COMPUTER NETWORKING IN AN ORGANIZATION

A SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

Submitted by

Gaurav melkani

Enrollment Number: 40614803117

in partial fulfillment of Summer Training for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology

1
 MAHARAJA AGRASEN INSITUTEOF TECHNOLOGY

To Whom It May Concern

I, GAURAV MELKANI, Enrollment No 40614803117, a student of

Bachelors of Technology (IT), a class of 2017-21, Maharaja Agrasen Institute

of Technology, Delhi hereby declare that the Summer Training project report

entitled “THE BITS AND BYTES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING ” is an

original work and the same has not been submitted to any other Institute for the

award of any other degree.

GAURAV MELKANI
Enrollment No: 40614803117
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Engineering
IT456

2
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in the training report,

entitled “SUMMER TRAINING ON COMPUTER NETWORKING” in partial

fulfillment for the award of Degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in Department

of information technology & Engineering and submitted to the Department of

information technology& Engineering, Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha

University (GGSIPU), Delhi a record of my own investigations. I have not

submitted the matter presented in this report anywhere for the award of any other

Degree.

Gaurav melkani
Information technology& Engineering
Enrolment no: 40614803117
Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology, Delhi

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Every Summer Training big or small is successful largely due to the effort of a
number of wonderful people who have always given their valuable advice or lent
a helping hand. I sincerely appreciate the inspiration; support and guidance of all
those people who have been instrumental in making this project a success. I,
GAURAV MELKANI, the student of Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology
(INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY & Engineering), am extremely grateful to
“THE BITS AND BYTES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING” for the
confidence bestowed in me and entrusting my seminar entitled “SUMMER
TRAINING ON COMPUTER NETWORKING” with special reference to
GOOGLE. At this juncture I feel deeply honored in expressing my sincere
thanks to GOOGLE for making the resources available at right time and
providing valuable insights leading to the successful completion of my seminar.

I express my gratitude to Prof. M.L. SHARMA (HOD, IT MAIT) for arranging

the summer training in good schedule. Last but not the least I place a deep sense
of gratitude to my family members and my friends who have been constant
source of inspiration during the preparation of this seminar report.

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 ABOUT THE COURSERA

Coursera  is a world-wide online learning platform founded in 2012 by Stanford computer

science professors Andrew Ng and Daphne Koller that offers massive open online
courses (MOOC), specializations, and degrees.

Coursera works with universities and other organizations to offer online courses,
specializations, and degrees in a variety of subjects, such as engineering, data science, machine
learning, mathematics, business, computerscience, digitalmarketing, humanities, medicine, biol
ogy, social sciences, and others.

ABSTRACT

A computer network is a digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to share

resources. In computer networks, computing devices exchange data with each other using
connections (data links) between nodes. These data links are established over cable
media such as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such as Wi-Fi

Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for the
success of every enterprise. While today nearly every organization uses a substantial
number of computers and communication tools (telephone , fax , personal hand held
devices) , they are often still isolated , many departments still do not communicate and
much needed information cannot be readily accessed.

To overcome these difficulties there is a need for effective computer networking.

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In the project which is THE BITS AND BYTES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING, we
explored the COMPUTER NETWORKING course of GOOGLE IT professional .
GOOGLE organization uses a substantial number of computers and communication tools
(telephones,fax,personal handheld devices).

In effective usage of information technology,computer networks are necessary. With the

help of information technology it is made possible to form a kind of organization of
computer systems produced by the need to merge computers and communications.

Computer networks can manage to put down the barriers between information held on
several systems. Only with the help of computer networks can a borderless
communication and information environment be built.

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7
 TABLE OF CONTENT

S.No. CHAPTERS Page Number

1. Intrduction to Computer Networking 10

1.1 What is computer networking ? 10

1.2 Why do we need computer networking? 10

1.3. Types of computer networking 11

1.3.1. Local Area Network 12

1.3.2. Metropolitan Area Network 13

1.3.3. Wide Area Network 14

2. Tools & Technology Used 15

2.1. The TCP/IP MODEL 15

2.2. OSI MODEL 15

2.3. Network topology 15

2.3.1. Bus 16

2.3.2. Ring 16

2.3.3 Star 16

2.3.4 Tree 17

2.3.5 Mesh 17

2.4 Network devices 17

2.4.1 Hub 17

2.4.2 Switch 18

2.4.3 Routers 18

2.4.4 Bridge 18

2.4.5 Gateway 19

2.4.6 Modem 19

2.4.7 Repeater 20

3 Technical content 22

8
 3.1 Physical layer 23

3.2 Line config. In physical layer 23

3.2.1 Point to point 23

3.2.2 Multi point 24

3.3 Transmission modes in physical layer 25

3.3.1 Simplex mode 25

3.3.2 Half duplex mode 26

3.3.3 Full duplex mode 26

3.4 Types of Transmission media 27

3.4.1 Guided media 28

3.4.2 Unguided media 30

3.5 Switching 31

3.6 Multiplexing 32

3.7 Patch panel 32

3.8 Networking Ports 34

3.9 DATA LINK LAYER 35

3.9.1 Functionality of DLL 35

3.9.2 Flow control 43

3.9.3 Error control 47-50

3.10 Ethernet 51-53

3.11 NETWORK LAYER 54-56

3.15 TRANSPORT LAYER 56-64

3.17 CRYPTOGRAPHY 65-66

3.18 WIFI 66-67

3.19 INTERNET SERVICES 68-71

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 4 SNAPSHOT 72-75

5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 76-78

6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE HOPE 79-82

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.No. Topic Page Number

1 Computer networking 14

2 types of network 15

3 LAN 16

4 MAN 17

5 TCP/IP VS OSI 18

6 OSI MODEL 18

7 CLIENT SERVER 24

8 Point to point connection 20

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9 Multipoint connection 22

10 types of modes in network 23

11 Simplex one direction 24

12 Half duplex 33

13 Full duplex 36

14 Types of transmission media 36

15 Switching 37

16 STOP AND WAIT 37

14 STOP AND WAIT ARQ 38

15 GBN 39

16 SELECTIVE REPEAT 40

17 ETHERNET 52

18 ALOHA 60

19 SLOTTED ALOHA 60

20 TUNNELING 63

21 IPV4 DATAGRAM 64

22 IPV6 DATAGRAM 65

23 TL HEADER 67

24 INTERNET SERVICES 68

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CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is COMPUTER NETWORKING?

For a specific purpose if things are connected together, are referred as a NETWORK. A
network can be of many types, like a telephone network, television network, computer network
or even a people network. It is the interconnection of multiple devices, generally termed as
Hosts connected using multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data or media.
There are also multiple devices or mediums which helps in the communication between two
different devices which are known as Network devices. Ex: Router, Switch, Hub, Bridge.

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 (fig1: Computer Networking)

1.2 Why do we need COMPUTER NETWORKING?

Information technology (IT) officers and computer network administrators need network
systems because they allow the IT professional to maintain uniform versions of software,
protocols and security measures across hundreds or thousands of individual computers from
one IT management station. Instead of individually upgrading each computer in a company one
at a time, a network administrator can initiate an upgrade from a server and automatically
duplicate the upgrade throughout the network simultaneously, allowing everyone in the
company to maintain uniform software, resources and procedures.

 Computer networks allows the user to access remote program and remote database
either from the same organization or from other enterprises or public source.

 Computer networks provides communication faster then other facility. Because of these
optimal information and communication possibilities , it may increase the
organizational learning rate.

 Computer networking also allows organizations to maintain complex internal

communications systems

 Computer networking also allows organizations to share internet access.

 Organizations that demand extraordinary computing power benefit from computer

networking by distributing computational tasks across multiple computers throughout
the network, breaking complex problems into hundreds or thousands of smaller
operations, which are then parceled out to individual computers.

1.3 Types of COMPUTER NETWORKS ?

COMPUTER NETWORK is divided into three major categories area networks.

 LOCAL AREA NETWORK

 METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK
 WIDE AREA NETWORK
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 (fig2: types of NETWORK)

1.3.1 LOCAL AREA NETWORK

 A Local Area Network is a privately owned computer network covering a small
Networks geographical area,like a home, office, or groups of buildings e.g. a school
Network. A LAN is used to connect the computers and other network devices so that
the devices can communicate with each other to share the resources. The resources to
be shared can be a hardware device like printer, software like an application program
or data. The size of LAN is usually small. The various devices in LAN are connected
to central devices called Hub or Switch using a cable.
TYPES OF LAN

ARCNET (Attached Resource Computer NETwork) 

ARCNET is one of the oldest, simplest, and least expensive types of Local-
Area Network protocol, similar in purpose to Ethernet or Token Ring. ARCNET was
the first widely available networking system for microcomputers.A special advantage of
ARCNET is that it permits various types of transmission media - twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable - to be mixed on the same network

ETHERNET

Ethernet is a family of computer networking technologies for local area networks

commercially introduced in 1980. Standardized in IEEE 802.3, Ethernet has largely

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 replaced competing wired local area network technologies. Ethernet uses a bus or star
topology Network and supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps.

Ethernet Network uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle simultaneous demands.
It is one of the most widely implemented LAN standards. A newer version of Ethernet
Network, called 100Base-T (or Fast Ethernet), supports data transfer rates of 100 Mbps.

(fig 3 LAN)

1.3.2 METROPOLITAN AREA

NETWORK
MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Networks is one of a number of types of networks.
A MAN is a relatively new class of network. MAN is larger than a local area network
and as its name implies, covers the area of a single city. MANs rarely extend beyond
100 KM and frequently comprise a combination of different hardware and transmission
media. It can be single network such as a cable TV network, or it is a means of
connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that resources can be shared
LAN to LAN as well as device to device.

(fig 4: MAN)

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1.3.3 WIDE AREA NETWORK
A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunication network. A wide area network is simply a
LAN of LANs or Network of Networks. WANs connect LANs that may be on opposite sides of
a building, across the country or around the world. WANS are characterized by the slowest data
communication rates and the largest distances. WANs can be of two types: an enterprise WAN
and Global WAN.

Numerous WANs have been constructed, including public packet networks, large corporate
networks, military networks, banking networks, stock brokerage networks, and airline
reservation networks.

Organizations supporting WANs using the Internet Protocol are known as Network Service
Providers (NSPs). These form the core of the Internet.

By connecting the NSP WANs together using links at Internet Packet Interchanges (sometimes
called "peering points") a global communication infrastructure is formed.

CONCLUSION     

There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as LAN’s provide excellent
reliability, high data transmission rate, they can easily be managed, and shares peripheral
devices too. Local Area Network cannot cover cities or towns and for that Metropolitan Area
Network is needed, which can connect city or a group of cities together. Further, for connecting
Country or a group of Countries one requires Wide Area Network.                      

There are other types of Computer Networks also, like :

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 SAN (Storage Area Network)
 EPN (Enterprise Private Network)
 VPN (Virtual Private Network)

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CHAPTER 2: TOOLS AND TECHNOLOGY USED

2.1 THE TCP/IP MODEL

The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was designed to describe
the functions of the communication system by dividing the communication procedure into
smaller and simpler components. But when we talk about the TCP/IP model, it was designed
and developed by Department of Defense (DoD) in 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It
stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise
version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike seven layers in the OSI model. The
layers are:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer

2.2 OSI MODEL

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO –

‘International Organization of Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7 layer architecture
with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively
to transmit the data from one person to another across the globe.

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 (fig 5: TCP/IP VS OSI MODEL)

(fig 6: OSI MODEL)

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2.3 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices.

Think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily
correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the
computers on a home network may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be
highly unlikely to find a ring topology there.

Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types:

 Bus
 Ring

 Star
 Tree
 Mesh

More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of these basic topologies.

2.3.1 Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a
common backbone to connect all devices. The backbone is a single cable that functions as a
shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A
device that wants to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast
message to the wire that the other devices see, but only the intended recipient can accept and
process the message.

Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared
to the alternatives. 10Base-2 (ThinNet) and 10Base-5 (ThickNet) were popular Ethernet cabling
options for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices.
If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems result.
In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the network is unusable.

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2.3.2 Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either clockwise or counterclockwise). A
failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the network.

Ring networks are implemented using FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring

topologies are found in office buildings and school campuses.

2.3.3 Star Topology

Many home networks use star topology. A star network features a central connection point
called a hub node that is either a network hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the
hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in
any star network cable only takes down network access for one computer, not the entire LAN.
If the hub fails, however, the entire network fails.

2.3.4 Tree Topology

A tree topology joins multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub
devices connect to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the root of a tree of devices. This
bus/star hybrid approach supports future expansion of the network better than a bus (limited in
the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number
of hub connection points).

2.3.5 Mesh Topology

Mesh topology introduces the concept of routes. Unlike the other topologies, messages sent on
a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (In a ring,
although two cable paths exist, messages only travel in one direction.) Some WANs, most
notably the internet, employ mesh routing.

A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh.
Partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.

SUMMARY OF TOPOLOGY
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Topology remains an important part of network design theory. It's possible to build a home or
small business computer network without understanding the difference between a bus design
and a star design, but becoming familiar with the standard topologies provides a better
understanding of networking concepts such as hubs, broadcasts, and routes.

2.4 NETWORK DEVICES

2.4.1 HUB

Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in
that it amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A
hub is the simplest in the family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN
components with identical protocols.

2.4.2 SWITCH

Switches generally have a more intelligent role than hubs. A switch is a multiport device that
improves network efficiency. The switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in
the internal network, and it allows connections to systems like hubs or routers. Strands of
LANs are usually connected using switches. Generally, switches can read the hardware
addresses of incoming packets to transmit them to the appropriate destination.

2.4.3 ROUTERS

Routers help transmit packets to their destinations by charting a path through the sea of
interconnected networking devices using different network topologies. Routers are intelligent
devices, and they store information about the networks they’re connected to. Most routers can
be configured to operate as packet-filtering firewalls and use access control lists (ACLs).
Routers, in conjunction with a channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU), are also used
to translate from LAN framing to WAN framing. This is needed because LANs and WANs use
different network protocols. Such routers are known as border routers. They serve as the
outside connection of a LAN to a WAN, and they operate at the border of your network.

2.4.4 BRIDGE

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Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of
bridges in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different
segments that the bridge connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses
for transferring frames. By looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each
segment, bridges can forward the data or block it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to
connect two physical LANs into a larger logical LAN.

Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to
divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments
and managing the flow of data between the two.

2.4.5 GATEWAY

Gateways normally work at the Transport and Session layers of the OSI model. At the
Transport layer and above, there are numerous protocols and standards from different vendors;
gateways are used to deal with them. Gateways provide translation between networking
technologies such as Open System Interconnection (OSI) and Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because of this, gateways connect two or more
autonomous networks, each with its own routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain name
service, and network administration procedures and policies.

2.4.6 MODEM

Modems (modulators-demodulators) are used to transmit digital signals over analog telephone
lines. Thus, digital signals are converted by the modem into analog signals of different
frequencies and transmitted to a modem at the receiving location. The receiving modem
performs the reverse transformation and provides a digital output to a device connected to a
modem, usually a computer.

2.4.7 REPEATER

A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of repeater
as a device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that
the signal can cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables.
Repeaters work on the Physical layer.

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COMMAND PROMPT

Command Prompt is a command line interpreter application available in most

Windows operating systems. It's used to execute entered commands. Most of those commands
automate tasks via scripts and batch files, perform advanced administrative functions, and
troubleshoot or solve certain kinds of Windows issues.

Command Prompt is officially called Windows Command Processor, but it is also sometimes
referred to as the command shell or cmd prompt, or even by its filename, cmd.exe.

Command Prompt is sometimes incorrectly referred to as "the DOS prompt" or as MS-DOS

itself. Command Prompt is a Windows program that emulates many of the command line
abilities available in MS-DOS, but it's not MS-DOS.

2.5 CABLES

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High speed capacity
Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to external interference

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

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 2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in
fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparitively faster
Disadvantages:

 Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive
 Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate

ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:

 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:

 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for
transmission of large volumes of data.
Advantages:

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Light weight

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  Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost
 Fragile
 unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional communication

2.6 SERVER AND CLIENT

o A client and server networking model is a model in which computers such as servers
provide the network services to the other computers such as clients to perform a user
based tasks. This model is known as client-server networking model.
o The application programs using the client-server model should follow the given below
strategies:

(figure 7 server-client model)

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 o An application program is known as a client program, running on the local machine that
requests for a service from an application program known as a server program, running
on the remote machine.
o A client program runs only when it requests for a service from the server while the
server program runs all time as it does not know when its service is required.
o A server provides a service for many clients not just for a single client. Therefore, we
can say that client-server follows the many-to-one relationship. Many clients can use
the service of one server.
o Services are required frequently, and many users have a specific client-server
application program. For example, the client-server application program allows the user
to access the files, send e-mail, and so on. If the services are more customized, then we
should have one generic application program that allows the user to access the services
available on the remote computer.

CHAPTER 3: TECHNICAL CONTENT

3.1 PHYSICAL LAYER

Physical layer in the OSI model plays the role of interacting with actual hardware and
signaling mechanism. Physical layer is the only layer of OSI network model which actually
deals with the physical connectivity of two different stations. This layer defines the hardware
equipment, cabling, wiring, frequencies, pulses used to represent binary signals etc.

Physical layer provides its services to Data-link layer. Data-link layer hands over frames to
physical layer. Physical layer converts them to electrical pulses, which represent binary
data.The binary data is then sent over the wired or wireless media.

3.1.1 LINE CONFIGURATION IN PHYSICAL LAYER

A network is two or more devices connected through a link. A link is a communication
pathway that transfer data from one device to another. Devices can be a computer, printer or
any other device that is capable to send and receive data. For visualization purpose, imagine

26
any link as a line drawn between two points.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at
the same time. There are two possible types of connections:

1. Point-to-Point Connection
2. Multipoint Connection

3.1.2 Point-to-Point Connection :

1. A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
2. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
3. Most point-to-point connections use a actual length of wire or cable to connect the two
end, but other options such as microwave or satellite links are also possible.
4. Point to point network topology is considered to be one of the easiest and most
conventional network
topologies.
5. It is also the simplest to establish and understand.

(fig 8 point to point connection)

3.1.3 Multipoint Connection :

1. It is also called Multidrop configuration. In this connection two or more devices share a
single link.

27
 2. More than two devices share the link that is the capacity of the channel is shared now.
With shared capacity, there can be two possibilities in a Multipoint Line configuration:

Spatial Sharing: If several devices can share the link simultaneously, its called Spatially
shared line configuration.
Temporal (Time) Sharing: If users must take turns using the link , then its called
Temporally shared or Time Shared Line configuration.

(fig 9- multipoint connection)

3.2 Transmission modes in computer NETWORK

Transmission mode means transferring of data between two devices. It is also known as
communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to allow communication to occur
between individual devices that are interconnected. There are three types of transmission
mode:-

 Simplex Mode
 Half-Duplex Mode
 Full-Duplex Mode

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 .(fig 10 – types of modes in networks)

3.2.1 Simplex Mode

In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the
two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the
entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the
monitor can only give the output.

(fig 11 simplex one direction )

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3.2.2 Half Duplex Mode

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode
is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both direction at the same time.
The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
the directions.

(fig 12- half duplex)

3.3.3 Full duplex mode

 In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In

full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with
signals going in other direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:

 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending
and other for receiving.
30
  Or the capacity is divided between signals travelling in both directions.
 Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both direction is required all the time.
The capacity of the channel, however must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by
a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

(fig 13- full duplex)

3.4 Types of Transmission Media

( fig 14- types of transmission media)

3.4.1 Guided Media

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It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are
directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Features:

 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several
such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
3. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):
This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical
shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High speed capacity
Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to external interference

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation
4. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in
fast-data-rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparitively faster
Disadvantages:
32
  Comparitively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate
insulated protection cover. Coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband
mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate

ranges). Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:

 High Bandwidth
 Better noise Immunity
 Easy to install and expand
 Inexpensive
Disadvantages:

 Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

(iii) Optical Fibre Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is
surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for
transmission of large volumes of data.
Advantages:

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Light weight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost
 Fragile
 unidirectional, ie, will need another fibre, if we need bidirectional communication

33
3.4.2 Unguided Media

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No physical medium is

required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.

Features:

 Signal is broadcasted through air

 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 major types of Unguided Media:

(i) Radiowaves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving
antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and
cordless phones use Radiowaves for transmission.
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite.

(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height
of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone
communication and television distribution.
(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through
obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It
is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
In simplest words it is a global network of smaller networks interconnected using
communication protocols that are standardised. The Internet standards describe a framework
known as the Internet protocol suite.

3.5 SWITCHING
Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source towards destination
which are not directly connected. Networks have interconnecting devices, which receives data

34
from directly connected sources, stores data, analyze it and then forwards to the next
interconnecting device closest to the destination.

Switching can be categorized as:

(fig 15-switching)

3.6 MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is a technique to mix and send multiple data streams over a single medium. This
technique requires system hardware called multiplexer (MUX) for multiplexing the streams
and sending them on a medium, and de-multiplexer (DMUX) which takes information from
the medium and distributes to different destinations.

3.7 PATCH PANEL

If you want to set up a wired network that includes multiple wall ports in various rooms, a
patch panel in a central location can provide a simple, neat and easy-to-manage solution. So
what is a patch panel you ask? A patch panel is essentially an array of ports on one panel. Each
port connects, via a patch cable, to another port located elsewhere in your building.

Patch panels bundle multiple network ports together to connect incoming and outgoing lines —
including those for local area networks, electronics, electrical systems and communications.

35
 When patch panels are part of a LAN, they can connect computers to other computers and to
outside lines. Those lines, in turn, allow LANs to connect to wide area networks or to the
Internet. To arrange circuits using a patch panel, you simply plug and unplug the appropriate
patch cords. Troubleshooting problems are simplified with patch panels since they provide a
single location for all input jacks. They’re frequently used in industries that require extensive
sound equipment because they work well for connecting a variety of devices.

3.8 NETWORKING PORTS

A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.

A network port which is provided by the Transport Layer protocols of Internet Protocol suite,
such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Diagram Protocol (UDP) is a number
which serving endpoint communication between two computers.

Port number Transport protocol Service name

20,21 TCP File Transfer Protocol

23 TCP Telnet

25 TCP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP)

53 TCP and UDP Domain Name System(DNS)

110 TCP Post Office Protocol(POP3)

123 UDP Network Time Protocol(NTP)

3.3.1 TYPES OF ACCESSE NETWORK

36
  Ethernet –
It is the most commonly installed wired LAN technology and it provides services on the
Physical and Data Link Layer of OSI reference model. Ethernet LAN typically uses
coaxial cable or twisted pair wires.
 DSL –
DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line and DSL brings a connection into your home
through telephone lines and a DSL line can carry both data and voice signals and the data
part of the line is continuously connected. In DSL you are able to use the Internet and
make phone calls simultaneously. DSL modem uses the telephone lines to exchange data
with digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAMs). In DSL we get 24

 Mbps downstream and 2.5 Mbps upstream.

 FTTH –
Fiber to the home (FTTH) uses optical fiber from a central Office (CO) directly to
individual buildings and it provides high-speed Internet access among all access
networks.It ensures high initial investment but lesser future investment and it is the most
expensive and most future-proof option amongst all these access networks.
 Wireless LANs –
It links two or more devices using wireless communication within a range. It uses high-
frequency radio waves and often include an access point for connecting to the Internet.
 3G and LTE –
It uses cellular telephony to send or receive packets through a nearby base station
operated by the cellular network provider. The term “3G internet” refers to the third
generation of mobile phone standards as set by the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU). Long Term Evolution (LTE) offers high-speed wireless communication for
mobile devices and increased network capacity.

3.9 DATA LINK LAYER

Data Link Layer is second layer of OSI Layered Model. This layer is one of the most
complicated layers and has complex functionalities and liabilities. Data link layer hides the
details of underlying hardware and represents itself to upper layer as the medium to
communicate.

37
Data link layer works between two hosts which are directly connected in some sense. This
direct connection could be point to point or broadcast. Systems on broadcast network are said
to be on same link. The work of data link layer tends to get more complex when it is dealing
with multiple hosts on single collision domain.

Data link layer is responsible for converting data stream to signals bit by bit and to send that
over the underlying hardware. At the receiving end, Data link layer picks up data from
hardware which are in the form of electrical signals, assembles them in a recognizable frame
format, and hands over to upper layer.

 Data link layer has two sub-layers:

 Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control
 Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media

3.9.1 FUNCTIONALITY OF DATA LINK LAYER

 Framing

Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer and encapsulates them into
Frames.Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’ end, data link
layer picks up signals from hardware and assembles them into frames.

 Addressing

Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware addressing mechanism. Hardware address is

assumed to be unique on the link. It is encoded into hardware at the time of manufacturing.

 Synchronization

When data frames are sent on the link, both machines must be synchronized in order to
transfer to take place.

 Error Control

38
 Sometimes signals may have encountered problem in transition and the bits are
flipped.These errors are detected and attempted to recover actual data bits. It also provides
error reporting mechanism to the sender.

 Flow Control

Stations on same link may have different speed or capacity. Data-link layer ensures flow
control that enables both machine to exchange data on same speed.

 Multi-Access

When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high probability of collision.
Data-link layer provides mechanism such as CSMA/CD to equip capability of accessing a
shared media among multiple Systems.

3.9.2 FLOW CONTROL

When a data frame (Layer-2 data) is sent from one host to another over a single medium, it is
required that the sender and receiver should work at the same speed. That is, sender sends at a
speed on which the receiver can process and accept the data. What if the speed
(hardware/software) of the sender or receiver differs? If sender is sending too fast the receiver
may be overloaded, (swamped) and data may be lost.

Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to control the flow:

 Stop and Wait

This flow control mechanism forces the sender after transmitting a data frame to stop
and wait until the acknowledgement of the data-frame sent is received.

39
 (fig 1 6-stop and wait)

 Sliding Window

In this flow control mechanism, both sender and receiver agree on the number of data-
frames after which the acknowledgement should be sent. As we learnt, stop and wait
flow control mechanism wastes resources, this protocol tries to make use of underlying
resources as much as possible.

3.9.3 ERROR CONTROL

When data-frame is transmitted, there is a probability that data-frame may be lost in the transit
or it is received corrupted. In both cases, the receiver does not receive the correct data-frame
and sender does not know anything about any loss.In such case, both sender and receiver are
equipped with some protocols which helps them to detect transit errors such as loss of data-
frame. Hence, either the sender retransmits the data-frame or the receiver may request to
resend the previous data-frame.

Requirements for error control mechanism:

40
  Error detection  - The sender and receiver, either both or any, must ascertain that there
is some error in the transit.

 Positive ACK  - When the receiver receives a correct frame, it should acknowledge it.

 Negative ACK  - When the receiver receives a damaged frame or a duplicate frame, it
sends a NACK back to the sender and the sender must retransmit the correct frame.

 Retransmission:  The sender maintains a clock and sets a timeout period. If an

acknowledgement of a data-frame previously transmitted does not arrive before the
timeout the sender retransmits the frame, thinking that the frame or it’s
acknowledgement is lost in transit.

3.12 STOP AND WAIT ARQ

41
 (fig 17-stop and wait ARQ)

The following transition may occur in Stop-and-Wait ARQ:

 The sender maintains a timeout counter.

 When a frame is sent, the sender starts the timeout counter.

 If acknowledgement of frame comes in time, the sender transmits the next frame in
queue.

 If acknowledgement does not come in time, the sender assumes that either the frame or
its acknowledgement is lost in transit. Sender retransmits the frame and starts the
timeout counter.

 If a negative acknowledgement is received, the sender retransmits the frame.

42
3.9.4 GO BACK-N ARQ

Stop and wait ARQ mechanism does not utilize the resources at their best.When the
acknowledgement is received, the sender sits idle and does nothing. In Go-Back-N ARQ
method, both sender and receiver maintain a window.

43
 (fig 18-GO BACK N ARQ)

The sending-window size enables the sender to send multiple frames without receiving the
acknowledgement of the previous ones. The receiving-window enables the receiver to receive
multiple frames and acknowledge them. The receiver keeps track of incoming frame’s
sequence number.

When the sender sends all the frames in window, it checks up to what sequence number it has
received positive acknowledgement. If all frames are positively acknowledged, the sender
sends next set of frames. If sender finds that it has received NACK or has not receive any
ACK for a particular frame, it retransmits all the frames after which it does not receive any
positive ACK.

44
3.9.5 SELECTIVE REPEAT ARQ

In Go-back-N ARQ, it is assumed that the receiver does not have any buffer space for its
window size and has to process each frame as it comes. This enforces the sender to retransmit
all the frames which are not acknowledged.

(fig 19-SELECTIVE REPEAT)

In Selective-Repeat ARQ, the receiver while keeping track of sequence numbers, buffers the
frames in memory and sends NACK for only frame which is missing or damaged.

The sender in this case, sends only packet for which NACK is received.
45
3.10 ETHERNET

Ethernet is most widely used LAN Technology, which is defined under IEEE standards 802.3.
The reason behind its wide usability is Ethernet is easy to understand, implement, maintain and
allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet offers flexibility in terms of
topologies which are allowed.Ethernet generally uses Bus Topology. Ethernet operates in two
layers of the OSI model, Physical Layer, and Data Link Layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data
unit is Frame since we mainly deal with DLL. In order to handle collision, the Access control
mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.

3.11 ACCESS CONTROL

Pure Aloha is an un-slotted, decentralized, and simple to implement a protocol. In pure
ALOHA, the stations simply transmit frames whenever they want data to send. It does not
check whether the channel is busy or not before transmitting. In case, two or more stations
transmit simultaneously, the collision occurs and frames are destroyed. Whenever any station
transmits a frame, it expects the acknowledgment from the receiver. If it is not received within
a specified time, the station assumes that the frame or acknowledgment has been destroyed.
Then, the station waits for a random amount of time and sends the frame again. This
randomness helps in avoiding more collisions. This scheme works well in small networks

46
where the load is not much. But in largely loaded networks, this scheme fails poorly. This led
to the development of Slotted Aloha.

(fig 20-ALOHA)

Slotted Aloha
This is quite similar to Pure Aloha, differing only in the way transmissions take place. Instead
of transmitting right at demand time, the sender waits for some time. In slotted ALOHA, the
time of the shared channel is divided into discrete intervals called Slots. The stations are
eligible to send a frame only at the beginning of the slot and only one frame per slot is sent. If
any station is not able to place the frame onto the channel at the beginning of the slot, it has to
wait until the beginning of the next time slot. There is still a possibility of collision if two
stations try to send at the beginning of the same time slot. But still the number of collisions that
can possibly take place is reduced by a large margin and the performance becomes much well
compared to Pure Aloha.

47
 (fig 21-SLOTTED ALOHA)

3.12 NETWORK LAYER

Devices which work on Network Layer mainly focus on routing. Routing may include various
tasks aimed to achieve a single goal. These can be:

 Addressing devices and networks.

 Populating routing tables or static routes.

 Queuing incoming and outgoing data and then forwarding them according to quality of
service constraints set for those packets.

 Internetworking between two different subnets.

 Delivering packets to destination with best efforts.

 Provides connection oriented and connection less mechanism.

IP addressing provides mechanism to differentiate between hosts and network. Because IP

addresses are assigned in hierarchical manner, a host always resides under a specific
network.The host which needs to communicate outside its subnet, needs to know destination
network address, where the packet/data is to be sent.

48
Network address can be of one of the following:
 Unicast (destined to one host)
 Multicast (destined to group)
 Broadcast (destined to all)
 Anycast (destined to nearest one)

3.12.1 Routing Algorithms

The routing algorithms are as follows:

Flooding
Flooding is simplest method packet forwarding. When a packet is received, the routers send it
to all the interfaces except the one on which it was received. This creates too much burden on
the network and lots of duplicate packets wandering in the network.

Time to Live (TTL) can be used to avoid infinite looping of packets. There exists another
approach for flooding, which is called Selective Flooding to reduce the overhead on the
network. In this method, the router does not flood out on all the interfaces, but selective ones.

49
Shortest Path
Routing decision in networks, are mostly taken on the basis of cost between source and
destination. Hop count plays major role here. Shortest path is a technique which uses various
algorithms to decide a path with minimum number of hops.

Common shortest path algorithms are:

 Dijkstra's algorithm

 Bellman Ford algorithm

 Floyd Warshall algorithm

Tunneling

 If they are two geographically separate networks, which want to communicate with each
other, they may deploy a dedicated line between or they have to pass their data through
intermediate networks.
 Tunneling is a mechanism by which two or more same networks communicate with each
other, by passing intermediate networking complexities. Tunneling is configured at both
ends.

(fig 22-TUNNELING)

50
 When the data enters from one end of Tunnel, it is tagged. This tagged data is then routed
inside the intermediate or transit network to reach the other end of Tunnel. When data
exists the Tunnel its tag is removed and delivered to the other part of the network.
 Both ends seem as if they are directly connected and tagging makes data travel through
transit network without any modifications.

Packet Fragmentation

Most Ethernet segments have their maximum transmission unit (MTU) fixed to 1500 bytes.
A data packet can have more or less packet length depending upon the application. Devices
in the transit path also have their hardware and software capabilities which tell what
amount of data that device can handle and what size of packet it can process.

If the data packet size is less than or equal to the size of packet the transit network can
handle, it is processed neutrally. If the packet is larger, it is broken into smaller pieces and
then forwarded. This is called packet fragmentation. Each fragment contains the same
destination and source address and routed through transit path easily. At the receiving end
it is assembled again.

If a packet with DF (don’t fragment) bit set to 1 comes to a router which can not handle the
packet because of its length, the packet is dropped.

When a packet is received by a router has its MF (more fragments) bit set to 1, the router
then knows that it is a fragmented packet and parts of the original packet is on the way.

If packet is fragmented too small, the overhead is increases. If the packet is fragmented too
large, intermediate router may not be able to process it and it might get dropped.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

While communicating, a host needs Layer-2 (MAC) address of the destination machine which
belongs to the same broadcast domain or network. A MAC address is physically burnt into the
Network Interface Card (NIC) of a machine and it never changes.

On the other hand, IP address on the public domain is rarely changed. If the NIC is changed in
case of some fault, the MAC address also changes. This way, for Layer-2 communication to
take place, a mapping between the two is required.

51
To know the MAC address of remote host on a broadcast domain, a computer wishing to
initiate communication sends out an ARP broadcast message asking, “Who has this IP
address?” Because it is a broadcast, all hosts on the network segment (broadcast domain)
receive this packet and process it. ARP packet contains the IP address of destination host, the
sending host wishes to talk to. When a host receives an ARP packet destined to it, it replies
back with its own MAC address.

Once the host gets destination MAC address, it can communicate with remote host using
Layer-2 link protocol. This MAC to IP mapping is saved into ARP cache of both sending
and receiving hosts. Next time, if they require to communicate, they can directly refer
to their respective ARP cache.

Reverse ARP is a mechanism where host knows the MAC address of remote host but requires
to know IP address to communicate.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

52
ICMP is network diagnostic and error reporting protocol. ICMP belongs to IP protocol suite
and uses IP as carrier protocol. After constructing ICMP packet, it is encapsulated in IP
packet. Because IP itself is a best-effort non-reliable protocol, so is ICMP.

Any feedback about network is sent back to the originating host. If some error in the network
occurs, it is reported by means of ICMP. ICMP contains dozens of diagnostic and error
reporting messages.

ICMP-echo and ICMP-echo-reply are the most commonly used ICMP messages to check the
reachability of end-to-end hosts. When a host receives an ICMP-echo request, it is bound to
send back an ICMP-echo-reply. If there is any problem in the transit network, the ICMP will
report that problem.

3.13 Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)

IPv4 is 32-bit addressing scheme used as TCP/IP host addressing mechanism. IP addressing
enables every host on the TCP/IP network to be uniquely identifiable.

IPv4 provides hierarchical addressing scheme which enables it to divide the network into sub-
networks, each with well-defined number of hosts. IP addresses are divided into many
categories:

 Class A  - it uses first octet for network addresses and last three octets for host
addressing

 Class B  - it uses first two octets for network addresses and last two for host addressing

 Class C  - it uses first three octets for network addresses and last one for host
addressing

 Class D  - it provides flat IP addressing scheme in contrast to hierarchical structure for

above three.

 Class E  - It is used as experimental.

IPv4 also has well-defined address spaces to be used as private addresses (not routable on
internet), and public addresses (provided by ISPs and are routable on internet).

Though IP is not reliable one; it provides ‘Best-Effort-Delivery’ mechanism.

IPV4 DATAGRAM
53
 (fig 23)

 Version − Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).

 IHL − Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.
 DSCP − Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.
 ECN − Explicit Congestion Notification; It carries information about the congestion
seen in the route.
 Total Length − Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP Payload).
 Identification − If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the fragments
contain same identification number. to identify original IP packet they belong to.
 Flags − As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to handle, these
‘flags’ tells if they can be fragmented or not. In this 3-bit flag, the MSB is always set
to ‘0’.
 Fragment Offset − This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the original
IP Packet.

54
  Time to Live − To avoid looping in the network, every packet is sent with some TTL
value set, which tells the network how many routers (hops) this packet can cross. At
each hop, its value is decremented by one and when the value reaches zero, the packet
is discarded.
 Protocol − Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol this
packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol number of ICMP
is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
 Header Checksum − This field is used to keep checksum value of entire header which
is then used to check if the packet is received error-free.
 Source Address − 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
 Destination Address − 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the packet.
 Options − This is optional field, which is used if the value of IHL is greater than 5.
These options may contain values for options such as Security, Record Route, Time
Stamp, etc.

3.14 Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6)

Exhaustion of IPv4 addresses gave birth to a next generation Internet Protocol version 6. IPv6
addresses its nodes with 128-bit wide address providing plenty of address space for future to
be used on entire planet or beyond.

IPv6 has introduced Anycast addressing but has removed the concept of broadcasting. IPv6
enables devices to self-acquire an IPv6 address and communicate within that subnet. This
auto-configuration removes the dependability of Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) servers. This way, even if the DHCP server on that subnet is down, the hosts can
communicate with each other.

IPv6 provides new feature of IPv6 mobility. Mobile IPv6 equipped machines can roam around
without the need of changing their IP addresses.

IPv6 is still in transition phase and is expected to replace IPv4 completely in coming years. At
present, there are few networks which are running on IPv6. There are some transition
mechanisms available for IPv6 enabled networks to speak and roam around different networks
easily on IPv4.

Header

55
The length of TCP header is minimum 20 bytes long and maximum 60 bytes.

(fig 24)

 Source Port (16-bits)  - It identifies source port of the application process on the sending
device.

 Destination Port (16-bits) - It identifies destination port of the application process on the
receiving device.

 Sequence Number (32-bits) - Sequence number of data bytes of a segment in a session.

 Acknowledgement Number (32-bits)  - When ACK flag is set, this number contains the
next sequence number of the data byte expected and works as acknowledgement of the
previous data received.

 Data Offset (4-bits)  - This field implies both, the size of TCP header (32-bit words) and
the offset of data in current packet in the whole TCP segment.

 Reserved (3-bits)  - Reserved for future use and all are set zero by default.

 Flags (1-bit each)

 NS - Nonce Sum bit is used by Explicit Congestion Notification signaling process.

 CWR - When a host receives packet with ECE bit set, it sets Congestion Windows
Reduced to acknowledge that ECE received.

 ECE -It has two meanings:

 If SYN bit is clear to 0, then ECE means that the IP packet has its CE (congestion
experience) bit set.

56
  If SYN bit is set to 1, ECE means that the device is ECT capable.

 URG - It indicates that Urgent Pointer field has significant data and should be
processed.

 ACK - It indicates that Acknowledgement field has significance. If ACK is cleared to

0, it indicates that packet does not contain any acknowledgement.

 PSH - When set, it is a request to the receiving station to PUSH data (as soon as it
comes) to the receiving application without buffering it.

 RST - Reset flag has the following features:

 It is used to refuse an incoming connection.

 It is used to reject a segment.

 It is used to restart a connection.

 SYN - This flag is used to set up a connection between hosts.

 FIN - This flag is used to release a connection and no more data is exchanged
thereafter. Because packets with SYN and FIN flags have sequence numbers, they are
processed in correct order.

 Windows Size  - This field is used for flow control between two stations and indicates the
amount of buffer (in bytes) the receiver has allocated for a segment, i.e. how much data is
the receiver expecting.

 Checksum - This field contains the checksum of Header, Data and Pseudo Headers.

 Urgent Pointer  - It points to the urgent data byte if URG flag is set to 1.

 Options  - It facilitates additional options which are not covered by the regular header.
Option field is always described in 32-bit words. If this field contains data less than 32-bit,
padding is used to cover the remaining bits to reach 32-bit boundary.

57
3.15 TRANSPORT LAYER

 This Layer is the first one which breaks the information data, supplied by Application layer
in to smaller units called segments. It numbers every byte in the segment and maintains
their accounting.

 This layer ensures that data must be received in the same sequence in which it was sent.

 This layer provides end-to-end delivery of data between hosts which may or may not
belong to the same subnet.

 All server processes intend to communicate over the network are equipped with well-
known Transport Service Access Points (TSAPs) also known as port numbers.

End-to-End Communication

A process on one host identifies its peer host on remote network by means of TSAPs, also
known as Port numbers. TSAPs are very well defined and a process which is trying to
communicate with its peer knows this in advance.

For example, when a DHCP client wants to communicate with remote DHCP server, it always
requests on port number 67. When a DNS client wants to communicate with remote DNS
server, it always requests on port number 53 (UDP).

58
The two main Transport layer protocols are:

 Transmission Control Protocol

It provides reliable communication between two hosts.
 User Datagram Protocol
It provides unreliable communication between two hosts.

3.15.1 Header

The length of TCP header is minimum 20 bytes long and maximum 60 bytes.

(fig 25)

 Source Port (16-bits)  - It identifies source port of the application process on the
sending device.

 Destination Port (16-bits) - It identifies destination port of the application process on

the receiving device.

 Sequence Number (32-bits) - Sequence number of data bytes of a segment in a

session.

 Acknowledgement Number (32-bits)  - When ACK flag is set, this number contains
the next sequence number of the data byte expected and works as acknowledgement of
the previous data received.

 Data Offset (4-bits)  - This field implies both, the size of TCP header (32-bit words)
and the offset of data in current packet in the whole TCP segment.

 Reserved (3-bits)  - Reserved for future use and all are set zero by default.
59
  Flags (1-bit each)

 NS - Nonce Sum bit is used by Explicit Congestion Notification signaling

process.
 CWR - When a host receives packet with ECE bit set, it sets Congestion
Windows Reduced to acknowledge that ECE received.
 ECE -It has two meanings:
 If SYN bit is clear to 0, then ECE means that the IP packet has its CE (congestion
experience) bit set.
 If SYN bit is set to 1, ECE means that the device is ECT capable.
 URG - It indicates that Urgent Pointer field has significant data and should be
processed.
 ACK - It indicates that Acknowledgement field has significance. If ACK is
cleared to 0, it indicates that packet does not contain any acknowledgement.
 PSH - When set, it is a request to the receiving station to PUSH data (as soon as it
comes) to the receiving application without buffering it.
 RST - Reset flag has the following features:
 It is used to refuse an incoming connection.
 It is used to reject a segment.
 It is used to restart a connection.
 SYN - This flag is used to set up a connection between hosts.
 FIN - This flag is used to release a connection and no more data is exchanged
thereafter. Because packets with SYN and FIN flags have sequence numbers, they
are processed in correct order.

 Windows Size  - This field is used for flow control between two stations and indicates the amount
of buffer (in bytes) the receiver has allocated for a segment, i.e. how much data is the receiver
expecting.

 Checksum - This field contains the checksum of Header, Data and Pseudo Headers.

 Urgent Pointer  - It points to the urgent data byte if URG flag is set to 1.

 Options  - It facilitates additional options which are not covered by the regular header. Option field
is always described in 32-bit words. If this field contains data less than 32-bit, padding is used to
cover the remaining bits to reach 32-bit boundary.

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Addressing

TCP communication between two remote hosts is done by means of port numbers (TSAPs).
Ports numbers can range from 0 – 65535 which are divided as:

 System Ports (0 – 1023)

 User Ports ( 1024 – 49151)

 Private/Dynamic Ports (49152 – 65535)

Connection Management

TCP communication works in Server/Client model. The client initiates the connection and the
server either accepts or rejects it. Three-way handshaking is used for connection management.

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Establishment
Client initiates the connection and sends the segment with a Sequence number. Server
acknowledges it back with its own Sequence number and ACK of client’s segment which is
one more than client’s Sequence number. Client after receiving ACK of its segment sends an
acknowledgement of Server’s response.

Release
Either of server and client can send TCP segment with FIN flag set to 1. When the receiving
end responds it back by ACKnowledging FIN, that direction of TCP communication is closed
and connection is released.

3.16 APPLICATION LAYER

Application layer is the top most layer in OSI and TCP/IP layered model. This layer exists in
both layered Models because of its significance, of interacting with user and user applications.
This layer is for applications which are involved in communication system.

A user may or may not directly interacts with the applications. Application layer is where the
actual communication is initiated and reflects. Because this layer is on the top of the layer
stack, it does not serve any other layers. Application layer takes the help of Transport and all
layers below it to communicate or transfer its data to the remote host.

When an application layer protocol wants to communicate with its peer application layer
protocol on remote host, it hands over the data or information to the Transport layer. The
transport layer does the rest with the help of all the layers below it.

There’is an ambiguity in understanding Application Layer and its protocol. Not every user
application can be put into Application Layer. except those applications which interact with
the communication system. For example, designing software or text-editor cannot be
considered as application layer programs.

On the other hand, when we use a Web Browser, which is actually using Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) to interact with the network. HTTP is Application Layer protocol.

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Another example is File Transfer Protocol, which helps a user to transfer text based or binary
files across the network. A user can use this protocol in either GUI based software like
FileZilla or CuteFTP and the same user can use FTP in Command Line mode.

Hence, irrespective of which software you use, it is the protocol which is considered at
Application Layer used by that software. DNS is a protocol which helps user application
protocols such as HTTP to accomplish its work.

Domain Name System

The Domain Name System (DNS) works on Client Server model. It uses UDP protocol for
transport layer communication. DNS uses hierarchical domain based naming scheme. The
DNS server is configured with Fully Qualified Domain Names (FQDN) and email addresses
mapped with their respective Internet Protocol addresses.

A DNS server is requested with FQDN and it responds back with the IP address mapped with
it. DNS uses UDP port 53.

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used to transfer electronic mail from one user to
another. This task is done by means of email client software (User Agents) the user is using.
User Agents help the user to type and format the email and store it until internet is available.
When an email is submitted to send, the sending process is handled by Message Transfer
Agent which is normally comes inbuilt in email client software.

Message Transfer Agent uses SMTP to forward the email to another Message Transfer Agent
(Server side). While SMTP is used by end user to only send the emails, the Servers normally
use SMTP to send as well as receive emails. SMTP uses TCP port number 25 and 587.

Client software uses Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) or POP protocols to receive
emails.

File Transfer Protocol

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the most widely used protocol for file transfer over the
network. FTP uses TCP/IP for communication and it works on TCP port 21. FTP works on
Client/Server Model where a client requests file from Server and server sends requested
resource back to the client.
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FTP uses out-of-band controlling i.e. FTP uses TCP port 20 for exchanging controlling
information and the actual data is sent over TCP port 21.

The client requests the server for a file. When the server receives a request for a file, it opens a
TCP connection for the client and transfers the file. After the transfer is complete, the server
closes the connection. For a second file, client requests again and the server reopens a new
TCP connection.

3.16.1 Post Office Protocol (POP)

The Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP 3) is a simple mail retrieval protocol used by User
Agents (client email software) to retrieve mails from mail server.

When a client needs to retrieve mails from server, it opens a connection with the server on
TCP port 110. User can then access his mails and download them to the local computer. POP3
works in two modes. The most common mode the delete mode, is to delete the emails from
remote server after they are downloaded to local machines. The second mode, the keep mode,
does not delete the email from mail server and gives the user an option to access mails later on
mail server.

3.16.2 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

The Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the foundation of World Wide Web. Hypertext is
well organized documentation system which uses hyperlinks to link the pages in the text
documents. HTTP works on client server model. When a user wants to access any HTTP page
on the internet, the client machine at user end initiates a TCP connection to server on port 80.
When the server accepts the client request, the client is authorized to access web pages.

To access the web pages, a client normally uses web browsers, who are responsible for
initiating, maintaining, and closing TCP connections. HTTP is a stateless protocol, which
means the Server maintains no information about earlier requests by clients.

HTTP versions

 HTTP 1.0 uses non persistent HTTP. At most one object can be sent over a single TCP
connection.

 HTTP 1.1 uses persistent HTTP. In this version, multiple objects can be sent over a
single TCP connection.

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3.16.3 Directory Services

These services are mapping between name and its value, which can be variable value or fixed.
This software system helps to store the information, organize it, and provides various means
of accessing it.

 Accounting

In an organization, a number of users have their user names and passwords mapped to
them. Directory Services provide means of storing this information in cryptic form and
make available when requested.

 Authentication and Authorization

User credentials are checked to authenticate a user at the time of login and/or
periodically. User accounts can be set into hierarchical structure and their access to
resources can be controlled using authorization schemes.

 Domain Name Services

DNS is widely used and one of the essential services on which internet works. This
system maps IP addresses to domain names, which are easier to remember and recall
than IP addresses. Because network operates with the help of IP addresses and humans
tend to remember website names, the DNS provides website’s IP address which is
mapped to its name from the back-end on the request of a website name from the user.

File Services

File services include sharing and transferring files over the network.

 File Sharing

One of the reason which gave birth to networking was file sharing. File sharing enables
its users to share their data with other users. User can upload the file to a specific
server, which is accessible by all intended users. As an alternative, user can make its
file shared on its own computer and provides access to intended users.

 File Transfer

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 This is an activity to copy or move file from one computer to another computer or to
multiple computers, with help of underlying network. Network enables its user to
locate other users in the network and transfers files.

Communication Services

 Email

Electronic mail is a communication method and something a computer user cannot

work without. This is the basis of today’s internet features. Email system has one or
more email servers. All its users are provided with unique IDs. When a user sends
email to other user, it is actually transferred between users with help of email server.

 Social Networking

Recent technologies have made technical life social. The computer savvy peoples, can
find other known peoples or friends, can connect with them, and can share thoughts,
pictures, and videos.

 Internet Chat

Internet chat provides instant text transfer services between two hosts. Two or more
people can communicate with each other using text based Internet Relay Chat services.
These days, voice chat and video chat are very common.

 Discussion Boards

Discussion boards provide a mechanism to connect multiple peoples with same

interests.It enables the users to put queries, questions, suggestions etc. which can be
seen by all other users. Other may respond as well.

 Remote Access

This service enables user to access the data residing on the remote computer. This
feature is known as Remote desktop. This can be done via some remote device, e.g.
mobile phone or home computer.

3.16.4 Application Services

These are nothing but providing network based services to the users such as web services,
database managing, and resource sharing.

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  Resource Sharing

To use resources efficiently and economically, network provides a mean to share them.
This may include Servers, Printers, and Storage Media etc.

 Databases

This application service is one of the most important services. It stores data and
information, processes it, and enables the users to retrieve it efficiently by using
queries. Databases help organizations to make decisions based on statistics.

 Web Services

World Wide Web has become the synonym for internet.It is used to connect to the
internet, and access files and information services provided by the internet servers.

3.17 CRYPTOGRAPHY

Cryptography is the study and practice of techniques for secure communication in the
presence of third parties called adversaries. It deals with developing and analyzing protocols
which prevents malicious third parties from retrieving information being shared between two
entities thereby following the various aspects of information security.
Secure Communication refers to the scenario where the message or data shared between two
parties can’t be accessed by an adversary. In Cryptography, an Adversary is a malicious entity,
which aims to retrieve precious information or data thereby undermining the principles of
information security.

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Data Confidentiality, Data Integrity, Authentication and Non-repudiation are core principles of
modern-day cryptography.

1. Confidentiality refers to certain rules and guidelines usually executed under

confidentiality agreements which ensure that the information is restricted to certain
people or places.
2. Data integrity refers to maintaining and making sure that the data stays accurate and
consistent over its entire life cycle.
3. Authentication is the process of making sure that the piece of data being claimed by
the user belongs to it.
4. Non-repudiation refers to ability to make sure that a person or a party associated with a
contract or a communication cannot deny the authenticity of their signature over their
document or the sending of a message.

3.17.1 Types Of Cryptography:

In general there are three types Of cryptography:

1. Symmetric Key Cryptography:

It is an encryption system where the sender and receiver of message use a single common
key to encrypt and decrypt messages. Symmetric Key Systems are faster and simpler but
the problem is that sender and receiver have to somehow exchange key in a secure
manner. The most popular symmetric key cryptography system is Data Encryption
System (DES).

2. Hash Functions:
There is no usage of any key in this algorithm. A hash value with fixed length is
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 calculated as per the plain text which makes it impossible for contents of plain text to be
recovered. Many operating systems use hash functions to encrypt passwords.

3. Asymmetric Key Cryptography:

Under this system a pair of keys is used to encrypt and decrypt information. A public key
is used for encryption and a private key is used for decryption. Public key and Private
Key are different. Even if the public key is known by everyone the intended receiver can
only decode it because he alone knows the private key.

WIFI

WiFi stands for Wireless Fidelity. WiFiIt is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards and
is primarily a local area networking (LAN) technology designed to provide in-building
broadband coverage.

Current WiFi systems support a peak physical-layer data rate of 54 Mbps and typically
provide indoor coverage over a distance of 100 feet.

WiFi has become the de facto standard for last mile broadband connectivity in homes, offices,
and public hotspot locations. Systems can typically provide a coverage range of only about
1,000 feet from the access point.

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The 802.11 standard is defined through several specifications of WLANs. It defines
an over-the-air interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two
wireless clients.
There are several specifications in the 802.11 family −

 802.11 − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 1 - or 2-Mbps transmission in

the 2.4-GHz band using either frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct-
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).

 802.11a − This is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless LANs and goes as
fast as 54 Mbps in the 5-GHz band. 802.11a employs the orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) encoding scheme as opposed to either FHSS or DSSS.

 802.11b − The 802.11 high rate WiFi is an extension to 802.11 that pertains to wireless
LANs and yields a connection as fast as 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5,
2, and 1 Mbps depending on strength of signal) in the 2.4-GHz band. The 802.11b
specification uses only DSSS. Note that 802.11b was actually an amendment to the
original 802.11 standard added in 1999 to permit wireless functionality to be analogous
to hard-wired Ethernet connections.

 802.11g − This pertains to wireless LANs and provides 20+ Mbps in the 2.4-GHz band.

Internet Services allows us to access huge amount of information such as text, graphics,

sound and software over the internet. Following diagram shows the four different categories of
Internet Services.

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Communication Services

There are various Communication Services available that offer exchange of information with
individuals or groups. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services:

S.N. Service Description

1 Electronic Mail
Used to send electronic message over the internet.

2 Telnet
Used to log on to a remote computer that is attached to internet.

3 Newsgroup
Offers a forum for people to discuss topics of common interests.

4 Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

Allows the people from all over the world to communicate in real time.

5 Mailing Lists
Used to organize group of internet users to share common information through e-mail.

6 Internet Telephony (VoIP)

Allows the internet users to talk across internet to any PC equipped to receive the call.

7 Instant Messaging
Offers real time chat between individuals and group of people. Eg. Yahoo messenger, MSN
messenger.

Information Retrieval Services

There exist several Information retrieval services offering easy access to information
present on the internet. The following table gives a brief introduction to these
services:

S.N. Service Description

1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

Enable the users to transfer files.

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 2 Archie
It’s updated database of public FTP sites and their content. It helps to search a file by its
name.

3 Gopher
Used to search, retrieve, and display documents on remote sites.

4 Very Easy Rodent Oriented Netwide Index to Computer Achieved (VERONICA)

VERONICA is gopher based resource. It allows access to the information resource stored on
gopher’s servers.

Web Services

Web services allow exchange of information between applications on the web. Using web
services, applications can easily interact with each other.

The web services are offered using concept of Utility Computing.

World Wide Web (WWW)

WWW is also known as W3. It offers a way to access documents spread over the several
servers over the internet. These documents may contain texts, graphics, audio, video,
hyperlinks. The hyperlinks allow the users to navigate between the documents.

3.18 CLOUD COMPUTING

In Simplest terms, cloud computing means storing and accessing the data and programs on
remote servers that are hosted on internet instead of computer’s hard drive or local server.
Cloud computing is also referred as Internet based computing.
Cloud Computing Architecture:
Cloud computing architecture refers to the components and sub components required for cloud
computing. These component typically refer to:
1. Front end(fat client, thin client)
2. Back end platforms(servers,storage)
3. Cloud based delivery and a network(Internet, Intranet, Inter cloud).

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Hosting a cloud:
There are three layers in cloud computing.Companies use these layers based on the service they
provide.
 Infrastructure
 Platform
 Application

At the bottom is the foundation, the Infrastructure where the people start and begin to build.
This is the layer where the cloud hosting lives.

Now, let’s have a look at hosting :

Let’s say you have a company and a website and the website has a lot of communications that
are exchanged between members. You start with a few members talking with each other and
then gradually the numbers of members increases.
As the time passes, as the number of members increases, there would be more traffic on the

network and your server will get slow down. This would cause a problem.
A few years ago, the websites are put in the server somewhere, in this way you have to run
around or buy and set number of servers. It costs a lot of money and takes lot of time. You pay
for these servers when you are using and as well as when you are not using.This is called
hosting.

This problem is overcome by cloud hosting. With Cloud Computing, you have access to
computing power when you needed. Now, your website is put in the cloud server as you put it
on dedicated server.People start visiting your website and if you suddenly need more
computing power, you would scale up according to the need.
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Benefits of Cloud Hosting :
1. Scalability: With Cloud hosting, it is easy to grow and shrink the number and size of
servers based on the need.
This is done by either increasing or decreasing the resources in the cloud.This ability to
alter plans due to fluctuation in business size and needs is a superb benefit of cloud
computing especially when experiencing a sudden growth in demand.
2. Instant: Whatever you want is instantly available in the cloud.
3. Save Money: An advantage of cloud computing is the reduction in hardware cost.
Instead of purchasing in-house equipment, hardware needs are left to the vendor. For
companies that are growing rapidly, new hardware can be a large, expensive, and
inconvenience. Cloud computing alleviates these issues because resources can be
acquired quickly and easily. Even better, the cost of repairing or replacing equipment is
passed to the vendors.
Along with purchase cost, off-site hardware cuts internal power costs and saves space.
Large data centers can take up precious office space and produce a large amount of heat.
Moving to cloud applications or storage can help maximize space and significantly cut
energy expenditures.
4. Reliability: Rather than being hosted on one single instances of a physical server,
hosting is delivered on a virtual partition which draws its resource, such as disk space,
from an extensive network of underlying physical servers. If one server goes offline it
will have no effect on availability, as the virtual servers will continue to pull resource
from the remaining network of servers.
5. Physical Security: The underlying physical servers are still housed within data centres
and so benefit from the security measures that those facilities implement to prevent
people accessing or disrupting them on-site

CHAPTER 4: SNAPSHOT
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 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS and DISCUSSION

a. RESULTS
The

B. SUMMARY
From the contents of this report, we can say that Computer Networking is a great
achievement to interconnect the computing devices in doing various tasks where sharing
of information is required. Computer Networking provides systems the ability to get
connected with servers and others systems and improve information sharing
experience. In organization like GOOGLE the data is very important and that must be
secured which is enhanced by computer networking.

In this course we learned how TCP/IP, OSI MODEL. The administrator can only access
to every information that to be shared in network but, other workers can only know about
essential features. By making it easy and fast to share information, networks have created
new ways to work and increase productivity. They provide more efficient use of
resources, permitting communication and collaboration across distance and time. With
file-sharing, all employees, regardless of location, have access to the same information.
Shared databases also eliminate duplication of effort. Employees at different sites can
“screen-share” computer files, working on data as if they were in the same room. Their
computers are connected by phone or cable lines, they all see the same thing on their
display, and anyone can make changes that are seen by the other participants. The
employees can also use the networks for videoconferencing.

Networks make it possible for ORGANIZATIONs to run enterprise software, large

programs with integrated modules that manage all of the corporation’s internal
operations. Enterprise resource planning systems run on networks. Typical subsystems
include finance, human resources, engineering, sales and order distribution, and order
management and procurement. These modules work independently and then
automatically exchange information, creating a company-wide system that includes
current delivery dates, inventory status, quality control, and other critical information.
Let’s now look at the basic types of networks companies use to transmit data—local area
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networks and wide area networks—and popular networking applications such as intranets
and virtual private networks.

Organizations now recognize the power of intranets to connect employers and employees
in many ways, promoting teamwork and knowledge-sharing. Instead of having to contact
an HR representative to make any changes in personnel records or retirement plan
contributions or to submit time sheets, staff members simply log on to the intranet and
update the information themselves.

Wireless technology has become commonplace today. We routinely use devices such as
cellular phones, mobile devices, garage door openers, and television remote controls—
without thinking of them as examples of wireless technology. Organizations use wireless
technologies to improve communications with customers, suppliers, and employees.

Till this point, we have gained all our means to implement and work on a computer
networking model. But is that enough? Well, there are lot to be done in cloud computing.
The idea of computer and networking is that each essential information should be easily
available in network with reducing cost effect and enhancing security as well.

Server Active Directory Domain Service authenticates and authorizes all users and

computers in a Windows domain type network—assigning and enforcing security
policies for all computers and installing or updating software. For example, when a
user logs into  a computer that is part of a Windows domain, Active Directory checks the
submitted password and determines whether the user is a system administrator  or normal
user.

Disasters are not the only threat to data. A great deal of data, much of it confidential, can
easily be tapped or destroyed by anyone who knows about computers. Keeping networks
secure from unauthorized access—from internal as well as external sources—requires
formal security policies and enforcement procedures.

Computer viruses, worms, and Trojan horses. Computer viruses and related security
problems such as worms and Trojan horses are among the top threats to any
organization’s computer network. A computer program that copies itself into other
software and can spread to other computer systems, a computer virus can destroy the
contents of a computer’s hard drive or damage files . So the use of anti- malware/spyware
software in organization is must.

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 Monitoring software is primarily a type of security and surveillance software installed on
the network. Monitoring software records and logs all incoming/outgoing network
traffic, user processes and interactions, and application activities. It includes specific
rules, signatures, events and preferences, which describe normal and abnormal system
states and activities. It also alerts the administrator if it identifies any violation or breach
that results in abnormal system behavior, user activity or network flow. Moreover, such
software is also used for spying on employees or users' activities within organization
network.

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

From this summer training and the project, we are able to experience a technology which is
Computer Networking. We are confident enough to tackle the real-life problems or task based
on the Networking. Not just networking, we learn how to clean, analyse and explore the

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network. Captive portal, Active Directory,Firewalletc are different branches of computer
networking . We also learned the way how firewall work in the organization.

Computer Networking is the art of making computers to communicate with computer

systems and servers.

Computer Networking is having a huge impact in almost all the industries. From social
networking site GOOGLE to CISCO all are computer networking based MNCs.

It is currently growing and expanding Rapidly and more and more people are learning
it. You are already using computer networking in your daily life. The VOIP, E-
commerce, Bill payment and E-mail are some daily examples which you use in your
daily life.

Computer networking is currently one of the hottest topics in IT. Technologies such as
wireless sensor, software defined network, network security, are increasingly shaping
future of work and jobs, Networking is a specific set of techniques that enable to
enhance networking security.

A next-generation network is a strategically developed network that is optimised for

today’s requirements and is also customised to accommodate future technology
disruptions and provide investment protection. It supports trends around mobility, cloud
computing and the changing threat landscape and transforms the network into a service-
delivery mechanism that enables IT organisations to not only say 'yes' to strategic
business efforts, but also roll out these services broadly and deliver value back to the
business. A next-generation network provides ease of use and management capabilities.

It is basically a philosophy in which our technology future is compromised of different

types of appliances, devices, and things connected to the global internet.
As of now the internet connection is only restricted to Phone’s/Tablet’s, PC’s and a
handful of other devices but the idea behind IoE is that in the future, Machines will
become more intelligent and cognitive by having more access to data and expanded
network opportunities.

In simpler terms IoE is the intelligent connection of people, process, data and thingsthat
will be transforming our world in such a way that there will be billions of connected
devices having sensors to detect, measure and access their status all of which will be
connected over public or private network built over standard protocols like TCP/IP.
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 IOT has been limited to only machines thus achieving Machine to Machine
Communication but IoE brings together people, process, data, and things and adds them
into the network therefore not just Phone’s/Tablet’s and PC’s but People.

The IoE Economy will profoundly effect four major Aspects of our lives:

1. People –
People will be connected to the internet in more relevant ways and will be generating data
and interacting with devices by not only through Mobile’s/Tablet’s, PC’s and Social
Network but also through Sensors placed on human skins or sewn into clothing which will
provide a person’s vital signs. In this way, people will themselves becomes Nodes on the
internet.
A good example is Nike’s wearable fitness band’s which read a person’s vital signs and
sports apparel’s and gears embedded with chips which track the performance of Athletes.

2. Things –
Things and physical items such as sensors, industry devices, consumer products, enterprise
assets will be connected to the internet or to each other, also fetching information from its
surrounding’s, will be more context-aware, more cognitive, more intelligent, often so-called
the internet of things.
As of 1984, only 1000 devices were connected to the internet which increased to about 1
million in 1992 and shot across 10 Billion in 2010 and as Cisco predicts there will be
around 50 Billion devices connected to the internet by 2020. These devices will be fetching
data from its environment internally or externally and sending it back to the server for
analyzing and making much more intelligent decisions.

3. Data –
Rather than simply collection Raw data, these connected devices will be sending higher
level, more processed data back to respective servers for faster evaluation or more
intelligent decision making.
Here the data is more about insightful information and action plan than just random
chunk. Figuring out a way to decipher the right flow of information is the key to making

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 the best use of Big Data and as the types of data and sources increase, in order to draw
useful insight’s there will be a need to classify information and analyze it.

4. Process –
With the equivalent to IOE process, the right information will be delivered to the right
person at the right time in an appropriate way.
Technology-based Businesses will be relying on data to make further decisions and
advance their workflow processes and strategies and will be therefore competing to
leverage the data faster than their competitors for an agile and faster decision making.

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