshop Pro.
 Web design software for example Adobe Dreamweaver, NetBeans.
 Web browsers for example Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome,
Safari.
 Games for example solitaire.
 Media players for example iTunes.
 Gadgets for example Calendar, Calculator, Maps.
Application software come in different categories for example custom-written
software or off-the-shelf software.

Unit 14 Application Installation and Configuration
Activity 14.1
? Differentiate custom-written software from off-the-shelf-
software.
14.4 Installing Applications

For one to be able to use an application on your desktop computer, laptop or
mobile device; the application have to be installed on that device. When you
want to install an application, first make sure that your device meets the system
requirements of the program you want to install. The manual or the readme
file contain exact instructions on how to install a program and are in the same
directory as the installation files. When installing a program, utility or game; it
is always good practice to first close any other program that is running. After
installing a new program, if it prompts you to reboot the computer, do it.
Many software programs, games and utilities have an autoplay feature which
automatically starts a setup screen for the software program when inserting a
CD or DVD. If your program contains this feature, follow the steps that
appear after inserting the disc. If the program does not have the autoplay/
autorun feature:
1. Open My Computer
2. Within the My Computer window, open the drive that contains the
installation files. For example if the files are on the CD-ROM drive or
Removable disc drive, open the D: drive or letter of your CD-ROM
drive or Removable disc drive.
3. Within the drive that contains your files, locate either the executable
setup or install file. Double-clicking on this file starts the installation
process.
If you have downloaded the application:
1. If the file you downloaded is an executable, double click the application
icon to start the setup process. If the downloaded file is compressed
(.zip, .rar), you must extract the file’s contents before setup can begin.
Fortunately this function is built into later versions of windows, with
previous versions you would have to install the application that can
unzip the zipped files like WinRAR or WinZip in order to be able to
extract the files.
2. Once the files are extracted, double click the setup to install.

14.5 Repairing or Uninstalling Applications

An installed program can be uninstalled if it is no longer needed. On the other
hand if a program is experiencing technical challenges, it means some files
may be corrupted. In that case, try to repair the installed files. This procedure
keeps your settings. It just restores the program and the help files. To perform
this operation, the original setup file must be present on your hard disk. The
process is simple and straight forward for both uninstall and repair.
Activity 14.2
? 1.
2.
Go to Start -> Control Panel
Programs -> Uninstall a program
3. Select a program that you want to uninstall or repair.
4. If you want to uninstall, click on uninstall and if you want
to repair click on repair.
However in order for you to be able to repair you need to have a CD or

DVD of the same program in the drive so that corrupted files can be copied.
If not so, you need to be connected to the internet so that corrupted files can
be downloaded from the internet.
Activity 14.3
? 1. Rigorously define system software with the aid of
examples.
2. Install system software on a machine of your choice.
3. Compare and contrast system software and application
software.
4. Figure out applications installed on your computer. Did
you have to install them or they came pre-installed on
your computer?
5. Differentiate mobile applications from desktop
applications.

14.6 Summary
An application software is used in the daily operations of a computer user to
perform specific tasks. An application software runs on a system software.
For a computer user to be able to use application software, it has to be first
installed on the system software. Application software can get corrupt and be
repaired or be uninstalled if it is no longer needed.

References

Pvt Ltd.
Pigoski, T. M. (1996). Practical Software Maintenance: Best Practices for
Managing your Software Investment. New York: John Wiley and Sons
Inc.


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Bachelor of Information

Technology and Software

Content Reviewer: Peace Muyambo

Editor: Tanunurwa W Mangava

P.O. Box MP1119

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open

Year: July 2016

Cover design: T. Ndhlovu

Layout and design: S. Mushore / C. S. Nhari

Printed by: ZOU Press

Typeset in Garamond, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this publication

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

Session I (Two Hours)

Session II (Two Hours)

Session III (Two Hours)

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

Module Overview ______________________________________________ 1

Unit One: Logic Design and Switching Circuits

Unit Two: Motherboards

Unit Four: Memory

Unit Five: Ports

Unit Seven: Input Devices

8.1 ______ Introduction _____________________________________________ 133

Unit Nine: Output Devices

9.1 ______ Introduction _____________________________________________ 147

Unit Ten: Disk System Architecture

10.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 163

Unit Eleven: Networking Hardware

11.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 175

Unit Twelve: Configuring Network Software

12.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 199

Unit Thirteen: Software

13.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 209

Unit Fourteen: Application Installation and Configuration

14.1 _____ Introduction _____________________________________________ 221

Course Guide Description

As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

Study Activities Study Hours

Understanding course content and initial discussions 5

2 Zimbabwe Open University

1. Identify the importance of each computer hardware component and

Text Arrangement Guide

Activity: Activities are also placed at various locations or junctures through-

Zimbabwe Open University 3

References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,

Prior Knowledge: A basic knowledge of the subject matter is not required

4 Zimbabwe Open University

Logic Design and Switching

♦ Differentiate analogue from digital signals and explain the significance

1.2 Analogue and Digital Signals.

6 Zimbabwe Open University

Digital systems overtook analogue systems due to the following reasons:

Zimbabwe Open University 7

1.3 Number Systems

Decimal number systems (base 10) uses ten symbols namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

8 Zimbabwe Open University

Binary to decimal conversions

2^4 2^3 2^2 2^1 2^0

Hence 11001 base 2 is 25 base 10

8.1 Introduction _______________________________________ 133

9.1 Introduction _______________________________________ 147

10.1 _ Introduction _________________________________________ 163

11.1 _ Introduction _________________________________________ 175

12.1 _ Introduction _________________________________________ 199

13.1 _ Introduction _________________________________________ 209

14.1 _ Introduction _________________________________________ 221