Ophthalmic Equipments Training Biomedical

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Ministry of Health
PARTICIPANT’S MANUAL
January, 2019
Addis Ababa
Pharmacy and Medical Equipment Management Directorate
Pharmacy and Medical

Equipment Management
Directorate
January, 2019
Addis Ababa
I
Forward
Modern health care services are very much dependent on the use of proper medical devices for
diagnosis and treatment. The majority of these devices and equipment are manufactured in
developed countries and needs skilled man power to manage and use them lifelong. Because
they are applied on human being they need rigorous care and handling for the sake of patient
safety and utilize them effectively and efficiently. Even with normal and careful use, they are
subject to malfunction.
It is important to take good care of them and employ timely preventive maintenance to keep
them working last long and decrease downtime. The proper handling and maintenance of these
devices can be achieved by deploying the well trained and competent biomedical Equipment
Engineers/ Technicians to the respective health facilities. In line with this, it is also important to
provide continuous on job training to build their capacity and introduce them to a new
technology. Therefore, this training package is developed to provide TOT for biomedical
education training provider institute instructors as well as professional who are working at health
facilities to fill their Knowledge, attitude and skill gaps on some selected ophthalmic medical
devices.
II
APPROVAL STATEMENT OF THE MINISTRY

The Federal Ministry of health of Ethiopia has been working towards standardization and
institutionalization of In-Service Trainings (IST) at national level. As part of this initiative the
ministry developed a national in-service training directive and implementation guide for the
health sector. The directive requires all in-service training materials fulfill the standards set in
the implementation Guide to ensure the quality of in-service training materials. Accordingly, the
ministry reviews and approves existing training materials based on the IST standardization
checklist annexed on the IST implementation guide.
As part of the national IST quality control process, this ophthalmic equipment IST training
package has been reviewed based on the standardization checklist and approved by the
ministry in June , 2019.
Assegid Samual CheruHuman

Resource Development Directorate
A/ Director
Federal Ministry of Health, Ethiopia
Acknowledgment
The Federal Ministry of Health acknowledges the commitment and technical support of the
MCH Medical devices participant manual development team members (listed below) along with
their organizations and key contributors whom add the development of this Training manual, a
reality.
Name Organization
Getachew Alemu, MA Addis Ababa Tegbareid Poly technique College
Andualem Wube, BSc, CDC-E/Addis Ababa City Administration Health Bureau
Demeru Yeshitla, MA Jhipeg/FMHACA
Getaneh Girma Jhpiego
Helen Tiruneh Jhpiego
Samuel Mengistu Dr, Jhpiego
Addisu Fayera BSc, MOH
The write up of this material has been done by two individuals (consultant) listed above with
guidance from Jhpiego Ethiopia /S-HRH Project Education and training Advisors team. The
Ministry would like to thank and acknowledge S-HRH Project funded by USAID for financial and
technical assistance in the preparation of this Participant manual.
III
List of acronyms and abbreviations

AAU IT Addis Ababa University Institute of
Technology
AAT PC Addis Ababa Tegbare-id Polytechnique
College
HBC Human Bridge College
KPTC Kombolcha Polytechnique College
HTM Health Technology Management
CCD Charge Coupled Devices
IOP Inter ocular pressure
IPD Inter-Pupillary Distance
JUIT Jimma University Institute of Technology
ND No Diopters (an intermediate position b/n the diopters)
IV
Table of Contents
Forward _________________________________________________________________________ II
Acknowledgment __________________________________________________________________ III
List of acronyms and abbreviations ___________________________________________________ IV
List of Figures ____________________________________________________________________ VII
List of Table ______________________________________________________________________ VIII
Introduction to the Manual __________________________________________________________ IX
Course syllabus ___________________________________________________________________ X
Course Schedule __________________________________________________________________ XIII
CHAPTER 1: Caring, Respectful and Companionate Healthcare Service ___________________ 1

1.1. Introduction to Compassionate, Respectful and Caring (CRC) _________________________ 2
1.2. Healthcare Ethics __________________________________________________________ 6

1.3. Principles and Standards of Compassionate Care ______________________________ 13
1.4. Respectful care _____________________________________________________________ 18
1.5. Compassionate leader ________________________________________________________ 23
1.6. Chapter Summary ____________________________________________________________ 30
CHAPTER 2: Slit Lamp _________________________________________________________ _31

2.1. Introduction to Slit Lamp ______________________________________________________ 32
2.2. Working Principle of Slit Lamp _________________________________________________ 32
2.3. Main Components of Slit Lamp and Their Functions ________________________________ 33
2.4. General Considerations for Maintaining Ophthalmic Equipments _____________________ 36
2.5. Preventive maintenance procedure of Slit Lamp __________________________________ 37

2.6. Troubleshooting chart for Slit Lamp _______________________________________________ 38
2.7. Safety precautions __________________________________________________________ 39
2.8. Chapter Summary ___________________________________________________________ 39
CHAPTER 3: Application of Tonometer _____________________________________________40

3.1. Introduction to Tonometer ____________________________________________________ 41
3.2. Working Principle of Application Tonometer ______________________________________ 41
3.3. Parts of the Applanation Tonometer ____________________________________________ 42
3.4. Disassembly and Analysis of parts ______________________________________________ 42
3.5. General Considerations for Maintaining Tonometer ________________________________44
3.6. Preventive Maintenance procedures ___________________________________________ 45
3.7. Corrective Maintenance ______________________________________________________ 45
3.8. Troubleshooting cart for Tonometer_____________________________________________ 46
V
3.9. Safety for Tonometer _________________________________________________________ 47

3.10. Chapter Summary ___________________________________________________________ 47
CHAPTER 4: Operating Microscope _______________________________________________
48
4.1. Introduction to Operating Microscope _____________________________________________ 49
4.2. Working principle of operating / surgical microscope _______________________________50
4.3. Main components of Operating Microscope and their functions _______________________ 53
4.4. General Considerations for Maintaining Operating Microscope ________________________55
4.5. Preventive maintenance procedure of Operating Microscope _________________________ 57
4.7. Troubleshooting Eye Microscope ________________________________________________ 62
4.8. Safety precautions _________________________________________________________ 63
4.9. Chapter Summary __________________________________________________________ 69
CHAPTER 5: Ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer ___________________________ 70
5.1. Introduction to Keratometer ____________________________________________________71
5.2. Introduction to Lensometer ____________________________________________________ 75

5.3. Indirect ophthalmoscope _______________________________________________________ 81
5.4. Chapter Summary ____________________________________________________________ 85
REFERENCES __________________________________________________________ 86
VI
List of Figures
Figure 1: Qualities of compassion
Figure 2 Principle of K’ohlr illumination
Figure 3.System of standard Slit Lamp
Figure 4. Slit lamp examination of the eyes in an ophthalmology clinic
Figure 5.Main components of Slit lamp
Figure 7.Microscope of the slit lamp
Figure 8 Slit projectors
Figure 9. A patient in front of a Tonometer
Figure 10 Applanation (Non-contact) Tonometer
Figure 11. Applanation Tonometer mounted on Slit Lamp
Figure 12. Dismantled view of the full assembly of Applination Tonometer
Figure 13 Grub Screw Removal
Figure 14 Arm Assembly Removal
Figure 15 Prism Arm Assembly
Figure 16 Assembled view of the dial system
Figure 17 Operation microscope set
Figure 18 Optical diagram
Figure 19 teaching type Operating Microscope
Figure 20 Stand type Operating Microscope
Figure 21 Portable type
Figure 22 Ceiling type
Figure 23 products for cleaning of microscope optical system
Figure 24 Wrap a sheet of lens tissue around a cotton swab as illustrated.
Figure 25 Cleaning the Eyepieces
Figure 26 Techniques for cleaning optical
surfaces Figure 27 cleaning the objectives
Figure 28 Keratometer schematic diagrams
Figure 29 Keratometer
Figure 30 parts of Keratometer
Figure 32 Detailed Lensometer Parts
Figure 31 Lensomete
Figure 33 Indirect ophthalmoscope, A. Top- head band mounted, B- Bottom spectacle
mounted
Figure 34 Schematic of vision box
Figure 35 Teaching attachment
VII
List of Table
Table 1.The benefits and beneficiaries of Compassionate and
Respectful Care
Table 2. Basic guide for Troubleshooting of Slit Lamp
Table 3. Basic guide for Troubleshooting of Tonometer
Table 4. Basic guide for Troubleshooting of Eye
microscope
VIII
Introduction to the Manual

The Federal Ministry of Health’s Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) indicates that by 2018,
16 specialized governmental hospitals, 80 general hospitals, 800 primary hospitals, and 3,200
health centers will be established. Additionally, there are more than 200 private hospitals and
diagnostic centers operating in the country. The FMoH reports that these healthcare facilities
will need 4,000 newly trained biomedical equipment technicians and 600 biomedical engineers.
Ensuring that existing technicians and engineers are equipped with adequate skills is also a
challenge. Ethiopia lacks systems to manage the lifecycle of emerging healthcare technologies
and medical devices, but has developed a plan to address this.
The current biomedical engineering programs at JUIT and AAUIT, and the vocational
biomedical technician program at AATPC, HBC, KPC and other newly merging regional TVET
Colleges are tasked with producing technicians and engineers to meet the very high demands
for trained professionals throughout Ethiopia. Program gaps include a lack of adequate hands-
on, practical training opportunities and laboratory/ industrial skills for students, and acute
shortage of academically/industrially/vocationally trained faculty and staff. The existing faculty
and staff lack access to modern biomedical training equipment, modern training methodologies,
as well as evidence-based information on biomedical devices that is in line with international
standards and best practices. This deprives students/trainees of standardized protocols and
training in devices maintenance and management and leads to an unstructured career path for
students.
The HRH Project through its close working relation with those institutes has made discussions
with teaching staff’s and biomedical departments to gather the information regarding the training
demand and discussed with the FMoH, HR directorate and decided to develop these standard
training packages for the purpose of conducting technical update training on some selected
medical devices. The HRH project, Core biomedical Engineers coordinate this training package
development activity in collaboration with FMoH technical experts, we hope this will be a good
opportunities for faculty, staff, and HTM personnel’s to fill the skill gap on the selected medical
devices and as a result improves the faculty teaching learning process.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CORE COMPETENCE OF THIS TRAINING MANUAL.
• Explain the operation principles of some selected ophthalmic medical devises
• Identify the basic components of the selected ophthalmic medical devises
• Apply the proper handling and safe use of ophthalmic medical devices
• Perform appropriate troubleshooting procedures for each equipment/devices.
• Perform preventive and corrective maintenance as per the manufacturer manual
• Perform performance test and calibration as demanded
IX
Course syllabus
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This 4 days training is designed for participants to provide with knowledge, skill and attitude to
maintain ophthalmic equipment (Operation Microscope, Slit Lamp, Tonometer & other
Ophthalmic Equipment). Upon completion of this course, trainees will have the required
knowledge and skills to maintain ophthalmic equipment by applying the standard principles of
preventive and corrective maintenance in safe and efficient manner.
COURSE GOAL:
To provide participants with the knowledge, skill and attitude needed to maintain ophthalmic
equipment. (Operation Microscope, Slit Lamp, Keratometer, Tonometerand ophthalmoscope)
PARTICIPANT LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the course, the trainee will be able to:
• Describe the Purpose of Operation Microscope, Slit Lamp, Keratometer,
Tonometer& ophthalmoscope
• Explain working principle of Operation Microscope, Slit Lamp, Keratometer,
Tonometer & ophthalmoscope
• Explain clinical applications of Operation Microscope, Slit Lamp, Keratometer,
Tonometer & ophthalmoscope
• Identify and explain the functions of each parts
• Prepare the required tools, Instruments and materials for maintenance work
• Perform preventive maintenance for Operation Microscope, Slit Lamp, Keratometer,
Tonometer & ophthalmoscope according to the manufacturers instruction
• Perform Corrective maintenance for Operation Microscope, Slit Lamp, Keratometer,
Tonometer & ophthalmoscope according to the manufacturers instruction
• Follow OSH policies and procedures according to manufacturer’s specifications.
TRAINING/LEARNING METHODS
• Interactive lectures
• Group discussion
• Group Exercises./work
• Demonstration and coaching
• Video and simulation
• Role play and modeling
• Facility visit with mentoring
TRAINING MATERIAL
• Participant manual
• Facilitators’ guide
X
• check list
• Power point presentation (LCD & Laptop)
• Colored markers
• Flip chart/white board
• Video shows
• Trainee’s manuals
• Service manuals
• WHO maintenance guide lines
• Selected Ophthalmic equipment/devices
• E-learning materials
• Simulators
• Tool kits
• Notebook
PARTICIPANT SELECTION CRITERIA

•Participant for this course should be biomedical engineers/ technicians and registered
professional working on medical device maintenance
TRAINERS’ SELECTION CRITERIA
The facilitators of this course will be:-
 consultants (TWG) who have developed the course
 Who has minimum of BSc Degree in Biomedical Engineering
 Who has the relevant practical experience on ophthalmic devices preferably at Health
facility;
 TOT on Ophthalmic Equipment.
 Basic training on Ophthalmic Equipment with Training Facilitation skill.
METHOD OF EVALUATION
Participant
FORMATIVE
• Pre-test
• Group exercises/ demonstration using checklists
SUMMATIVE
• Knowledge assessment (30 %)
• Practical assessment (70%)
COURSE
• Daily evaluation
• End of course evaluation
XI
CERTIFICATION CRITERIA
• Trainees who has completed and pass (score 70 % & above) the end of course
performance evaluation will be provided certificate of participation/completion.
• 100% of attendance
• Post test score more than 70% for basic training and 80% for TOT.
COURSE DURATION (4 DAYS)

• For slit lamp four sessions in two days (12 hrs).
• For Applanation Tonometer 1 sessions in ½ a day (2 hrs).
• For operation microscope two sessions in 1 day (8 hrs).
• For other ophthalmic equipment (ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer) two
sessions in one days (8 hrs).
COURSE COMPOSITION
• Suggested training class size: shall not be more than 25 participants per training venue.
Four trainers each staying for the whole duration of the training are needed for each
training session.
COURSE VENUE
• Accredited in-service training centers with functional internet service and With convenient
facilities
(Equipment for practice preferably hospitals)
Course Schedule
Training Course on Ophthalmic Equipment’s for Biomedical
Organized by: _______________________________________________________
Venue: _____________________ Date: ____________________
Day One
FACILITATOR/S
TIME TOPIC DURATION
NAME
8:30-9:00 am Registration 60min
9:00-9:30 am Welcoming Address/Opening Speech 15min
9:30-9:45 am Introductory activities 10min
9:45 -10:15 am Pre test 35min
10:15-10:30 am Tea Break 15min
10:30-12:30 Chapter 1:CRC 120min
12:30-1:30 pm Lunch Break 60min
1:30-3:00 pm Chapter 2: Slit Lamp 90min
3:00-3:15 pm Tea Break 15min
Day Two
TIME TOPIC DURATION FACILITATOR/S NAME
8:30-8:45 am Recap of Day One 15min Participants
8:45-10:00am Chapter 2: Slit Lamp 75min
10:15 -12:30pm Chapter 2: Slit Lamp 135min
4:45-5:30 pm Chapter 3: Tonometer 45min
Day Three
8:30-9:00 am Recap of Day 2 30min Participants
9:00-10:00 am Chapter 3: Tonometer 60min
10:15-12:30 am Chapter 4:Operation Microscope 135min
1:30-4:30 pm Chapter 4:Operation Microscope 180min
4:45-5:30 pm Chapter 4:Operation Microscope 45min
XIII
Day Four
8:30-9:00 am Recap of Day 3 30min Participants
9:00-10:00 am Chapter 5:Keratometer 60min
11:15-12:30 am Chapter 5:Keratometer 75min
1:30-4:30pm Chapter 5:Keratometer 180min
4:45-5:20 pm Post Test 35min
5:20-5:30 pm Closing 10min
XIV
Chapter 1:
Caring, Respectful and Companionate
Healthcare Service
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION:
This chapter is designed to equip healthcare professionals and senior management in health
facilities to increase core competencies of compassionate, respectful, holistic, scientifically and
culturally acceptable care for patients and their families.
CHAPTER OBJECTIVE:
By the end of this chapter the participants will be able to:
 Describe Compassionate, respectful and Caring (CRC) healthcare service delivery
ENABLING OBJECTIVES:
By the end of this chapter participants will be able to:
• Describe Compassionate, respectful and caring (CRC)
• List principles of health care Ethics
• Discuss components of compassionate care
• Explain principles of respectful care
• Discuss characteristics of Compassionate leader
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1. Introduction to CRC
1.2. Healthcare Ethics
1.3. Compassionate care
1.4. Respectful care
1.5. Compassionate leader
1.6 Summery
1
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO COMPASSIONATE, RESPECTFUL AND CARING (CRC)
Activity 1.1: Individual reflection
• What are Compassionate, Respect and Caring (CRC)?
Time Allowed 15 minutes
1.1.1. DEFINITION OF CRC

Compassion (ሩህሩህ)
Is a feeling of deep sympathy and sorrow for the suffering of others accompanied by a strong
desire to alleviate the suffering? Therefore, we can say it is being sensitive to the pain or
suffering of others and a deep desire to alleviate the suffering.
Respectful (ተገልጋይንየሚያከብር)
Is the kind of care, in any setting, which supports and promotes, and does not undermine a
person’s self-respect, regardless of any differences?
Caring (ተንከባካቢ)
Caring is an intensification of the affective dimension of empathy in the context of significant
suffering. It is coupled with effective interventions to alleviate that suffering.
Compassionate, respectful and Caring (CRC) -

Means serving patients, being ethical, living the professional oath, and being a model for young
professionals and students. It’s a movement that requires champions who identify with their
profession and take pride by helping people.
•Why CRC a transformational agenda?
Time Allowed 10 minutes
1.1.2. WHY CRC A TRANSFORMATION AGENDA?
Helping health professionals’ to become compassionate and respectful practitioners remains a

major challenge for the healthcare. Compassionate and respectful care is not only morally and
financially essential, but it is required in many countries through national legislation and/or
national health policy. The notion that healthcare services must be expanded beyond the
prevention of morbidity or mortality is only one aspect of the agenda. It must encompass respect
for patients’ basic human rights, including respect for patients’ autonomy, dignity, feelings,
choices, and preferences. It must include choice of companionship wherever possible.
2
Taken from the United Nations human rights declaration, ‘All human beings are born free and
equal in dignity and rights.’ The Ethiopian constitution of human rights article 25 and 26 states
that the rights to equality and privacy.
In the Ethiopian health system, there are many health professionals who have dedicated their
entire career to public service and are respected by the public they serve. However, a significant
proportion of health professionals see patients as just ‘cases’ and do not show compassion.
Lack of respect to patients and their families is also a common complaint.
39 complaints were related to death of the patient and 15 complaints were about disability. The
committee verified that 14 of the 60 claims had an ethical breach and/or negligence and other
study also indicated that forwarding bad words, shouting on patients, mistreatment, insulting and
hitting of clients are some of unethical practices showed by the health professionals.
STUDIES SHOWED THE NEED FOR CRC

• Lack of role models in many health facilities.
• Measuring the worth of a profession by how much it pays.
• Senior physicians cancel their outpatient clinics without informing their patients.
• Elective surgeries get cancelled.
• Admitted patients are by default getting the care they need from relatives.
• Nurses, for various reasons, have limited their role to providing injections and securing IV lines.
• Proper counseling during dispensing of drugs is also becoming a rarity.
• The quality of lab tests and the quality assurance process that lab professionals have
to take before issuing results is not practiced as expected.
• Lack of compassion, respect and care is the common source of grievances in health facilities.
A three-year report of the Ethics Committee and relevant documents in Addis Ababa showed
that.
3
1.1.3. THE BENEFITS OF CRC
Table 1.The benefits and beneficiaries of Compassionate and Respectful Care
222 3
4
1.1.4. NATIONAL STRATEGY AND APPROACH OF CRC
The development of caring, respectful and compassionate health workers requires a multi-
pronged approach in order to make CRC as a culture, self-driven inner motive and a legacy that
the current generation of practitioners leaves to their successors.
NATIONAL STRATEGY AND APPROACHES FOR CRC

• Reforming the recruitment of students for health science and medicine programs.
• Improving the curriculum of the various disciplines.
• Ownership and engagement of the leadership at all levels of the system.
• Inspirational leadership that aims to create an enabling environment.
• National, regional and facility level ambassadors.
• An advocacy campaign through mass media will also be launched to project positive
images of health professionals.
• Patients and the general public will also be engaged in this movement.
• An annual health professional recognition event will be organized
• Putting in place a favorable legislative framework to reinforce CRC which would include
regulation on patients’ rights and responsibilities (PRR)
• Measurement of health care providers on CRC
• Comprehensive projects will be designed.
• Conducting national assessment related to CRC.
• Provision of continuous CRC trainings.
• Engagement and ownership of professional associations.
• Experience sharing from national and international best practices.
5
1.2. HEALTHCARE ETHICS
1.2.1. PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH CARE ETHICS
Individual reflection
What is ethics?
What is health care ethics?
Time: 5 Minutes
Ethics:
Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, meaning custom or character. Ethics is the study
of morality, which carefully and systematically analyze and reflect moral decisions and
behaviors, whether past, present or future. It is a branch of philosophy dealing with standards of
conduct and moral judgment.
Health care ethics:
It is a set of moral principles, beliefs and values that guide us to make choices about healthcare.
The field of health and healthcare raises numerous ethical concerns, including issues of health
care delivery, professional integrity, data handling, use of human subjects in research and the
application of new techniques.
Ethical principles are the foundations of ethical analysis because they are the viewpoints that
guide a decision. There are four fundamental principles of healthcare ethics.
1. Autonomy
2. Beneficence
3. Non-maleficence
4. Justice
6
1. AUTONOMY
Autonomy is the promotion of independent choice, self-determination and freedom of action.
Autonomy implies independence and ability to be self-directed in one’s healthcare. It is the
basis of self-determination and entitles the patient to make decisions about what will happen to
his or her body.
Case one:
A 49-year-old client with diabetic finding came with right foot second
finger gangrene to a hospital. The surgeon decided that the finger
should be removed immediately. But the patient refused the procedure.
Question: How should the surgeon handle this case?
Time: 5 Minutes
2. BENEFICENCE
Beneficence is the ethical principle which morally obliges health workers to do positive and
rightful things. It is “doing what is best to the patient”. In the context of professional-patient
relationship the professionals are obliged to always and without exception, favor the wellbeing
and interest of their patients.
Case two:
Ms. X was admitted to adult surgical ward with severe excruciating right
flank pain with presumptive diagnosis of renal colic. Nurse Y was the
duty nurse working that day. The physician who saw her at OPD did not
write any order to alleviate the pain.
Question: What should the attending nurse do for Ms. X?
Time: 5 Minutes
3. NON-MALEFICENCE
The principle refers to “avoid doing harm”. Patient can be harmed through omitting or
committing interventions. When working with clients, healthcare workers must not cause injury
or distress to clients. This principle of non-maleficence encourages the avoidance of causing
deliberate harm, risk of harm and harm that occurs during the performance of beneficial acts.
Non-maleficence also means avoiding harm as consequence of good.
Case Three:
Mr “X” is admitted to internal medicine ward with cardiac failure. The
physician admitted Mr “X” and prescribed some medication which
should be given regularly by the ward nurse. A nurse in charge of the
ward does not give a patient medication timely and appropriately.
Question: What should the ward nurse do for Mr “X”
Time: 5 Minutes
7
4. JUSTICE
Justice is fair, equitable and appropriate treatment. Justice refers to fair handling and similar
standard of care for similar cases; and fair and equitable resource distribution among citizens. It
is the basis for treating all clients in an equal and fair way. A just decision is based on client
need and fair distribution of resources. It would be unjust to make such decision based on how
much he or she likes each client.
Example:
• Resource scarcity is the common issue in healthcare settings. For example, there may be
only one or two neurosurgeons and many patients on the waitlist who need the expertise of
these neurosurgeons. In this case we need to serve patients while promoting the principle
of justice in transparent way. Example, the rule of first come first serve could be an
appropriate rule.
• Justice requires the treatment of all patients equally, irrespective of their sex, education,
income or other personal backgrounds.
1.2.2. CONFIDENTIALITY AND INFORMED CONSENT.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Confidentiality in healthcare ethics underlines the importance of respecting the privacy of
information revealed by a patient to his or her health care provider, as well the limitation of
healthcare providers to disclose information to a third party. The healthcare provider must
obtain permission from the patient to make such a disclosure.
The information given confidentially, if disclosed to the third party without the consent of the
patient, may harm the patient, violating the principle of non-maleficence. Keeping confidentiality
promotes autonomy and benefit of the patient.
THE HIGH VALUE THAT IS PLACED ON CONFIDENTIALITY HAS THREE SOURCES:
• Autonomy: personal information should be confidential, and be revealed after getting a
consent from the person
• Respect for others: human beings deserve respect; one important way of showing
respect is by preserving their privacy.
• Trust: confidentiality promotes trust between patients and health workers.
THE RIGHT OF PATIENT TO CONFIDENTIALITY
• All identifiable information about a patient’s health status, medical condition, diagnosis,
prognosis and treatment and all other information of a personal kind, must be kept
confidential, even after death. Exceptionally, family may have a right of access to
information that would inform them of their health risks.
8
• Confidential information can only be disclosed if the patient gives explicit consent or if
expressly provided for in the law. Information can be disclosed to other healthcare
providers only on a strictly
“Need to know” basis unless the patient has given explicit consent.
• All identifiable patient data must be protected. The protection of the data must be
appropriate to the manner of its storage. Human substances from which identifiable data
can be derived must also be protected.
EXCEPTIONS TO THE REQUIREMENT TO MAINTAIN CONFIDENTIALITY

• Routine breaches of confidentiality occur frequently in many healthcare institutions. Many
individuals (physicians, health officers, nurses, laboratory technicians, students, etc)
require access to a
Patient’s health records in order to provide adequate care to that person and, for students,
to learn how to practice care provision.
• Care providers routinely inform the family members of a deceased person about the cause
of death. These breaches of confidentiality are usually justified, but they should be kept to a
minimum and those who gain access to confidential information should be made aware of
the need not to spread it any further than is necessary for descendants benefit. Where
possible, patients should be informed ahead that such a breach might occur.
• Many countries have laws for the mandatory reporting of patients who suffer from
designated diseases, those deemed not fit to drive and those suspected of child abuse.
Care providers should be aware of the legal requirements to be able to disclose patient
information. However, legal requirements can conflict with the respect for human rights that
underlies healthcare ethics. Therefore, care providers should look carefully at the legal
requirement to allow such an infringement on a patient’s confidentiality and assure that it is
justified.
9
Case four:
An HIV-positive individual is going to continue to have
unprotected Sexual intercourse with his spouse or other
partners. Question:
1. How do you manage such an individual?
2. Discuss situations that breach confidentiality.
Time: 5 Minutes
Ethiopia Council of ministers’ regulation 299/2013, Article 77 Professional Confidentiality
INFORMED CONSENT
Informed consent is legal document whereby a patient signs written information with a complete
information about the purpose, benefits, risks and other alternatives before he/she receives the
care intended. It is a body of shared decision making process, not just an agreement. Patient
must obtain and being empowered with adequate information and ensure that he/she
participated in their care process.
For consent to be valid, it must be voluntary and informed, and the person consenting must
have the capacity to make the decision. These terms are explained below:
A. Voluntary: the decision to either consent or not to consent to treatment must be made by
the person him or herself, and must not be influenced by pressure from medical staff, friends
or family. This is to promote the autonomy of the patient.
B. Informed: the person must be given all of the information in terms of what the treatment
involves, including the benefits and risks, whether there are reasonable alternative
treatments and the consequences of not doing the treatment. This will help to avoid harm—
patients may harm themselves if they decide based on unwarranted and incorrect
information.
C. Capacity: the person must be capable of giving consent, which means they understand
the information given to them, and they can use it to make an informed decision.
GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF INFORMED CONSENT
Should be given by a patient before any medical treatment is carried out. The ethical and legal
rationale behind this is to respect the patient’s autonomy and their right to control his or her life.
The basic idea of personal autonomy is that everyone’s actions and decisions are his or her
own.
10
The principles include:
1. Information for patients
2. Timing of consent process
3. Health Professionals responsibility for seeking consent
4. Decision making for incompetent patients
5. Refusal of treatment
Ethiopia Council of minister’s regulation 299/2013, Article 52. Patient’s informed consent
1.2.3. PREVENTIVE ETHICS IN THE ASPECT OF CRC
WHAT IS PREVENTIVE ETHICS?
Preventive Ethics is a systematic application of ethical principles and values to identify and
handle ethical quality gaps, dilemmas, challenges and errors to appropriately and fairly. It could
be carried out by an individual or groups in the health care organization to identify prioritize and
systematic address quality gaps at the system level.
WHY IS PREVENTIVE ETHICS IMPORTANT FOR CRC HEALTHCARE WORKERS?
First and foremost, the CRC health workforce, patients, families and the community at large
should have a common understanding that the experience of illness and the practice of
medicine lead to situations where important values and principles come to conflict and ethical
dilemmas and challenges arise everywhere. Moreover, the CRC health worker should always
understand the context in which She/he operates (like the services, the clients, the providers,
values, norms, principles, culture, religions, socio-economic-geographic…) as the way in which
ethical dilemmas are handled vary from case to case and place to place.
Preventive ethics helps the CRC health workforce to predict, identify, analyze, synthesize and
manage ethical dilemmas, challenges and errors to make the appropriate and fair decisions.
Hence, preventive ethics enhances honesty and transparency between healthcare workers,
patients, families and relevant others to make a deliberated joint decision. Moreover, it inspires
mutual understanding and trust amongst the healthcare provider, recipient and the community
at large.
Preventive ethics brings all efforts together productively and leads to the satisfaction of clients,
providers and the community even if when the decisions are sometimes painful and outcomes
are negative.
11
1.2.4. ETHICS AND LAW AS ENABLERS OF CRC
THE RELATION BETWEEN ETHICS AND LAW
 What is the relationship between ethics and law?

Time: 5 Minutes
ETHICS as discussed in the previous sessions, is considered as a standard of behavior and a

concept of right and wrong beyond what the legal consideration is in any given situation.
LAW is defined as a rule of conduct or action prescribed or formally recognized as binding or enforced by a
controlling authority. Law is composed of a system of rules that govern a society with the intention of
maintaining social order, upholding justice and preventing harm to individuals and property. Law systems
Are often based on ethical principles and are enforced by the police and Criminal justice
systems, such as the court system.
Ethics and law support one another to guide individual actions; how to interact with clients and
colleagues to work in harmony for optimum outcome; provision of competent and dignified care
or benefits of clients/ patients. Ethics serves as fundamental source of law in any legal system;
and Healthcare ethics is closely related to law. Though ethics and law are similar, they are not
identical.
Often, ethics prescribes higher standards of behavior than prescribed by law; and sometimes
what is legal may not be ethical and health professionals will be hard pressed to choose
between the two. Moreover, laws differ significantly from one country to another while ethics is
applicable across national boundaries.
The responsibilities of healthcare professionals and the rights and responsibilities of the patient
is stipulated in legal documents of EFMHACA like regulation 299/2013, directives and health
facility standards.
12
1.3. PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS OF COMPASSIONATE CARE

1.3.1. QUALITIES OF COMPASSIONATE CARE
Compassion can be defined as: “sensitivity to the suffering of self and others with a deep wish
and commitment to relieve the suffering”.
Developing more compassion can be a way to balance emotions to increase the well-being of
patients, healthcare professionals and facilitation of healthcare delivery. For patients,
compassion can help prevent health problems and speed-up recovery. Compassion can
improve staff efficiency by enhancing cooperation between individuals and teams and between
patient and healthcare professionals.
 Can compassion be trained and
learned? Time Allowed: 5 Minutes
Qualities of Compassionate Care
13
Role play on qualities of compassionate care:

Instructions:
One participant will take the role of a healthcare provider and another participant
will take the role of a mother [with limited mobility] of a sick child with a feeding
problem. Other participants should observe and note the discussion.
Roles
Healthcare provider
A mother (with limited mobility) of a sick child:
Situation:
A mother with limited mobility brings her 3-month-old baby girl with cough and
fever to the outpatient clinic. The healthcare provider seemed tired. By the time
the mother enters the examination room, he was talking with his subordinate
about last night’s football game. He had already noticed her but did not let her
to sit. Her child was crying and she was trying to quiet her.
All of a sudden the healthcare provider shouted loudly at the mother to
quiet her child or they would have to leave.
While waiting and calming her child, the mother told the healthcare
provider that her child is very sick and needs an urgent care. While
facing to his friend, the healthcare provider told the mother that he
would see her child in five minutes.
After waiting for 10 minutes, the healthcare provider started to examine

the child and felt sad about the condition of the child; apologized to her
for having let her wait so long. The healthcare provider evaluated the
child gently, gave the child a proper treatment, reassured the mother,
and the child went home better.
Discussion Questions
Did the health provider demonstrate the characteristics of compassion?
If not, what are the areas /conversation that show poor characteristics of
compassion?
If yes, what are the areas /conversation that show good characteristics
of compassion?
Time allowed: 30 minutes
1.3.2. ELEMENTS OF COMPASSIONATE CARE

According to researches the key elements of compassionate care has categories, each contains
theme and subthemes.
1. Virtue: It is described as ‘‘good or noble qualities embodied in the character of the
health care provider
2. Relational space: is defined as the context and content of a compassionate encounter
where the person suffering is aware of and is engaged by, the virtues of the health care
provider.
14
THE CATEGORY OF RELATIONAL SPACE COMPRISED TWO THEMES.
• Patient awareness which describes the extent to which patients intuitively knew or initially
sensed health care provider capacity for compassion.
• Engaged care giving which refers to tangible indicators of health care provider compassion
in the clinical encounter that established and continued to define the health care provider-
patient relationship over time.
3. Virtuous Response: It is the “Enactment of a virtue toward a person in suffering,’’ and it is

both an individual category and an overarching principle of care that functions as a catalyst to
the three core categories of compassionate care giving: ‘‘seeking to understand, relational
communicating, and attending to needs’’ The category of virtuous response contain three
broad themes within it:
• Knowing the person refers to the extent to which healthcare providers approached their
patients as persons and view their health issues and suffering from this point of view.
• Seeing the person as priority involves healthcare providers’ ability to priorities patient
needs, setting aside their own assumptions and healthcare system priorities in the process.
• Beneficence refers to healthcare providers wanting the best for the patient, informing the
three more targeted core categories of compassionate care giving.
4. Seeking to Understand: refers to healthcare providers trying to know the patient as a

person and his or her unique needs.
The need to understand a person’s desires and tailor his or her care is identified by most
patients as a fundamental feature of compassion.
• Seeking to Understand the Person.
• Seeking to Understand the needs of the Person
5. Relational Communication: is an important element of compassion identified by patients

consisting of verbal and nonverbal displays conveyed by the healthcare provider’s
engagement with the person suffering.
There are four specific themes and associated subthemes that convey compassion within
clinical communication:
• Demeanor (‘‘being’’)
• Affect (‘‘feeling for’’)
• Behaviors (‘‘doing for’’)
• Engagement (‘‘being with’’)
15
ATTENDING TO NEEDS
It refers to ‘‘a timely and receptive desire to actively engage in and address a person’s multi-
factorial suffering’’. Attending to patients’ needs has three interrelated themes:
• Compassion-Related Needs: refers to the dimensions of suffering that patient feel
compassion: physical, emotional, spiritual, familial and financial.
• Timely refers to addressing suffering in a ‘‘timely’’ manner.
• Action refers to the initiation and engagement of a dynamic and tangible process aimed at
alleviating suffering. Compassion is more action.
1.3.3. PRINCIPLES OF COMPASSIONATE CARE

 What are the principles of compassionate care?

Time Allowed: 5 Minutes
The universal principles of compassion will help us know one another in a more meaningful way
where we discover one another respectfully. They create the conditions that allow a person who
is suffering to experience the healing power of compassion.
1. Attention: is the focus of healthcare provider. Being aware will allow the healthcare
provider to focus on what is wrong with a patient; or what matters most to the patient.
2. Acknowledgement: is the principle of what the healthcare professional says. The report
of the examination or reflection on the patient’s message. Positive messages of
acknowledgment are buoyant; they let someone know that you appreciate them as a unique
individual.
3. Affection: is how healthcare providers affect or touch people. Human contact has the
ability to touch someone’s life. It is the quality of your connection, mainly through warmth,
comfort, kindness and humor. Affection brings joy and healing.
4. Acceptance: is the principle of being with mystery – how you stand at the edge of your
understanding or at the beginning of a new experience, and regard what is beyond with
equanimity. It is the quality of your presence in the face of the unknown, in the silence. Like
the sun in the north at midnight, acceptance welcomes the mysteries of life and is at peace
with whom we are and where we are, right now. It is the spirit of Shalom. The principle of
acceptance is: being at peace with the way things are allows them to change.
16
1.3.4. THREATS TO COMPASSIONATE CARE
There are factors preventing compassion and compassionate behavior for individual members
of staff, teams and units and health facility. Most research discusses compassion at the
individual level. In general, the most common threats for compassionate care are:
• Compassionate fatigue: Physical, emotional and spiritual fatigue or exhaustion resulting
from care giving that causes and a decline in the caregivers’ ability
to experience joy or feel and care for others.
 A form of burnout, a kind of “secondary victimization” what is transmitted by clients or
patients to care givers through empathetic listening.
• Unbalanced focus between biomedical model (clinical training) and person: Effective
clinical care is clearly fundamentally important, but human aspects of medicine and care
must also be valued in training and in terms of how to be a good healthcare professional.
• Stress, depression and burnout:
 Self-reported stress of health service staff is reported greater than that of the general
working population.
 Burnout (or occupation burnout) is a psychological term referring to general exhaustion
and lack of interest or motivation to work.
• Overall health facility context: Attention by senior managers and health facility boards to
achieve financial balance that affects priorities and behaviors of staff in health facility.
ADDRESSING THREATS OF COMPASSION

• Overcoming compassion fatigue
• Developing an inner compassionate self
• Compassion to yourself
• Teaching compassion to professionals through, training and education
• Dealing with staff stress and burnout
• Dealing with wider health facility context
17
1.4. RESPECTFUL CARE

1.4.1. DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS OF RESPECTFUL AND DIGNIFIED CARE
1. Can you share us your experience with regard to
respect and dignity in the health care setting?
2. What does respectful care mean to you?
Time Allowed: 10 minutes
Definition of Dignity (ልእልና)

The word dignity originates from two Latin words: ‘dignitus’ which means merit and
‘dignus’ meaning worth. It is defined from two perspectives:
• Dignity is a quality of the way we treat others.

• Dignity is a quality of a person’s inner self.
Types of Dignity
There are four types of dignity: dignity of human being, personal identity, merit and moral status.
1. Dignity of human being
This type of dignity is based on the principle of humanity and the universal worth of human
beings their inalienable rights-which can never be taken away.
2. Dignity of personal identity
This form of dignity is related to personal feelings of self-respect and personal identity, which
also provides the basis for relationships with other people.
3. Dignity of merit
This is related to a person’s status in a society.
4. Dignity of moral status
This is a variation of dignity of merit, where some people have a personal status because of the
way they perceived and respected by others. (N.B. Refer to Hand-out 3.1 for details.)
18
Attributes of Dignity
There are four attributes of dignity:
1. Respect: self-respect, respect for others, respect for people, confidentiality, self-belief and
believe in others
2. Autonomy: having choice, giving choice, making decisions, competence, rights,
needs, and independence
3. Empowerment: Feeling of being important and valuable, self-esteem, self-worth, modesty and pride
4. Communication (may be verbal or non-verbal): explaining and understanding information,

feeling comfort, and giving time to the patients / families
Definition of Respect (አክብሮት)

• It is a term which is intimately related to dignity
• It is probably the most important action verb used to describe how dignity works in practice.
THE ACTION MEANINGS OF THE WORD RESPECT ARE:

• Pay attention to
• Honoring
• Avoiding damage e.g. insulting, injuring
• Not interfering with or interrupting
• Treating with consideration
• Not offending
People can vary by their skills, educational background, gender, age, ethnicity, and experiences.
But, as human being, all are entitled to get dignified and respectful care. Every human being must
respect others and get respect from others. Therefore, dignity is brought to life by respecting people:
• Rights and freedoms
• Capabilities and limits
• Personal space
• Privacy and modesty
• Culture
• Individuals believes of self-worth
• Personal merits
• Reputation
• Habits and values
DIGNITY AND RESPECT IN THE HEALTH CARE SETTING

Treating clients with dignity implies treating them with courtesy and kindness, but it also means:
• Respecting their rights
• Giving them freedom of choice
• Listening and taking into consideration what they say and
•Respecting their wishes and decisions, even if one disagrees.
19
Treating clients with dignity implies being sensitive to clients’ needs and doing one’s best for
them, but it also means:
• Involving them in decision making
• Respecting their individuality
• Allowing them to do what they can for themselves and
• Giving them privacy and their own personal space
1.4.2. PRINCIPLES OF RESPECTFUL CARE

 Think of a person who gave you the most respectful care/service.

• Describe the situation?

• What are the qualities of that person?

• What did you value most?

Time: 5 Minutes
The principles of respectful care guide actions and responsibility of care providers in
ensuring dignified care for their service users. Dignified care has seven core principles.
• Recognize diversity and uniqueness of individuals
• Uphold responsibility to shape care
• Meaningful conversation
• Recognize the care environment
• Recognize factors affecting dignity
• Value workplace culture
• Challenge dignity barriers
1.4.3. CHARACTERISTICS OF DISRESPECTFUL CARE

The situation where you received disrespectful care?
1. Describe the incident?
2. What was your reaction?
Time: 5 Minutes
THE SEVEN CATEGORIES OF DISRESPECT AND ABUSE

Category Example
Physical Abuse Slapping, pinching, kicking, slapping, pushing, beating,
Non-consented care Absence of informed consent or patient communication, forced
Procedures
Non-confidential care Lack of privacy (e.g. Laboring in public or disclosure of patient
Information
Non-dignified care Intentional humiliation, rough treatment shouting, blaming,
treating to withhold services laughed at patients, provider did
not introduce themselves, patients not called by their names
Throughout the interaction.
20
Discrimination based on specific Discrimination based on ethnicity, age, language, economic

patient attributes status, education level, etc.
Abandonment of care Women left alone during labor and birth Failure of providers to
monitor patients and intervene when needed
Detention in facilities Detention of patients/family in facility after delivery, usually due
to failure to pay
1.4.4. FACTORS AFFECTING RESPECTFUL CARE PROVISION
1. What do you think hinders you from providing respectful care in your
health facility?
2. What are the factors that facilitates provision of respectful care in
your health facilities?
Time: 5 Minutes
Different Factors have a significant impact on hindering or facilitating the provision of respectful
care service. These factors can be broadly classified in to three major groups; Health care
environment, staff attitude & behavior and patient factors
Positive attributes of the physical environment which helped health professional to provide
dignified care are related to aspects maintaining physical and informational privacy and dignity,
aesthetically pleasing surroundings and single sex accommodation, toilet and washing facilities.
Aspect of the environment that maintain physical and informational privacy are listed below
• Environmental privacy (for example curtains, doors, screens and adequate separate
rooms for intimate procedures or confidential discussions (auditory privacy).
• Privacy of the body: covering body, minimizing time exposed, privacy during undressing
and clothing are some of the enabling factors to ensure bodily privacy done by health
professionals.
• Aesthetic aspects of the physical environment (for example space, color, furnishing, décor,
managing smells); and the provision of accommodation, toilet and washing facilities
• Managing peoples in the environment: such as other patients, family and ward
visitors/public contribute positively to maintain dignity in the health
• Adequate mix and proficient Staffing: adequately staffed with appropriate number and skill
mix, as high workload affects staff interactions, and have strong leaders who are committed
to patient dignity.
Physical environment which hinders health professional form providing respectful care are
related to the overall health care system, lack of privacy, restricted access to facility /service
and lack of resources. Aspect of the environment that hinders the provision of respectful care
are listed below,
• The healthcare System: Shortage of staff, unrealistic expectations, poorly educated staff,
‘quick fix’ attitude, low wage, pay ‘lip service’ to dignity, low motivation, lack of respect
among professionals, normalization/tolerance of disrespectful care, lack of role model,
management bureaucracy and unbalanced staff patient ratio and skill mix.
21
• Lack of privacy: Lack of available single rooms, bath rooms and toilets without
nonfunctional locks, use of single rooms only for infectious cases and lack of curtains or
screens
• Restricted access to facility/service: Badly designed rooms, inadequate facilities (e.g.
toilets, bath rooms), Cupboards with drawers that does not open, toilet and bath rooms
shared between male and females.
• Lack of resource: Run out of hospital, gowns and pyjamas, Lack of medical equipment and
supplies The A, B, C, of respectful health care, is a tool designed to consider the attitudes
and behaviors of health care providers
A –ATTITUDE ACTION TO BE TAKEN

Ask yourself: • Reflect on these questions as part of
• How would I be feeling if I was this person? your everyday practice.
• Why do I think and feel this way? •Discuss provider attitudes and
assumptions and how they can influence the
•Are my attitudes affecting the care care of patients with the care team.
I provide and, if so, how?
•Challenge and question your attitudes and
•Are my personal beliefs, values, and life assumptions as they might affect patient care
experiences influencing my attitude?
• Help to create a culture that questions if and
B- BEHAVIOR C-COMMUNICATION
• Introduce yourself. Take time to put • Communication revolving around
the patient at ease and appreciate their the patient’s needs.
circumstances. • Patient centered communication
• Be completely present. Always with defined boundaries
include respect and kindness.
• Use language the patient/family
can understand
TEN MECHANISMS TO MITIGATE THREATS TO RESPECTFUL CARE -

1. Support clients with same respect you would want for yourself or a member of your family
2. Have a zero tolerance of all forms of disrespect
3. Respect clients’ right to privacy
4. Maintain the maximum possible level of independence, choice, and control
5. Treat each client as an individual by offering personalized care
6. Assist clients to maintain confidence and a positive self esteem
7. Act to alleviate clients’ loneliness and isolation
8. Listen and support clients to express their needs and wants
9. Ensure client feel able to complain without fear of retribution
10. Engage with family members and care givers as care partners?
22
1.5. COMPASSIONATE LEADER

1.5.1. QUALITY OF COMPASSIONATE LEADERSHIP
Group exercise
Discuss in a group of 4-5 and share your experience to the larger group.
• What does it mean for you to lead, and manage?
• Can you give an example of a leader whom you know in your professional
or personal life? What makes him or her good leader for you?
• Do you know of any individuals in high positions or authority who
demonstrate compassionate, respectful and caring practices when
they deal with their staff and clients?
Duration: 20 minutes
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF LEADERSHIP THEORIES

Introduces transactional, transformational, and servant leadership theories. It will also provide a
better understanding of qualities of CRC leaders, which will enable participants to provide better
service and increase awareness of CRC leadership.
• Transformational leaders: lead employees by aligning employee goals with their goals.
Thus, employees working for transformational leaders start focusing on the company’s well-
being rather than on what is best for them as individual employees.
• Transactional leaders: ensure that employees demonstrate the right behaviors because
the leader provides resources in exchange.
• Servant Leadership: defines the leader’s role as serving the needs of others. According to
this approach, the primary mission of the leader is to develop employees and help them
reach their goals. Servant leaders put their employees first, understand their personal
needs and desires empower them and help them develop their careers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPASSIONATE LEADERS

• ‘In-tune’ feeling: Their actions abide by their words – and they always have the time to
engage with others.
• Manage their moods: They know feelings affect others and they use positive emotions to
inspire, not infect others with negative feelings.
• Put people before procedures: They are willing to set aside or change rules and regulations
for the greater good.
23
• Show sincere, heartfelt consideration: They genuinely care for the well-being of others and
have a humane side that puts other people’s needs before theirs.
• Are mindful: They are aware of their own feelings and their impact on others. They are also
attentive and sympathetic to the needs of others.
• Are hopeful: They move others passionately and purposefully with a shared vision that
focuses on positive feeling of hope.
• Courage to say what they feel: They communicate their feelings, fears, even doubts
which builds trust with their employees.
• Engage others in frank, open dialogue: They speak honestly with humility, respect and
conviction, and make it safe for others to do the same.
• Connective and receptive: They seem to know what other people are thinking and feeling.
• Take positive and affirming action: They carry out compassion. They do not just talk
about it; they make a promise, act on it and keep it.
WHAT DOES COMPASSIONATE LEADERSHIP DO FOR THE ORGANIZATION?

• Positively affects sufferers, clients, employees
• Increases people’s capacity for empathy and compassion
• Promotes positive relationships
• Decreases the prevalence of toxic viral negative emotions and behavior
• Increases optimism and hope
• Builds resilience and energy levels
• Counteracts the negative effects of judgment and bias
SELF-EVALUATION OF COMPASSIONATE BEHAVIOR
Good leaders can evaluate their own behavior using different methodologies. The self-
assessment of compassionate leaders should be conducted every six months to enhance self-
compassion through mindfulness.
Mindfulness begins with self-awareness: knowing yourself enables you to make choices how
you respond to people and situations. Deeper knowledge about yourself enables you to be
consistent, to present yourself authentically. You will learn and practice different ways to
develop mindfulness and explore how it can contribute to developing compassionate leadership
practices through:
• Enhancing attention and concentration
• Increasing creativity and flexibility
• Working efficiently in complex systems and uncertain environments
24
• Creating meaning and purpose

• Making effective and balanced decisions
• Responding effectively to difference and conflict
• Acting with compassion and kindness
• Enhancing relationships and partnerships
• Enabling genuine and courageous action
• Working ethically and wisely
• Developing cultural intelligence
1.5.2. SYSTEMS THINKING FOR CRC
Group activity in healthcare system thinking

• Discuss concepts of Health System and how it relates with your
Health Facility /Hospital and Health Center/ functions.
• Take your Health Facility/Hospital and Health Center/ and list the
various department/core processes/support processes. Using a systems
thinking approach, discuss how they interact with each other?
• Take in to account the CRC concepts and identify gaps you
may have experienced in your facilities?
System: A system is a set of interacting or interdependent components forming an integrated

whole.
Health System: A health system consists of all the organizations, institutions, resources and
people whose primary purpose is to improve health.
Fully functional health system: A point which various management systems and subsystems
are connected and integrated to provide the best possible health services to all the intended
beneficiaries of those services.
Management systems: The various components of the overall health system that managers
use to plan organize and keep track of resources. Management systems are run by people
living in different contexts.
INTEGRATE CRC INTO EXISTING SYSTEM
Integration of new initiatives into existing system has paramount importance in expediting the
process of implementation and ensuring sustainability of CRC in a health system. Integration
can be done using “AIDED” model.
25
Assess: Understand the capacity of the unit structure, especially in regards to the availability of
resources, as well as human resource; also to assess the level of human capability when
integrating and sustaining the CRC by determining the level of support the unit requires before
or after carrying out CRC.
Innovate: Design and package the CRC to fit with the existing quality of unit structure and their
environmental context to spread the CRC throughout the hospital departments.
Develop: Build upon existing knowledge of main stakeholders and opinion leaders by
encouraging hospital policies, organizational culture, and infrastructure to support the
implementation of principles of CRC.
Engage: Use existing roles and resources within the hospital units to introduce, translate, and
integrate CRC principles into each employee’s routine practices.
Devolve: Capitalize on existing organizational network of index user groups to release and
spread the innovation to new user groups.
1.5.3. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE
Organizational culture consists of the values and assumptions shared within an organization.
Organizational culture directs everyone in the organization toward the “right way” to do things. It
frames and shapes the decisions and actions of managers and other employees. As this
definition points out, organizational culture consists of two main components: shared values and
assumptions.
1. Shared Values: are conscious perceptions about what is good or bad, right or wrong. Values
tell us what we “ought” to do. They serve as a moral guidance that directs our motivation and
potentially our decisions and actions.
2. Assumptions: are unconscious perceptions or beliefs that have worked so well in the past
that they are considered the correct way to think and act toward problems and opportunities.
Five key systems influence the hospital’s effective performance with respect to improving the
safety and quality of patient care, as well as sustaining these improvements. The systems are:
1. Using data
2. Planning
3. Communicating
4. Changing performance
5. Staffing
26
LEADERS CREATE AND MAINTAIN A CULTURE OF SAFETY AND QUALITY
THROUGHOUT THE HOSPITAL. RATIONALE
• CRC thrives in an environment that supports teamwork and respect for other people,
regardless of their position in the organization.
• Leaders demonstrate their commitment to CRC and set expectations for those who work
in the organization. Leaders evaluate the culture on a regular basis.
• Leaders encourage teamwork and create structures, processes, and programs that allow
this positive culture to flourish. Disruptive behavior that intimidates others and affects
morale or staff turnover can be harmful to patient care.
• Leaders must address disruptive behavior of individuals working at all levels of the
organization, including management, clinical and administrative staff, licensed independent
practitioners, and governing body members.
CREATING AN ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE OF EMPOWERING EMPLOYEES FOR CRC

Having empowered employees is the aim of many leaders. Literature has reported that creating
an organizational culture will empower employees to increase customer satisfaction levels, as
well as to improve employee morale and productivity.
Employee empowerment encourages communication, participation in shared decision-making
and enabling physicians and staff to reach their full potential by creating and optimal healing
environment.
There are many different ways to build employee empowerment and engagement, but all share
six fundamental actions to promote CRC on the part of leadership:
Share information and communication: Sharing information with employees is important
because it not only helps to build trust; it gives employees important information to allow them to
make the best possible decisions in critical situations when providing CRC services.
Create clear goals and objectives: Inspire employees to embrace the mission or changes of
the organization by appealing to their innate desire to help patients and provide an efficient
CRC service. Great leaders share important information in a structured and consistent manner.
Teach, accept and encourage: If you empower employees to make decisions that will help
keep customers happy, then you have to be willing to allow them to make mistakes and learn
from those mistakes.
Reward Self-Improvement: Create an environment that celebrates both successes and
failures. A good leader celebrates successes; and employees who take risks for the benefits of
patients/client; also, a good leader will assist employees to develop a plan for growth and
reward them as they advance.
27
Support a learning environment: Listen to the voice of physicians, nurses and other staff to
understand key barriers, issues, and opportunities to allow them to have a voice in crafting
solutions for CRC challenges.
Create a clear role of autonomy: Enable frontline workers to execute change by supplying
resources (education, funding, access to other skill sets within the health facility, etc.) and
removing obstacles themselves.
1.5.4. LEADING CRC HEALTH TEAMS
Group activity
• What principles do you think of when implementing CRC?
• Do you think there are differences between your current “leading”
style and leading based on CRC? If yes, list the differences.
Health facility leaders have intersecting roles as public servants, providers of health care, and
managers of both healthcare professionals and other staff.
• As public servants, health facility leaders are specifically responsible for maintaining the
public trust, placing duty above self-interest and managing resources responsibly
• As healthcare providers, health facility leaders have a fiduciary obligation to meet the
healthcare needs of individual patients in the context of an equitable, safe, effective, accessible
and compassionate health care delivery system.
• As managers, leaders are responsible for creating a workplace culture based on integrity,
accountability, fairness and respect.
ETHICAL HEALTHCARE LEADERS APPLY AT LEAST THE FOLLOWING SIX SPECIFIC
BEHAVIORAL TRAITS:
1. Ethically conscious: Have an appreciation for the ethical dimensions and implications of
one’s daily actions and decisions or, as described by author John Worthily, the “ethics of
the ordinary” (reference?).
2. Ethically committed: Be completely devoted to doing the right thing.
3. Ethically competent: Demonstrate what Rush worth M. Kidder, president and founder of
the Institute for Global Ethics, calls “ethical fitness,” or having the knowledge and
understanding required to make ethically sound decisions (reference).
28
4. Ethically courageous: Act upon these competencies even when the action may not be
accepted with enthusiasm or endorsement.
5. Ethically consistent: Establish and maintain a high ethical standard without making or
rationalizing inconvenient exceptions. This means being able to resist pressures to
accommodate and justify change inaction or a decision that is ethically flawed.
6. Ethically candid: Be open and forthright about the complexity of reconciling conflicting
values; be willing to ask uncomfortable questions and be an active, not a passive, advocate
of ethical analysis and ethical conduct.
PROBLEM-SOLVING IN HEALTHCARE
Steps of Scientific Problem Solving Skills
1. Define the problem
2. Set the overall objective
3. Conduct a root cause analysis
4. Generate alternative interventions
5. Perform comparative analysis of alternatives
6. Select the best intervention
7.Develop implementation plan and implement plan
8. Develop evaluation plan and evaluate
BEST PRACTICE IDENTIFICATION

Criteria to select best practices
• New/Novel idea- not much practiced in other hospitals in Ethiopia
• Effectiveness: has brought empirical change to the implementation of CRC specifically to
patient satisfaction and quality of service provision. The practice must work and achieve
results that are measurable.
• Relevant/impact: improved CRC and quality of patient experience (Explain the
relevance of the innovation using a clear baseline and current performance of CRC)
• Diffusible: implemented at low cost in other facilities or implemented innovation in other
hospitals.
• Sustainable: Innovation is easy to understand, easy to communicate and works for long
time.
• Political commitment: The proposed practice must have support from the relevant
national or local authorities.
The practice must respect the current rules of ethics for dealing with human populations.
By definition, “Best Practices” should be “new/novel”, “effectiveness” and “relevance”.
29
MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF CRC HEALTH TEAM
Potential focus areas where leaders focus to evaluate their CRC staff
• Quality of work: Provide accuracy and thorough CRC service
• Communication and interpersonal skills: listening, persuasion and empathy to
clients/patients and teamwork and cooperation in implementing CRC
• Planning, administration and organization: setting objectives, and prioritizing CRC practice
• CRC knowledge: knowledge-based training, mentoring, modeling and coaching
• Attitude: dedication, loyalty, reliability, flexibility, initiative, and energy towards
implementing CRC
• Ethics: diversity, sustainability, honesty, integrity, fairness and professionalism
• Creative thinking: innovation, receptiveness, problem solving and originality
• Self-development and growth: learning, education, advancement, skill-building and
career planning
1.6 SUMMARY
• Dignity of human being is the basis for healthcare delivery
• Clients should be treated as human being not as cases
• Disrespect and abuse is a problem in Ethiopia.
• Zero Tolerance to Disrespectful care shall be a motto for all health workers in the health facilities.
• Improving the knowledge of ethics is important to boost the ethical behavior in practice
30
Chapter 2:
Slit Lamp
This chapter describes about slit lamp to have an overview for the trainer to develop their
knowledge, Skill and attitude on slit Lamp maintenance. This material is prepared with both
Instruction manual and checklist of activities for both the trainee and trainer. It is a training
material which anticipating questions in the mind of the trainee about what he/she can do next,
why it is important and where it can be found on their perspective health facilities. Also, this
material will provide directions on the care and maintenance of electrical parts, optical parts,
aligning optics and the necessary safety precaution for Slit Lamp.
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE:
At the end of this session, the participants will be able to:
 • Maintain slit lamp.
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this chapter the participants will be able to:
• Explain the Purpose of Slit Lamp
• Describe working principle of Slit Lamp
• Explain clinical applications of Slit Lamp
• Identify the main components of Slit Lamp and their functions
• Explain the main components of Slit Lamp and their functions
• Prepare the required tools, Instruments and materials for maintaining Slit Lamp
• Perform preventive maintenance procedure for Slit Lamp
• Perform Troubleshooting for Slit Lamp
• Perform corrective maintenance for Slit Lamp according to the manufacturers instruction
• Follow the safety procedure of Slit Lamp according to manufacturer’s specifications.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
• 2.1. Introduction to Slit Lamp
• 2.2. Working principle Slit Lamp
• 2.3. Main components of Slit Lamp and their functions
• 2.4. General Considerations for Maintaining Slit Lamp
• 2.5. Preventive maintenance procedure of Slit Lamp
• 2.6. Troubleshooting Slit Lamp
• 2.7. Safety of Slit Lamp
• 2.8. Summary
31
2.1. INTRODUCTION TO SLIT LAMP

Group activity
1. What do you know about Ophthalmology…?
2. List some Ophthalmic
Equipment’s… Time: 5 Minutes
Today the slit lamp is the ophthalmologist’s most frequently used and most universally
applicable examination instrument. The most important field of application is the examination of
the anterior segment of the eye including the crystalline lens and the anterior vitreous body.
Supplementary optics such as contact lenses and additional lenses permit observation of the
posterior segments and the iridous corneal angle that are not visible in the direct optical path.
A number of accessories have been developed for slit lamps extending their range of
application from pure observation to measurement, such as for measuring the intraocular
pressure. The documentation of findings on electronic media is increasingly gaining importance
as it provides a convenient medium for keeping track of a disease’s progress. The use of the slit
lamp in contact lens fitting is an important recent application worth mentioning. The modern
instrument has increasingly gained applications beyond the traditional ophthalmologist´s
practice.
The purpose of this Training guide is to provide the necessary knowledge and skill to enable
Biomedical Engineer/ Technician to maintain the Slit lamp with the required level of
performance.
2.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF SLIT LAMP
The illumination system is intended to produce a slit image that is as bright as possible, at a
defined distance from the instrument with its length, width, and position being variable. Today
this is achieved using optical imaging with the so-called Köhler illumination.
Figure 2 Principle of K’ohlr illumination

(Source, Prof. Allvar Gullstrand Nobel Prize Winner in Physiology and
Medicine 05.06.1862 – 28.07.1930)
(Fig.2). the light source L is imaged in the objective O by the collector system K. The objective in
turn produces an image at S in the mechanical slit located next to the collector system. The image
of the light source at O is the exit pupil of the system. Köhler illumination provides a very
homogeneous slit image even with a structured light source. This is an advantage over illumination
systems imaging the light source in the slit and projecting the latter into the eye together with the
image of the light source. The brightness of the slit image is characterized by the illuminance of the
slit image which depends on the luminance of the light source, the transmission of imaging optics,
the size of the exit pupil, and the distance between exit pupil and slit.
32
2.3. MAIN COMPONENTS OF SLIT LAMP AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
The standard slit lamp is comprised of three main components:

• Slit illumination (Light) system
• Stereomicroscope
• Mechanical(Patient Head- Rest) system
Figure 3.System of standard Slit Lamp (Source, from Prof. Jennifer P.

Craig) SLIT ILLUMINATION SYSTEM
The slit lamp is an instrument consisting of a high-intensity light source that can be focused to shine a
thin sheet of light into the eye. It is used in conjunction with a bio-microscope. The lamp facilitates an
examination of the anterior segment, or frontal structures and posterior segment, of the human eye,
which includes the eyelid, sclera, conjunctiva, iris, natural crystalline lens, and cornea. The binocular slit-
lamp examination provides stereoscopic magnified view of the eye structures in detail, enabling
anatomical diagnoses to be made for a variety of eye conditions. The light source used on a slit lamp is
either a low voltage incandescent lamp or a halogen lamp. The latter being preferred because of its high
luminance and color temperature. The brightness of the slit image is characterized by the luminance of
the slit image which depends on the luminance of the light source, the transmission of imaging optics,
the size of the exit pupil, and the distance between exit pupil and slit.
Figure 4. Slit lamp examination of the eyes in an ophthalmology clinic

(Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slit_lamp_Eye_examination_by_
Ophthalmologist.jpg)
33
STEREOMICROSCOPE
The slit lamp microscope is used to provide optimum stereoscopic observation with selectable
magnification. The size of the field of view and the depth of field are expected to be as large as
possible, and there should be enough space in front of the microscope for manipulation on the eye.
MECHANICAL SYSTEM
The illumination system can align to the stereomicroscope by means of the mechanical support. The
illumination system and the microscope can both be swung about a common vertical axis independent of
each other. The visual axis is a virtual extension of the mechanical instrument axis, the rotational point
being located below the patient’s eye. See the main components of the slit lamp on Fig. 2.
34

PART DESCRIPTIONS
The slit lamp sits on a base (3) with orthogonal movement. The slit lamp can be moved in an x
and y direction using the joystick (4). Moving the joystick from left to right will change the height
(approx. 4cm) of both the microscope (6) and the slit projector (7) to line up with the eye to be
examined. The microscope and slit projector can be moved independently on the joint axis (2).
Figure 7.Microscope of the slit lamp

The eyepiece (3) with standard 12.5x magnification enables an ametropic equalization of +/- 5
dpt. By extending or pushing in the eyepiece lever (4), the distance to the pupil can be adjusted.
Magnification adjuster (2): 6x/10x/16x/25x/40xdepending on the model of the Slit Lamp.
35
Figure 8 Slit projectors

As shown on fig. 4, the slit projector offers a wide spectrum of different types of lighting. Depending
on the model, the slit width (8) can be continuously adjusted from 0 to 14mm. The slit height (3) can
be continuously varied from 1.8 to 12mm with the optional use of apertures and a blue filter. Green,
blue, red and grey (heat protection) filters are also available as filters (2).
By loosening the fixing screw (4), the slit projector can be inclined horizontally at four different
levels (5) and turned vertically.
2.4. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR MAINTAINING

OPHTHALMIC EQUIPMENT’S
: Individual reflection
1. What is troubleshooting?
2. Discuss about troubleshooting steps?
3. Discuss the main steps to maintain medical
equipment…? Time: 5 Minutes
Most ophthalmic diagnostic devices have optical components such as lenses, mirrors, and
prisms. Many of these components have a special thin coating for filtering specific wavelengths
of light, for reflecting light, or for reducing reflection. Great care must be exercised in handling
and operating ophthalmic equipment. Conceder followings:
• Dust and stains become harder to clean when they accumulate and therefore periodic cleaning is
recommended. However, excessive cleaning can lead to quick deterioration of the surface coating.
Specific manufacturer instructions for frequency and method of cleaning should be followed for
36
each device. All ophthalmic equipment should be kept under dust covers when not in use.
• In regions with hot and humid climates, it is very common for fungus to grow on optical
components such as lenses and mirrors. In its first stages, fungus would not be perceivable
by the clinician.
With time the fungus covers the lens surface in a web like manner. Initially there will be a
very slight loss of image brightness, followed by decreased contrast due to light reflecting
off the fungus. In its final stages, the fungus etches the outer coatings of the lens and image
sharpness deteriorates. Removing fungus from lenses is extremely difficult and rarely yields
good results. Ultraviolet radiation (sunlight or an ultraviolet lamp) or paraldehyde may be
used to kill fungus. Once killed, the fungus may be easier to remove but the outer coatings
of the lens will most likely have irreversible damage.
• Optics should be kept in a dry place with plenty of air circulation to prevent fungus growth.
Air conditioners and dehumidifiers are very helpful in preventing fungus growth but if not
available, the optics can be kept in a sealed container with packets of desiccant such as
silica gel.
• Bulbs are common in most ophthalmic devices. When replacing bulbs, care should be
taken to not touch them with bare fingers. Oils from the skin create hot spots on the bulb
that can shorten the bulb’s life. Additionally, fingerprints can become etched into the bulb’s
glass jacket and cause a shadow on the illumination field.
• Any maintenance that involves precise alignment of optics, or calibration of potentially
dangerous forms of energy such as laser energy, should only be performed by
manufacturer representatives or by qualified factory-trained personnel.
• Lens cleaning solution, if lens cleaning solution is not commercially available, a water-
based mild detergent solution can be utilized.
2.5. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE OF SLIT LAMP

Group activity
• Discuss about the purpose and role of Preventive

maintenance for Slit Lamp.
Time: 5 Minutes
The level of serviceability of Slit Lamp in the hospital depends on the equipment design, the
technology used, the level of support provided by the manufacturer, the available tools and test
equipment, and the skills and training of the institution’s biomedical equipment personnel. In
order to maintain the Slit Lamp the technician should be able to:
• Understand the correct handling and use of Slit Lamp
• Understand the possible defects of Slit Lamp
• Perform preventive maintenance procedure such as,
 Cleaning parts

 Replacement of spares

 Care of electrical parts.

 Care of optical parts.

 Aligning optic
37
2.6. TROUBLESHOOTING CHART FOR SLIT LAMP
Problem Possible cause Check

Cable connection is Check cable connection.
Disconnected
Base relay cable is switched off. Connect the cable.
Plug of lamp house cover is Insert plug.
switched off
Illumination lamp does not work POWER switch is OFF Turn ON POWER switch.
Brightness adjustment knob is Turn up brightness adjustment
the minimum knob.
Illumination lamp is broken Replace it with a new
illumination lamp
Socket has deteriorated Replace it with a new socket
Illumination field is not uniform/ Filter selector lever is out of Click filter selector lever
isshady/is dark Position
Fixation target lamp does not Fixation cable is off Insert cable
Work
Rated capacity of fuse is Use fuse with correct rating &
Incorrect authorized fuse.
Fuse blows
Over Voltage from the system Check the power source
Internal short circuit Check internal circuit
The slit tilts. Slit-disk is wrongly set at a point Set the slit-disk and spot-disk at
away from the red dot. the reddot.
Part of the illumination light or Slit-disk or spot-disk is wrongly Set the slit-disk at the red dot.
slit is obscured set at appoint away from the
red dot.
Out of focus. Diopter is wrongly set at a point Adjust to a desired diopter.
away from a desired value.
The bulb is not correctly Insert bulb correctly
inserted.
Filter lever is at ND position, or Set the filter lever (28) to the
Slit light is too dim
at an intermediate position. correct position
Voltage selector setting is Check voltage selector and set
incorrect. itto the correction position.
Slit width closes by Itself Tension on the slit width control Tighten the slit width control
knob is too weak knob (20) to adjust the tension
The connecting cable between Insert the power cable firmly in
power source and chin-rest is Outlet.
Fixation bulb does not light not correct
The fixation target bulb has Replace the fixation target bulb
burned-out
38
2.7. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

• Do not subject the slit lamp to extremes of temperature. It is recommended that the
device be used at temperatures of between +10° C and +40° C.
• The slit lamp must not be used in areas where there is a danger of explosion.
• Avoid dropping or splashing water on the device.
• The slit lamp must only be used by authorized persons.
• Do not attempt to move or shake the slit lamp with excessive force. First check
whether the adjustment screws have been loosened.
• The moveable arm and slit projector can move up and down between their bases. Make
sure you don’t squash your hands.
• Do not open the protective cover of the halogen lamp whilst the device is in use. You
could be burnt
2.8. CHAPTER SUMMARY

 Most ophthalmic diagnostic devices have optical components such as lenses, mirrors,
and prisms. Many of these components have a special thin coating for filtering specific
wavelengths of light, for reflecting light or for reducing reflection.
 The slit lamp is an instrument consisting of a high-intensity light source that can be
focused to shine a thin sheet of light into the eye. It is used in conjunction with a bio-
microscope. The lamp facilitates an examination of the anterior segment, or frontal
structures and posterior segment, of the human eye, which includes the eyelid, sclera,
conjunctiva, iris, natural crystalline lens, and cornea.
 The illumination system is intended to produce a slit image that is as bright as possible,
at a defined distance from the instrument with its length, width, and position being
variable.
39
39
Chapter 3:
Application of Tonometer
This chapter describes about Tonometer to have an overview for the trainer to develop their
knowledge, Skill and attitude on Tonometer maintenance. This material is prepared with both
Instruction manual and checklist of activities for both the trainee and trainer. It is a training
material which anticipating questions in the mind of the trainee about what he/she can do next,
why it is important and where it can be found on their perspective health facilities. Also, this
material will provide procedures on the care and maintenance of electrical parts, optical parts,
aligning optics and the necessary safety precaution for Tonometer.
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE:
At the end of this session, the participants will be able to maintain Tonometer.
At the end of this chapter, participants will be able to:
• Explain the purpose of Tonometer.
• Describe working principle of Tonometer.
• Identify the main components of Tonometer and their functions.
• Explain the main components of Tonometer and their functions.
• Discuss on general considerations for maintaining Tonometer.
• Perform preventive maintenance procedure for Tonometer.
• Perform Troubleshooting for Tonometer.
• Follow the safety procedure of Tonometer according to manufacturer’s specifications.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
• 3.1.Introduction to Tonometer
• 3.2. Working principle Tonometer
• 3.3. Main components of Tonometer and their functions
• 3.4. General Considerations for Maintaining Tonometer
• 3.5. Preventive maintenance procedure of Tonometer
• 3.6. Troubleshooting Tonometer
• 3.7. Safety for Tonometer
• 3.8. Summary
40
3.1. INTRODUCTION TO TONOMETER

Group activity
1. What is intraocular pressure of the eye?
2. What are Tonometer and its
application? Time: 5 Minutes
In music, a Tonometer is an instrument used to determine the pitch or vibration rate of tones, such
as a tuning fork. In ophthalmology, Tonometry is the procedure eye care professionals perform to
determine the intraocular pressure (IOP), the fluid pressure inside the eye. It is an important test in
the evaluation of patients with glaucoma. In medicine, a Tonometer is an instrument for measuring
tension or pressure of the eye. The Application of Tonometer is a complex assembly of numerous
components interacting with each other. Each component involved must interact with the others with
great accuracy. Mostly the components are operated in combination with a slit lamp.
Figure 9. A patient in front of a Tonometer (Source: from Tonometry procedure handout)

3.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF APPLICATION TONOMETER
The Applanation Tonometer defines the intraocular pressure, by measuring the force required to
flatten a defined surface of the cornea. The cornea is applanated by a Plexiglas pressure-
corpus, which is set in a ring-shaped retainer at the end of the pressure arm. The circular
pressure surface has a diameter of 7,0 mm and is flat, featuring a rounded edge, whereby an
injury of the cornea is made impossible. The pressure corpus is brought into contact with the
patient’s eye by mowing the slit lamp forward. Then the pressure corpus is pushed onto the eye
with increasing force, until an area with a diameter of 3.06 mm (this equals a circular area of
7.35 mm2) is flattened. The user accomplishes the precise optical
41
measurement of the small flattening surface visually, by using a factor 10 magnification on the
slit lamp. In the area of surface contact between cornea and pressure corpus the tear fluid is
forced outward. It contains fluorescence and shines green-yellow because of the blue light. The
boundary between flattened and curved cornea appears clearly as a fine green-yellow band.
The built-in doubling system within the pressure corpus splits the picture of the flattened circle
and displaces the two halves by 3, 06 mm to each other. The rigidity of the cornea and the eye-
ball (bulbous) is inconsiderable, due to the fact that the small area of flattening, of only
7,35mm², the shift in volume only amounts to a mere 0, 56 mm³. The intraocular pressure is
only raised by approximately 2.5% through the measuring process. Repeated measurements do
not decrease the intraocular pressure, because a massage-effect does not occur due to the low
pressure increase. The measured data is displayed directly in mmHg. All versions have high
accuracy. The error of a single measurement averages at approximately ± 0.5 mmHg.
3.3. PARTS OF THE APPLANATION TONOMETER
Figure 10 Applanation (Non-contact) Figure 11. Applanation Tonometer

Tonometer mounted on Slit Lamp
As shown on fig. 10, the main parts of Applanation Tonometer are;

1. Tonometer Prism
2. Reading adjustment Knobs
3. Measurement Box
4. Tonometer prism Holder
5. Area to attach Slit Lamp
3.4. DISASSEMBLY AND ANALYSIS OF PARTS

When removing components from the assembly it is essential to check whether components are
dysfunctional. It is essential that all components are not bent or damaged in any way as this
could lead to an inability to calibrate once assembled. It is essential to ensure that the mounting
arm (for the R-Type) and the mounting plate (for the T-Type) are not damaged in any way. A
damaged mounting feature will make a calibrated unit invalid once mounted.
42
Figure 12. Dismantled view of the full assembly of Applination

Tonometer (Source:keelerapplanation tonometer service manual)
Pivot Swing Arm
1. Loosen the grub screw at the front of the pivot assembly as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 13 Grub Screw Removal

2. Remove the arm assembly as shown in Figure 6 and confirm that it is not damaged in any
way. Replace any damaged parts.
NOTE: Check the bearing has sufficient rotation as a slow bearing will cause inefficiencies
within the system
43
• If required to the whole arm assembly can be replaced. This can occur in assemblies that
have been dropped and badly damaged. Where possible please re-use components. Figure 7
shows the components of the prism arm assembly (the pivot collar contains a spring and a ball
bearing but if collar is replaced please replace also)
Figure 15 Prism Arm Assembly

DIAL ASSEMBLY
Rotate the knurled knobs around in both directions to check the smoothness of the motion. This
is shown in. Check the lead screw to see if it feels bent. Also, check for any movements that are
not smooth. If the motion is not smooth then the assembly requires dismantling and assessing.
Figure 8 shows the assembled view of the dial system.
Figure 16 Assembled view of the dial system

NOTE: Check the bearing that is removed to ensure that it has adequate freedom of rotation.
3.5. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR MAINTAINING TONOMETER

• Make sure that the applanation tonometer is properly mounted to the slot lamp.
• The measuring prism must be disinfected.
•Keep it clean and dry.
• Avoid high temperatures.
44
3.6. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Group activity
•Discuss about the main steps of Preventive
maintenance for tonometer
Time: 5 Minutes
The activities under preventive maintenance for Applanation Tonometer, involve routine
cleaning, calibrating, adjusting and checking for wear and tear and lubricating the moving parts.
The main reason for servicing Tonometer is to re-calibrate a system that has become out of
calibration. Therefore, the first operation of the servicing will be to check the calibration. Once
the calibration error is diagnosed it is necessary to directly locate the problem and fix by
whatever means are required to complete. The calibration process is a very precise operation
and requires very small and detailed alterations to the balancing of the entire system. Ensure all
the details of the calibration are completed. In Tonometer there are two key parts of the
assembly that usually require attention depending on the diagnosis of issues. These are:
PROTECTING THE INSTRUMENT ASSEMBLY
• The instrument should be used in a clean environment.
• Clean the Applanation Tonometer only with water dampened cloth, use soap only.
• Calibrate according to manufacturer’s instruction
PROTECTING THE TONOMETER PRISM
• Only clean the prism with 3% hydrogen peroxide.
• Clean the gauging prism under running cold water.
• Disinfect the gauging prism in accordance to the instruction manual of the disinfectant.
• Dry the gauging prism with a clean and soft cloth.
• Store the gauging prism in a clean and dry container
3.7. CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE

The corrective maintenance procedures for application Tonometer is mostly go with correcting
the alignment error on complex assembly of numerous components interacting with each other
Such as, gauging prism.
45
3.8. TROUBLESHOOTING CART FOR TONOMETER
PROBLEM POSSIBLE CAUSE SOLUTION
Fluoresceine band too wide The gauging prism was not Abort the measurement and
dried properly after cleaning, or dry-off the gauging prism
the eyelid came in contact with
the gauging prism during the
measurement.
Fluoresceine band too narrow The tear fluid dried out during Abort the measurement and let
the longer measurement the patient close his eyes a few
times in order to produce tear
liquid.
Fluoresceine band too big The gauging prism is not touching Retract the slit lamp and re-apply
the cornea correctly. the gauging prism until you can
observe an even pulsation.
b) The protection weight is
squeezing the eye. The
flattened
area is too big.
The two semi-circular surfaces The position of the gauging prism Lift the slit lamp and move it to
are not positioned in the middle is not correct. the left
of the pupil Area
The inner edges of the The measuring pressure is too Increase the pressure with the
fluorescein bands do not touch Low. Measuring drum.
each other
The inner edges of the The measuring pressure is too Decrease the pressure with the
fluorescein bands do not touch High Measuring drum.
each other
46
3.9. SAFETY FOR TONOMETR

• Do not use alcoholic solutions for disinfections
• Do not use the instrument under flammable, explosive, or dusty environments.
• Avoid high temperatures.
• Do not disassemble the instrument.
• Do not immerse Tonometer in solution, or corrosive agents.
• Do not attempt to move or shake the slit lamp with excessive force. First check

 Tonometry is the procedure eye care professionals perform to determine the intraocular
pressure (IOP), the fluid pressure inside the eye. It is an important test in the evaluation
of patients with glaucoma. The Application of Tonometer is a complex assembly of
numerous components interacting with each other.
 The Applanation Tonometer defines the intraocular pressure, by measuring the force
required to flatten a defined surface of the cornea. The cornea is applanated by a
Plexiglas pressure-corpus, which is set in a ring-shaped retainer at the end of the
pressure arm.
 Applanation Tonometer, involve routine cleaning, calibrating, adjusting and checking for
wear and tear and lubricating the moving parts.
47
Chapter 4:
Operating Microscope
DESCRIPTION:
This chapter describes about operating microscope to have an overview for the trainer to
develop their knowledge, Skill and attitude on operating microscope maintenance. This material
is prepared with both Instruction manual and checklist of activities for both the trainee and
trainer. It is a training material which anticipating questions in the mind of the trainee about what
he/she can do next, why it is important and where it can be found on their perspective health
facilities. Also, this material will provide directions on the care and maintenance of electrical
parts, optical parts, aligning optics and safety procedures for operating microscope.
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE:
At the end of this session, the participants will be able to maintain Operating Microscope.
 Maintain fetal monitor based on the acquired knowledge, skill and attitude.
At the end of this chapter the participant will be able to:
• Explain the purpose of Operating Microscope
• Describe working principle of Operating Microscope
• Identify the main components of Operating Microscope and their functions
• Explain the main components of Operating Microscope and their functions
• Discuss on general considerations for maintaining Operating Microscope
• Perform preventive maintenance procedure for Operating Microscope
• Perform Troubleshooting for Operating Microscope
• Follow the safety procedure of Operating Microscope according to manufacturer’s specifications.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
4.1 Introduction to Operating Microscope
4.2. Working principle Operating Microscope
4.3. Main components of Operating Microscope and their functions
4.4. General Considerations for Maintaining Operating Microscope
4.5. Preventive maintenance procedure of Operating Microscope
4.6. Troubleshooting Operating Microscope
4.7. Safety of Operating Microscope
4.8. Summary
48
4.1. INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING MICROSCOPE

Group activity:
1. What is Operating Microscope …
2. List the different types of Operating
Microscope… Time: 5 Minutes
An operating or surgical microscope is an optical instrument that provides the surgeon with a
stereoscopic, high quality magnified and illuminated image of the small structures in the surgical area.
Ophthalmologists and other eye care professionals use many devices to diagnose and treat eye
problems. The human eye functions basically the same as a camera. A basic surgical
microscope is an optical instrument, mechanical, electrical or both, consisting of a combination
of lenses which provide the surgeon with a stereoscopic, high quality magnified and illuminated
image of small structures with the surgical area. A key characteristic of any surgical microscope
is its design. In order for the surgeon to concentrate on the surgical procedure, the microscope
is designed such that the surgeon remains comfortable and free of eye strain.
Eye surgeons use operating microscopes for procedures that require high magnification and
variable focusing. The operating microscope has features such as pedal-controlled motorized
focusing, motorize zoom magnification, and motorized lateral and longitudinal (x-y) positioning.
These allow the surgeon to concentrate on the surgery rather than on manipulating
A set of articulated arms connects the microscope head assembly to a mobile floor stand, wall
mount, or ceiling mount. The lens system consists of eyepiece lenses, magnification lenses,
and objective lenses. The magnification of operating microscope eyepieces is typically 8X to
20X. Objective lenses are described by their working distance or focal length which is the
focused distance from the objective lens to the viewed object. The typical focal length of
objective lenses for eye surgery using 12.5X eyepiece is 75 to 200 mm.
Ophthalmic operating microscopes are designed to provide high contrast and detailed imaging
of all regions of the human eye and also are suitable for the examination and surgery in the
dentistry, ENT and ophthalmology.
Figure 17 Operation microscope set
49
4.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF OPERATING / SURGICAL MICROSCOPE

Group activity:
• Discuss the working principles for Operating microscope
Time: 5 Minutes
Light from a halogen lamp is directed into the tube through prisms or fiber optic cables and shines
through the objective lens onto the operating field. The light beam is reflected from the operating
field through the objective lens and the magnification changer drum to the eyepieces. The surgeon
then sees the image of the operating field. The surgical microscope is a complicated system of
lenses that allows stereoscopic vision at a magnification of approximately 4-40X with an excellent
illumination of the working area. The light beams fall parallel onto the retinas of the observer so that
no eye convergence is necessary and the demand on the lateral rectus muscles is minimal.
OPTICAL COMPONENTS OF SURGICAL MICROSCOPE

The optical components of a basic stereo microscope consist of the binocular head, a
magnification changer, the objective lens and an illuminator which beams light through the
objective lens and onto the operating field (Figures). The binocular head consists of two
telescopes with adjustable eyepieces for users with refractive error. The magnification can be
changed by turning a knob (which selects different magnification lenses) or by using a
motorized zoom controlled by a foot pedal. The working distance (Figure) is the distance from
the microscope objective lens to the point of focus of the optical system. This value is fixed and
is dependent on the chosen focal length of the objective lens. The choice of working distance
depends on the type of surgery. For modern ophthalmic surgery that involves delicate work in
the posterior chamber, objective focal lengths of 150 mm, 175 mm and 200 mm are commonly
used.
The optical system often includes a beam splitter and a second set of teaching binoculars
(Figure) so that two people can view the operation simultaneously. The optical system is
attached to the suspension arm of the floor stand (Figure). The suspension arm makes it
possible to position the optics exactly and to fix them in place. The floor stand has wheels and
can be moved around the floor and fixed into place using the brakes. A foot pedal connected to
the floor stand allows the surgeon to control the focus, the zoom, the position of the optics over
the eye (the x,y position on the horizontal plane) and to turn the illumination on and off.
The illumination system is usually housed in the floor stand in order to keep the bulb heat away
from the operating field. In this case, the light is transmitted to the operating field by means of a
fiber optic cable. The light in ophthalmic micro scopes is usually coaxial, meaning that it follows
the same path as the image in order to avoid shadows.
50
Figure 18 Optical diagram
Figure 19 teaching type Operating Microscope
51
Figure 20 Stand type Operating Microscope

It is essential that all eye units develop protocols for performing microscope checks. Microscope
optics should be inspected and cleaned on a weekly basis, or earlier if dirty. The entire microscope
should be checked by a biomedical equipment technician at least once every six months.
MAGNIFICATION
The magnification of an image is a relative value and has to do with the size of an image as
projected onto the retina of the eye (or onto a piece of film in the case of a camera). Therefore, the
magnification of an image is increased by simply decreasing the distance between the eye and the
object in question. Magnification is determined by the power of the eyepiece, the focal length of the
binoculars, the magnification changer factor, and the focal length of the objective lens and also
dependent on the magnification of the objective and eyepiece a zoom system of lenses is
interposed between these two principal lenses allowing continuous change in magnification.
In the case of the human eye and the use of optical aids, such as telescopes, binoculars, etc.
the base value (The real size) is simply the size of any object as it projects onto the retina from
a specific distance without the help of the optical aid.
With the use of the optical aid, and without changing the distance value, the size of the image of an
object can be increased on the retina. The amount of increase, then, becomes the magnification value of
the particular optical aid, whether it is a telescope, binocular or microscope. A 7x binocular (or “field
glass”) has the fixed value of increasing by seven fold the dimensional proportions covered by objects
52
on the human retina. Magnification is determined by the power of the eyepiece, the focal length
of the binoculars, the magnification changer factor, and the focal length of the objective lens.
ILLUMINATION
The microscope illuminator transmits light to illuminate the surgical area. This light, like all light, can be
varied. One way to vary the light, all other things being equal, is to change the voltage to the light bulb.
Light intensity is controlled by a rheostat and cooled by a fan. Light is then reflected through a
condensing lens to a series of prisms and through the objective lens to the surgical field. After the
light reaches the surgical field, it is reflected back through the objective lens, magnification changer
lenses, binoculars and exit to the eyes as two separate beams of light. The separation of the light
beams is what produces the stereoscopic effect that allows the clinician to see depth of field.
Surgical microscope uses coaxial fiber-optic illumination producing an adjustable, bright, uniformly
illuminated, shadow free, circular spot of light that is parallel to the optical viewing axis.
Most microscope floor stand power supplies have a provision to vary the light intensity by this
method. Under the microscope, a specific amount of light will be projected and any change made in
microscope magnification will have no effect on the amount of light being projected from the
microscope Changes made in the magnification of the microscope do, however, increase or
decrease the amount of light which will be projected back through the microscope and onto the
retina of the eye of the viewer. Therefore, any increase in microscope magnification will be
accompanied by a decrease in the brightness of the image as it hits the retina.
4.3. MAIN COMPONENTS OF OPERATING MICROSCOPE AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Group activity:
• Discuss the main component of operating microscope …?
Time: 5 Minutes
The optical components of a basic stereo microscope consist of the binocular head, a magnification
changer, the objective lens and an illuminator which beams light through the objective lens and onto the
operating field (Figures 1 and 2). The binocular head consists of two telescopes with adjustable
eyepieces for users with refractive error. The magnification can be changed by turning a knob (which
selects different magnification lenses) or by using a motorized zoom controlled by a foot pedal. The
working distance (Figure 1) is the distance from the microscope objective lens to the point of focus of the
optical system. This value is fixed and is dependent on the chosen focal length of the objective lens. The
choice of working distance depends on the type of surgery. For modern ophthalmic surgery that involves
delicate work in the posterior chamber, objective focal lengths of 150 mm, 175 mm and 200
mm are commonly used The optical system often includes a beam splitter and a second set of
teaching binoculars (Figure 2) so that two people can view the operation simultaneously.
The optical system is attached to the suspension arm of the floor stand (Figure 3). The suspension
arm makes it possible to position the optics exactly and to fix them in place. The floor stand has
wheels and can be moved around the floor and fixed into place using the brakes.
A foot pedal connected to the floor stand allows the surgeon to control the focus, the zoom, the position of the
optics over the eye (the x, y position on the horizontal plane) and to turn the illumination on and off.
53
The illumination system is usually housed in the floor stand in order to keep the bulb heat away
from the operating field. In this case, the light is transmitted to the operating field by means of a
fibre optic cable. The light in ophthalmic microscopes is usually coaxial, meaning that it follows
the same path as the image in order to avoid shadows.
It is essential that all eye units develop protocols for performing microscope checks. Microscope
optics should be inspected and cleaned on a weekly basis or earlier if dirty. The entire microscope
should be checked by a biomedical equipment technician at least once every six months.
The main microscope can be equipped with straight, inclined or tilt able binoculars on the basis
of different usages. It is also with manual focusing system or motorized focusing system. The
retinal protection device and red reflex module are very useful in the ophthalmic operation. In
order to demonstrate or store the document, the beam splitter, observer’s monocular and
adaptor for CCD camera or still camera are for option.
Figure 21 Portable type Figure 22 Ceiling type
1. Binoculars 11.Flank base 21. Connectors for

2.Main microscope 12. Pedal control switch power supply and
pedal control switch
3. Lock hand-wheel 13.Cold light source arm
22. Magnification
4.Ccounter-balanced arm 14.Cconnecting screw and washer changer wheel.
5. Optic fiber cable 15. Inclination handles
6.Electric cable and its connector 16.Connecting block
7.Ffixing hand-wheel 17.Connecting hand-wheel
8. Lock hand-wheel 18. Hand-wheel
9.Connecting part 19. Beam splitter
10.Column and bar 20.Adaptor for CCD camera
54
4.4. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR MAINTAINING OPERATING MICROSCOPE

Group activity:
• Discuss the main steps and consideration to

maintain Operating microscope…?
Time: 5 Minutes
Most ophthalmic diagnostic devices have optical components such as lenses, mirrors, and
prisms. Many of these components have a special thin coating for filtering specific wavelengths
of light, for reflecting light, or for reducing reflection. Great care must be exercised in handling
and operating ophthalmic equipment. Consider followings:
• Dust and stains become harder to clean when they accumulate and therefore periodic cleaning is
recommended. However, excessive cleaning can lead to quick deterioration of the surface coating.
Specific manufacturer instructions for frequency and method of cleaning should be followed for each
device. All ophthalmic equipment should be kept under dust covers when not in use.
• In regions with hot and humid climates, it is very common for fungus to grow on optical components
such as lenses and mirrors. In its first stages, fungus would not be perceivable by the clinician. With
time the fungus covers the lens surface in a web like manner. Initially there will be a very slight loss of
image brightness, followed by decreased contrast due to light reflecting off the fungus. In its final
stages, the fungus etches the outer coatings of the lens and image sharpness deteriorates. Removing
fungus from lenses is extremely difficult and rarely yields good results. Ultraviolet radiation (sunlight or
an ultraviolet lamp) or paraldehyde may be used to kill fungus. Once killed, the fungus may be easier
to remove but the outer coatings of the lens will most likely have irreversible damage.
• Optics should be kept in a dry place with plenty of air circulation to prevent fungus growth. Air
conditioners and dehumidifiers are very helpful in preventing fungus growth but if not available,
the optics can be kept in a sealed container with packets of desiccant such as silica gel.
• Bulbs are common in most ophthalmic devices. When replacing bulbs, care should be
taken to not touch them with bare fingers. Oils from the skin create hot spots on the bulb that
can shorten the bulb’s life. Additionally, fingerprints can become etched into the bulb’s glass
jacket and cause a shadow on the illumination field.
• Any maintenance that involves precise alignment of optics, or calibration of potentially

dangerous forms of energy such as laser energy, should only be performed by manufacturer
representatives or by qualified factory-trained personnel.
• Lens cleaning solution, if lens cleaning solution is not commercially available, a water-
based mild detergent solution can be utilized
CLEANING THE MICROSCOPE

• It is highly recommended that the Seiler Microscopes Evolution Zoom is not exposed to
dust and other contaminating substances.
• Always cover the Optical Module with the Protective Cover when the unit is not being used;
Dust, dirt and stains should only be removed using a clean, moist cloth and neutral soap;
55
• Before cleaning the floor of the area where the unit is installed, it is very important to store the
Pedal in a safe place, away from possible splashing or spattering. The Multifunction Pedal has a
Handle so that it can be hung from the Column.
CARE FOR THE OPERATING MICROSCOPE

• Keep the microscope in a dry, cool and well-ventilated place to prevent fungus growth on the optics
(lenses).
• Every week, clean the optics according to the optical cleaning
• Instructions described in a previous issue.
• If fungus growth is detected, clean according to the instructions described in a previous issue.
• To protect it from dust when not in use, drape a cover over the microscope. Vinyl coverings
are preferred because they do not shed lint (like cloth coverings do).
• However, their use should be avoided in humid environments since they can trap moisture,
which increases the risk of fungal growth.
• Wipe down the external surfaces with a damp cloth soaked in hot, soapy water.
• Cover the foot pedal with a clear plastic bag to prevent surgical and cleaning fluids from
entering and damaging the electronics.
•Lift the foot pedal off the floor when washing the floor.
• Use a voltage stabilizer with the microscope. This will prevent sudden increases in voltage
from destroying the bulbs and will ensure that the illumination provided
• remains constant.• Before using, test the controls of the foot pedal (the x,y movement,
• Zoom, focus, light on and off).
• Before using, check that the suspension arm can be fixed into position to ensure that it
does not fall on the patient.
• Avoid kinking or bending the fiber optic cables.
• When replacing the bulbs, avoid touching them with your fingers.
• The oil left as fingerprints on the bulb can shorten its life.
• Do not move the microscope while the bulb is still hot because strong vibrations may
damage the filament.
• Every six months, clean and oil the wheels and the brakes. Remove any surplus oil when done.
56
4.5. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE OF OPERATING MICROSCOPE
Group activity:
• Discuss the main steps of Preventive

maintenance for surgical microscope…?
Time: 5 Minutes
In this section discussion will be made about the preventive maintenance of surgical
microscope. Basically the PM will be done at user’s level based on the proper knowledge and
skill acquired through training. Everyone should note that, any Maintenance weather it is PM or
CM should be conducted based on the Manufacturers manual.
PROPER USE AND TIPS FOR OPTIMUM PERFORMANCE AND LONG LIFE
In an indirect ophthalmoscope it is the bulb that fails most frequently. The following precaution
can help in prolonging its life.
• Use the bulb in the low illumination setting and increase it to high illumination setting only
for brief periods when there is a need.
• If wide fluctuation in the voltage is found in the location where the instrument is being used,
a spike controlled voltage stabilizer may be provided.
• The instrument should be hung using its head band only and should never be hung on a
hook by its electrical cord. This may cause electrical failure.
USER LEVEL CARE AND MAINTENANCE

• Remove the dust and stain on the instrument daily.
• When not in use, keep the instrument in its box and keep the box closed.
• The head band may get oily and may also become wet with the sweat of the doctor. The
instrument must be wiped clean to remove the oil and the sweat, and powdered.
• In spite of the above care, after continuous usage the foam pads of the head band may
become soiled and worn out. They may be replaced with fresh extra pads.
CLEAN THE EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR OPTICAL SYSTEM

• Eyepiece
• Objective lens
• Magnification changer
• Main binoculars
• Beam splitter
REQUIRED TOOLS:
1) Lens tissue or lens paper.
2) Cotton swab or tweezers etc.
3) Blower
4) Magnifier
5) Cleaning solution: e.g. Alcohol
57
Caution: Do not use paper towels or other rough paper products.
Figure 23 products for cleaning of microscope optical system
Figure 24 Wrap a sheet of lens tissue around a cotton swab as illustrated.
LENS CLEANING INSTRUCTIONS

Using nitrogen propelled compressed air or a bellows brush; gently remove dust or dirt particles
from the lens surface.
• Dip the end of a lint-free cotton swab into your solvent Shake the swab to remove excess
solvent.
• Beginning at the center of the lens and using a circular motion towards the outer edges,
gently wipe the surface with the moistened end of the cotton swab.
• Use nitrogen-free compressed air or a bellows brush to remove any residue With a
jewelers loupe (magnifier), inspect the lens for any area not completely cleaned, If not clean,
use new lint-free swabs and repeat cleaning procedure.
58
CLEANING THE EYEPIECES
Figure 25 Cleaning the Eyepieces

• Blow to remove dust before wiping lens.
• Clean the eyepieces with a cotton swab moistened with lens cleaning solution.
• Clean in a circular motion inside out.
• Cleaning is achieved
using a spiral motion from
the center to the rim.
• Never wipe using zigzag
movements as this will only
spread the dirt.
• Direct pressure from the
fingers should never be
applied to the glass lens
surface in order to minimize
the possibility of scratching
the lens if any particulates
are present on the tissue.
• Wipe the eyepieces dry

with lens paper.
• Repeat cleaning and
drying if required.
Figure 26 Techniques for cleaning optical surfaces
59
CLEANING THE OBJECTIVES
• Objectives are cleaned while attached to microscope.
• Moisten the lens paper with the cleaning solution.
• Wipe gently the objective in circular motion from inside out.
• Wipe with dry tissue or lens cleaning paper .
• Be sure to clean the oil immersion objective after use.
Figure 27 cleaning the objectives
PLEASE NOTE: Never use commercially available cotton wool buds; the adhesive attaching the
cotton wool to the cotton wool bud could be dissolved by the alcohol and subsequently deposited on
the lenses during cleaning, there by compromising the qualities of the aforesaid lenses.
Do not remove the lenses from their holders, as this will lead to misalignment. Microscope prisms
and lenses do not require frequent cleansing, apart from the Eyepieces and the Objective Lens.
 Wrap a wad of cotton wool around the end of a toothpick without using any kind of glue or adhesive;

 Slightly moisten the bud in ethanol, gently rub this against the surface of the lens in a
circular motion starting at the center of the lens and moving outwards;

 Perform the circular motion again using a second dry and clean bud;

 Repeat the steps above for each lens you wish to clean.

 Lubricate and clean the connecting and suspension arms with such as:

• Light fiber
• Foot pedal
• Floor stand
CARE OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

The switch and the rheostat in the electrical system may wear off in usage.
• Check them for smooth movement and proper functioning. Replace them if found defective.
60
CARE OF OPTICAL SYSTEM
As described earlier, the optical system in the vision box is well sealed so that no dust enters
the box. It is enough if the exposed lens surfaces are cleaned. The instrument is so constructed
that the two eye pieces slide on groves provided and as long as they are not disturbed a single
image is seen, after the inter pupillary distance adjustment. If the eye pieces are disturbed and
do not move in the groves provided, diplopia may be caused. To correct this, the eye pieces
should be brought back to move on the groves provided.
CALIBRATION / QUALITY CONTROL

After carrying out preventive maintenance or rectifying a fault the overall functioning of an indirect
ophthalmoscope must be checked to see whether it is satisfactory. While it may be difficult to
establish objective standards and measurement methods, the following should be done.
1. Adjust the Eye Microscope accurately positioned perpendicular to the corneal surface.
2. Perform linear and angle measurements for Eyepiece according to manufacturer specification
3. Check the intensity of the spot. It should appear bright even in day light.
4. Check the movements of the vision box, the tilting mirror, the filters and aperture and the
eye pieces. All movements should be smooth.
5. Check the movements of the knobs in the head band. They should also be smooth and at
the same time provide the necessary grip at the required setting
6. Replace power supply and battery if needed
CURATIVE MAINTENANCE/REPAIR
• Substitute damaged /shorted cable
• Fit loose electrical connection
• Substitute burnt and failed switch and control
• Check Bulb and replace if burned
• Change damaged connectors and parts
• Reset alarm and volume control
• Change lights, indicators
MAINTENANCE AND SPECIAL ATTENTIONS

MAINTENANCE
• The place where the unit stays and is maintained should be clean and be faraway form the
corrosive and volatile material, such as dust, moisture, acid or alkaline, etc. After the usage,
the plastic dust-proof cover should be put on.
• Pay attention to keep the objective lens clean. The fingers are not allowed to touch the objective
lens directly. If there is dust on the lens’ surface, flick it with the clean brush. If there is some
contaminative oil or stain on the objective lens, clean them by the absorbent cotton with a little mixture
liquid of ethyl alcohol (30%) and ethyl ether (70%).While cleaning the lens, the mixture liquid is not
allowed to permeate into the objective lens to prevent the de-gumming or mustiness.
• Optical fiber cable consists of fine glass fiber, and cannot bear bending force. If needing
ending, the bending angle should be less than 90 degree to avoid the damage.
61
SPECIAL ATTENTIONS
• The unit belongs to Class B, grade one, and needs the power supply with good grounding
while working. This aspect should be checked to ensure the safety.
• The power cable in the unit is for transferring the electricity, cannot be pulled with force.
• The power cable concerns the safety of operator, and should be protected well. If any
damage on the protective-cover of power cable, please change new power cable
immediately. The plug should not be wet. While moving the unit, the power cable should be
winded the handle on the column.
• While change the fuse, please turn off the power.
• The pedal control switch is used for focusing, when it reaches the limited point, the
focusing stops. Then, release the pedal control switch at once or run the pedal control switch
in reverse direction. After the usage, do not locate the mechanical structure on the limited
position to avoid any damage.
• While moving the unit, hold the handle on the column. Move the unit slowly to avoid any
toppling or clashing.
• The unit with one year guarantee. If any problem, please call local a genitors maker
4.6. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

• Do not subject the Eye Microscope to extremes of temperature. It is recommended that
the device be used at temperatures of between +10° C and +40° C.
• The Eye Microscope must not be used in areas where there is a danger of explosion.
• Avoid dropping or splashing water on the device.
• The Eye Microscope must only be used by authorized persons.
• Do not attempt to move or shake the Eye Microscope with excessive force. First check
• The moveable arm can move up and down between their bases. Make sure you don’t
squash your hands.
• Do not open the protective cover of the halogen lamp whilst the device is in use. You
could be burnt.
62
4.7. TROUBLESHOOTING EYE MICROSCOPE

Table 4. Basic guide for Troubleshooting of Eye microscope
Problem Possible cause Check and follow the steps

Cable connection is Disconnected Check cable connection.
Base relay cable is switched off. Connect the cable.
Plug of lamp house cover is Insert plug.
switched off
POWER switch is OFF Turn ON POWER switch.
Brightness adjustment knob Turn up brightness adjustment knob.
isthe minimum
Illumination lamp is broken Replace it with a new illumination lamp
Shift the On / Off switch on the
Control Box to the off position and
disconnect the device from the mains;
• Check whether the set is hot, if it
is hot, wait a few minutes until it has
cooled down;
• Loosen the four screws holding the
1.ILLUMINATION LAMP Illumination Box Cover in place, and
DOES NOT WORK remove it;
• Release the two Electrical Sockets
which supply the Bulbs;
• Release the two Locking Screws
from the Bulb Support;
• Remove the Bulb Support by pulling
it out. It has a slide fitting;
• Replace the burnt out bulb
• Insert the Bulb Support
• Connect the two Electrical Sockets,
taking care not to get them the wrong
way round
• Assemble it again.
NOTE: Never touch the bulb.
Socket has deteriorated Replace it with a new socket
63
2. ILLUMINATION FIELD Filter selector lever is out of Click filter selector lever
IS NOT UNIFORM/IS Position
SHADY/IS DARK
3. FIXATION TARGET Fixation cable is off Insert cable
LAMP DOES NOT
WORK
Rated capacity of fuse is Use fuse with correct rating &
Incorrect authorized fuse.
Over Voltage from the system Check the power source
Internal short circuit Check internal circuit
CHANGING THE FUSES
• Next to the AC cable connector on
4. FUSE BLOWS the column, there is a fuse holder.
There are two fuses inside the holder.
Should
The device stop functioning completely,
switch it off, disconnect it from the
mains, open the fuse door and replace
The fuses if necessary. 5A fuses
should only be used.
The connecting cable between Insert the power cable firmly in outlet.
power source and chin-rest is
5. FIXATION BULB DOES not correct
NOT LIGHT
The fixation target bulb has Replace the fixation target bulb
burned out
_ Turn off the power supply and remove
the bulb and check for continuity using
a multimeter.
_ If continuity exists the fault is in the
6. BULB NOT GLOWING electrical system.
_ If not, replace the bulb.
Care should be taken not to touch the
new bulb with bare fingers.
64
Connections and circuit boards Check the continuity in the fuse in the
components power supply.
_ If the fuse has continuity and the bulb
does not glow check for continuity in
the connecting wires.
Replace them if there is any
discontinuity.
_ If the fuse is having continuity and the
connecting wires also have continuity
and still the bulb does notglow, check
the switch. If it is defective replace it.
6. FAULT IN THE
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM _ If the fuse is blown only, look for any
obvious short circuit in the electrical
system.
_ If there is no obvious short circuit,
replace the fuse with a fresh fuse
of the correct rating specified in
The instrument.
_ Turn the power on. If the bulb glows,
the instrument is ready for use.
_ If the fuse is blown, once again there
is some hidden short circuit that
needs more careful investigation.
1. Check input power, power supply /
rechargeable cell.
2. Check the on-off switch and
illumination control.
3. Check bulb using multimeter
replace bulb if it is fused orblackened.
4. Check the filters – movement and
locking mechanism.
5. Check and clean the condensing and
image forming lenses.
7. INDIRECT 6. Check the reflectors in the vision
OPHTHALMOSCOPE box.
“NOT WORKING” 7. Check the eye piece lenses and
clean them if necessary. If the pieces
are disturbed one mat get diplopia
(double image). Positionthe eye pieces
such that diplopia disappears. This has
to be done bytrial and error method.
8. Is the brightness of the spot good?
If not open the vision box and clean it.
9. Clean the head band.
10. Keep it in the box when not in use.
65
11. A 20D, 30D or a17D lens is used

with an indirect Ophthalmoscope.
Clean the lens surfaces if they are
dirty and keep thelens in its box.
12. Some instruments will have
teaching mirror attachment. Remove
them if it is not likely to be used. Keep
the mirrors clean when in use.
Operating microscope “not working”
1. Check the eye piece clean it if
necessary, remove diplopia (double
image) if it is noticed. This is done by
gentle adjustment of the eyepieces by
trial and error.
2. Check the IPD adjustment.
3. Check the diopter correction in the
eye piece.
4. Check the objective, clean it if
necessary.
5. Check the optic fiber to get good
illumination. The optic fiber is a bundle
of glass fiber. Handle it with care. Don’t
twist it too tight. The optic fiber is to be
replaced if there are significant black
spots are seen in the light output.
6. Check the magnification adjustment
(zoom or step type).
7. Check the foot switch (it should be
kept dry you may use a plastic bag to
cover it).
8. Check the X-Y movement. Check
the electrical connections to the foot
switch.
9. Check the different additions, beam
splitter and the side scope, camera.
Remove them if they are not to be
used. Keep them clean when they are
to be used.
10. Check the arm movement its
rotation and locking mechanism
(double check it)
11. Check the up down motion and
locking mechanism of the microscope
head.
12. Check the wheels and locking
mechanism of the microscope stand.
13. Lubricate all moving parts
periodically.
66
14. Keep the optics of the microscope

covered when not in use. General
care: Shift the microscope out of the
operation theater to awry area when
the theater is being washed. Bring it
back only after the theater is dry.
Keep a small packet of silica gel
hanging near the microscope optics
to absorb moisture in air. This will be
necessary during the rainy seasons
when the humidity in the atmospheric
air is high.
In such situations keeping an
incandescent bulb glowing in the
Vicinity (just above) the microscope
will help in keeping the region round
the microscope warm. This will inhibit
fungus formation on the optics.
Caution: Several microscopes
have motorized movement of the
microscope focusing system for fine
focusing. This is usually achieved using
the foot switch. The user must the
aware of the extent of the motion. At
the commencement the microscope
should be at about the midpoint of the
traverse so that using the footswitch
one could move the microscope up or
down as required. If the movement is
stuck at either end pressing the foot
switch more could ruin the motor.
- Isopropyl alcohol: I have used this
without problems, but prefer methanol.
There are reports of it damaging optical
anti-glare coatings.....
- Acetone: Be VERY careful with
acetone. There are only a few optical
surfaces that can be cleaned with
8. CLEANING THE LENS acetone (Some optical flats and
WITH: mirrors used in lasers for one).
Acetone can dissolve plastic, lens
kitting (glue used in lens assemblies),
can damage some lens coatings, etc.
Use acetone ONLY if specified
in writing by the manufacturer.
Otherwise, you will do more harm than
good.
67
- Methanol: My personal favorite, it

cleans well, dries quickly and I have
never had problems using it on
standard lenses, optical (first surface,
or front coated) mirrors etc.; If not
available I also use a high quality
“alcohol” found in hospital pharmacy
90% alcohol)
- Ammonia: No real personal
experience, but it seems quite harsh
to me. I’d only use it if recommended in
the service manual.
- Detergent solutions: Tend to leave
a soapy film on optics, I only use it if I
cannot get Methanol/alcohol.
1. Don’t open (remove) the lenses
mounted on components like the
eyepieces.
2. Keep the humidity under control.
Fungus growth is more when the
humidity is high
3. Keep the space surrounding
the instrument warm with an
incandescent bulb glowing above the
9. TO REMOVE FUNGUS instrument. Fungus growth is inhibited
PRECAUTIONS when the temperature is higher
4. Keep small packets of silica gel
hanging near the optics. This will
ensure removal of moisture. The gel
should be replaced periodically.
5. If the location of the instrument is
subject to monsoon rain, give a good
cleaning of the instrument including all
the outer surfaces of the optics after
the rainy season is over.
68
 An operating microscope is an optical instrument that provides the surgeon with a

stereoscopic, high quality magnified and illuminated image of the small structures in the
surgical area.
 Operating microscopes are designed to provide high contrast and detailed imaging of all
regions of the human eye and also are suitable for the examination and surgery in the
dentistry, ENT and ophthalmology.
 Most ophthalmic diagnostic devices have optical components such as lenses, mirrors,
and prisms.
 Components have a special thin coating for filtering specific wavelengths of light, for
reflecting light, or for reducing reflecting. Great care must be exercised in handling and
operating ophthalmic equipment’s.
69
Chapter 5:
Ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer
DESCRIPTION:
This chapter describes about different Ophthalmic equipment Ophthalmoscope, Keratometer
and Lensometer) to have an overview for the trainer to developed their knowledge, Skill and
attitude on Ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer) maintenance. This material is
prepared with both Instruction manual and checklist of activities for both the trainee and trainer.
It is a training material which anticipating questions in the mind of the trainee about what he/she
can do next, why it is important and where it can be found on their perspective health facilities.
Also, this material will provide directions on the care and maintenance of electrical parts, optical
parts and aligning optics for Ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer).
PRIMARY OBJECTIVE
At the end of this session, the participants will be able to maintain Keratometer and Lensometer).
At the end of this chapter the participant will be able to:
• Explain the purpose of indirect ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer
• Describe working principle of indirect ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer
•Identify the main components of indirect ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and
Lensometer and their functions
• Perform user level care and maintenance of indirect ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and
Lensometer
• Discuss on strategic spares of indirect ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer
CHAPTER OUTLINE
5.1. Keratometer
5.1.1. Introduction to Keratometer
5.1.2. Working principle of Keratometer
5.1.3. Main components of Keratometer and their function
5.1.4. Preventive maintenance procedure of Keratometer
5.1.5. Troubleshooting and repair Keratometer
5.2. Lensoometer
5.2.1. Introduction to Lensoometer
5.2.2. Working principle of Lensoometer
5.2.3. Main components of Lensoometer and their function
5.2.4. Preventive maintenance procedure of Keratometer
5.2.5. Troubleshooting Lensometer
5.3. Indirect ophtalmoscope
5.3.1. Introduction to Indirect ophtalmoscope
5.3.2. Working principle and parts of Indirect ophtalmoscope
5.3.3. Preventive maintenance procedure of Indirect ophtalmoscope
5.2.4. Troubleshooting and repair Indirect ophtalmoscope
5.4. Summary
70
5.1 KERATOMETER
Group activity:
•What is keratometer and its applications …
Time: 5 Minutes
5.1.1. INTRODUCTION TO KERATOMETER

There is some optical equipment which by their construction and usage requires much less user
level attention than the instruments described earlier. They are grouped in this chapter.
Keratometer: It is used to measure corneal power of the eyes. A picture of a keratometer is as

shown in figure 28. The telescope like part (T) of the equipment can be raised or lowered by
timing a knob (K1). It can be turned left or right manually by rotation around a vertical axis and
fixed in any desired position by turning a knob (K2). Small left right movement in this fixed
position is possible by turning another knob (K3). A keratometer, also known as ophthalmic
meter, is a diagnostic instrument for measuring the curvature of the anterior surface of the
cornea, particularly for assessing the extent and axis of astigmatism. It was invented by the
German physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz in 1880, (although an earlier model was
developed in 1796 by Jesse Ramsden and Everard Home.
5.1.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF KERATOMETER

A keratometer uses the relationship between object sizes (O), image sizes (I), the distance
between the reflective surface and the object (d), and the radius of the reflective surface (R). If
three of these variables are known (or fixed), the fourth can be calculated using the formula R =
2dI/O
Optical instrument for measuring the radius of curvature of the cornea in any meridian. By
measuring along the two principal meridians, corneal astigmatism can be deduced. The
principle is based on the reflection by the anterior surface of a luminous pattern of mires in the
center of the cornea in an area of about 3.6 mm in diameter. Knowing the size of the pattern h
and measuring that of the reflected image h′ and the distance d between the two, the radius of
curvature r of the cornea can be determined using the approximate formula.
Figure 28 Keratometer schematic diagrams
71
In addition, a doubling system (e.g. a bi-prism) is also integrated into the instrument in order to
mitigate the effect of eye movements, as well as a microscope in order to magnify the small
image reflected by the cornea. This instrument is used in the fitting of contact lenses and the
monitoring of corneal changes occurring as a result of contact lens wear (Fig. K2). The range of
the instrument can be extended approximately 9 D by placing a +1.25 D lens in front of the
objective to measure steeper corneas. The range in the other direction can be extended by
approximately 6 D using a −1.00 D lens to measure flatter corneas.
5.1.3. MAIN COMPONENTS OF KERATOMETER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Group activity:
• Discuss the main component of keratometer..?
Time: 5 Minutes
Keratometer: It is used to measure corneal power of the eyes. A picture of a keratometer is as

shown in figure below. The telescope like part (T) of the equipment can be raised or lowered by
timing a knob (K1). It can be turned left or right manually by rotation around a vertical axis and
fixed in any desired position by turning a knob (K2). Small left right movement in this fixed
position is possible by turning another knob (K3). The telescope like part (T) of the equipment
can be turned around a horizontal axis by hand.
The telescope like part (T) of the equipment can be turned around a horizontal axis by hand.
The angular position can be read on a circular scale (S). Knob (K4) is used for focusing on the
cornea. While making the measurements, two drums (D) provided on either side of the
equipment are turned to get the coincidence in the pattern seen through the telescope. The
drums are calibrated in diopter units of power of the cornea. The instrument has a bulb that
provides the necessary illumination. Chin and head rests are provided in the equipment for use
by the patients. Keratometers of different manufacturers look alike.
Figure 29 Keratometer
The angular position can be read on a circular scale (S). Knob (K4) is used for focusing on the cornea.
While making the measurements, two drums (D) provided on either side of the equipment are turned to
get the coincidence in the pattern seen through the telescope. The drums are calibrated in diopter units
of power of the cornea. The instrument has a bulb that provides the necessary illumination.
A chin and head rest is provided in the equipment for use by the patients. Keratometers of
different manufacturers look alike.
72
NAME OF PARTS
1. Protractor scale: Indicates the axis of astigmatism.
2. Adjustable eyepiece control: Adjustable from to diapers to correct for operator spherical error.
3. Horizontal knob
4. Axis rotating handle: Must be turned to locate the axis of astigmatism when there is
horizontal Displacement of the + and - mire images.
5. Vertical knob: Is revolved to coincide the +and +marks of the mire images for finding the
radius of curvature of the vertical axis. Vertical -, horizontal and height adjustment improve
performance and focus correctly.
6. Operating Rod
7.Up-Down adjustable knob: Height of Up-Down adjustable for accurate positioning.
8. Power switch
9. Fluctuation Hand-wheel: Is revolved to coincide the-and-marks of the mire images for
finding the radius of the horizontal axis.
10. Chin-rest
11. Lamp-house
12. Glare shield: Helps to maintain fixation by blocking of no measured eye.
13. Headrest
Figure 30 parts of Keratometer

14. The instrument efficiently measures the radius of curvature of the anterior corneal
surface. One position measurement is not only more accurate but is truly effective in reducing
measuring time and also helps promote patient’s cooperation. The brightness of all three
images is equal. The central image is double whenever the instrument is not focused
precisely on the corneal mire image. This allows continuous monitoring of correct focus by
the examiner.
15. Internal scale reading system. Beside the mire images, the millimeter scales for the
radius of curve. Radius of curvature and the diaper scales for corneal refractive power are
view at all times in the field of view.
16. Measurement of corneal astigmatism Horizontal displacement of the mire images
indicates existence of astigmatism and axis rotating handle is used to coincide the measuring
head with axis, after which the vertical and horizontal knobs are used to coincide the mire
images, showing the great case and simplicity of one position measurement.
73
5.1.4. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE OF KERATOMETER
Group activity:
• Discuss the main steps and consideration to

maintain Keratometer…?
Time: 5 Minutes
USER LEVEL CARE AND MAINTENANCE

Remove the dust and stain on the equipment including the optical parts and external surfaces,
only as described in Chapter2.
• When not in use, turn the power off and keep the equipment covered.
• Occasionally when the power is turned on, there may be no light.
• The bulb may have fused or there may be some fault in the electrical system.
Forth is, the procedure described for slit lamps (part I) may be followed.
Besides keeping the instrument clean, other important maintenance work will be to lubricate all
moving parts so that movement of all the knobs and drums is smooth.
CHECKING CALIBRATION
A set of three electroplated standard balls of precisely known radii (corresponding to known
corneal powers) are available. Any one of the balls may be used to check the calibration of the
keratometer. In case the drum reading is different from the known power of the steel ball, the
screw holding the drum is to be loosened, and the drum set at the correct reading and the screw
tightened again. The calibration may be verified using the other two steel balls.
5.1.5. TROUBLE SHOOTING AND REPAIR
74
5.2. LENSOMETER
Group activity:
• What is Lensometer and its applications …
Time: 5 Minutes
CONTENTS TO BE COVERED UNDER THIS UNIT:
1. Introduction to Lensometer
2. Description and use of Lensometer
3. User level care and maintenance of Lensometer
4. Checking and calibration of Lensometer
5. Strategic spares of Lensometer
6. Care of mechanical system of Lensometer
7.Care of electrical system of Lensometer
5.2.1. INTRODUCTION TO LENSOMETER

Lensometry is an optical bench consisting of an illuminated moveable target, a powerful fixed lens,
and a telescopic eyepiece focused at infinity. The key element is the field lens that is fixed in place
so that its focal point is on the back surface of the lens being analyzed. The lensometer measures
the back vertex power of the spectacle lens. The vertex power is the reciprocal of the distance
between the back surface of the lens and its secondary focal point. This is also known as the back
focal length. For this reason, a lensometer does not really measure the true focal length of a lens,
which is measured from the principal planes, not from the lens surface. The lensometer works on
the Badal principle with the addition of an astronomical telescope for precise detection of parallel
rays at neutralization. The Badel principle is Knapp’s law applied to lensometers.
5.2.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LENSOMETER

Group activity:
• What is lensometer and its applications …?
Time: 5 Minutes
It is used to measure the focal powers of lenses (spherical, cylindrical and sphero cylindrical) It
can also determine the de-centration in the lens. There are two generic models of the
instruments. One in which the target seen through the eye piece of the instrument consists of a
number of bright points form in gap circle, and another in which the target has asset of three
wide lines with wide spacing between the Mandan other set of three narrow lines with smaller
spacing between them. These two sets of lines inter sect at right angles. The equipment comes
in different shapes. A picture of a typical lensometer, also known as foci meter, is shown in
figure 31. The equipment has a clamp(C) for mounting the lens whose power is needed. There
is provision form a king in kdotson the lens at the desired points. For measuring the power of
the lens, a calibrated disc (D) is turned till a clear and sharp image of the target is seen through
the eye piece (E). For measuring the focal power of cylindrical and sphero cylindrical lenses that
have different powers in different meridians, the optics of the equipment can be rotated around
the axis. The angular position can be seen on a circular scale(s) on the instrument.
75
Figure 31 Lensometer
5.2.3. MAIN COMPONENTS OF LENSOOMETER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

LENSOMETER – instrument designed to measure the prescription of an optical lens.
MIRES – lines, thick and thin used as measurement images.
POWER DRUM OR POWER WHEEL –dial used to determine lens power.
PLATFORM‐ stage the frame rests on when lenses are being neutralized Instrument consists
of an ocular for viewing the mires, a flat stage or table for supporting the spectacle frame, a
power dial, and an axis wheel.
SPHERE – lens with optical power being the same in all meridians (conveyed in diopters).
CYLINDER – lens that has different refractive/optical power in each meridian. It is used to
correct astigmatism.
AXIS – meridian of cylinder with the minimum power perpendicular to maximum power meridian.
Expressed in degrees.
PRISM ‐ a transparent, wedge shaped material with two flat surfaces inclined at a given angle
that connect at a point called the apex. The two connected surfaces are resting on the base of
the prism. Prisms are used to help the eyes to work together by bending or refracting light.
LENSOMETER FUNCTIONS
The function of a Lensometer is to determine the characteristics of a lens, including:
1. Power
2. Optical Center location
3. Major Reference Point location
4. Prism power/direction
5. Cylinder axis orientation
The Lensometer is also used to place marks on a lens to ensure proper placement of the lens
during the fabrication process.
76
Figure 32 Detailed Lensometer Parts
77
5.2.4. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Group activity:
•Discuss the main steps and consideration to

maintain Lensometer…?
Time: 5 Minutes
These preventive maintenance instructions were prepared to aid you in keeping your
Lensometer in perfect working condition. The Lensometer is a precision instrument and must be
operated and maintained with utmost care. By following these directions, the operator can
insure long life and trouble-free operation.
MAINTENANCE “MUSTS’
  Keep Lensometer covered when not in use, to prevent dust accumulation on working parts.
 Clean Lensometer periodically, with especial care for the guides on which the target
 assembly moves.
  Caution: Avoid moving fingers along these guides as there may be sharp edges.
  A small brush will simplify cleaning.
  Clean sliding parts with benzene if they do not work smoothly.
  This cleaner, or a similar solvent, will remove any collected gum.
  Do not “overdose” with solvent.
  Do not lubricate any sliding parts.
  Lubricants collect dirt and dust particles and tend to form gum residues.
  Do not under any circumstances change any adjustments of the optical system.
 Replacement lamps may be inserted by removing the lock screw in the top of the lamp
 housing (Q from Fig 25) and sliding the entire housing off.
  This Lensometer uses a 10-watt frosted lamp with intermediate base.
 Lack India ink, or some ink similar to types, is used with the Lensometer. There should at
 all times be enough ink in the ink holder to moisten the roller pad as it rotates.
 Points of lens marking device (C) should be kept clean to obtain small dots and insure
 accurate marking.
 Eyepiece (A) should be dusted periodically with a camel’s hair brush to remove dust
particles. Lens may then be cleaned with lens cleaning fluid and soft cloth.

Removal of dust and stain, if any, Cleaning the optical surfaces at the front and reared
lubrication of moving parts and keeping the equipment under cover when not in use are the user
level maintenance functions. Checking the bulb and electrical faults if any, when the bulb in the
instrument is not glowing when turned on, is another maintenance function to be carried out as
described earlier. The maintenance function exclusive for this equipment will be keeping the in
pad moist. Strategic spares and tools: Same as in the case of Lensometer.
Care of Mechanical System: -All mechanical movements should be checked periodically and
gently lubricated. The cast or wheels of a microscope stand should run smoothly. It will be good
to replace them as a set when any one or more of the cast or sis worn out or sticky.
78
Care of Electrical System: The electrical system should be checked periodically. Any defect
noticed, like a loose connection, damage to insulation in the electrical wires, etc., should be
rectified immediately. The cooling fan should run smoothly. They should run in such a direction
as to suck air out of the instrument.
Sometimes due to some mistake in electrical connections the fan may run in the opposite
direction and suck air into the instrument. This will result in dust getting into the instrument and
should be avoided.
DON’T MOVE ANY OPHTHALMIC EQUIPMENT WHEN THE POWER IS ON. EVEN GENTLE
VIBRATION MAY CAUSE THE LAMP FILAMENT IN THE BULB TO BREAK
5.2.5. TROUBLESHOOTING AND SAFETY OF LENSOMETER

Your lensometer is finest precision lens measuring instrument of its type available. Its accuracy
depends largely upon moving parts which are fitted to extremely close tolerances. Since the
lensometer subjected to at most constant use, these mated parts are bound to wear. Such wear
accentuated by failure to properly clean and lubricate the instrument periodic ally.
To date, thousands of lensometer are in use all over the world. These added recommendations
are being made. In the Interest of prolonging their useful life through the care such a precision
instrument so justly deserves. By carefully performing the following procedures, the life of the
Lensometer can be extended significantly.
1. Always cover the Lensometer after use.
2. CLEAN AND LUBRICATE THE FOCUSING SIDEWAYS AT LEAST ONCE AWEEK. Be
certain to follow the recommendation as given In the next section.
3. Clean lubricate the Inking Device plunger and both guide tubes once a week.
4. About once a month a few drops of oil should be put on the power wheel. For effective
lubrication, place a few drops of oil where the axle goes through the main casting on both
sides of the drive gear. The drive gear is exposed after the target carrier is removed from the
instrument.
5. The Ink Roller will give much longer service if kept wet with Ink at all times. In addition, It is
advisable to thoroughly wash the roller felt once a week with soap and water.
6. Since dust can accumulate on the lenses surface inside the collimator nose piece, an
occasional cleaning is necessary to maintain a clean and sharp image. Most of the dust can
be from by blowing air into the aperture with a rubber syringe.
7. Keep optics free of fingerprints as they have a damaging effect upon polished optical
surfaces, and dirty lenses form a poor target image.
79
To do a thorough Job of cleaning and lubricating the focusing slide ways, the target carrier
assembly must be removed from the instrument.
 On the left side near the back of the main casting is flat headed stop screw which limits the
minus focusing excursion. Remove the top screw.
 Turn the Power wheel until the target carrier rack is disengaged from the pinion drive
gear. Slide target carrier assembly off of the instrument.
 Thoroughly clean the main slide ways and target carrier slides with rather stiff bristled
artist’s brush soaked with any good grease cleaning solvent, such as Stoddard Solvent. Wipe
with dry a clean cloth.
 Lubricate the main slide ways on both flat and angled surfaces a thin coat of grease.
 Reassemble the target carrier to the instrument. DO NOT FORCE the mating slide surface
together.
With slight forward pressure shift the position of the target carrier until it is aligned with the
main slide ways. The target carrier can then be pushed rather easily on to the instrument.
 Then re-engage the rack with pinion drive gear. Make certain eyepiece is properly focused
and check power wheel zero reading to verify gear tooth engagement.

 Replace the flat headed stop screw which was removed in step a.

 Run the target back and forth through its entire length of travel several times to distribute
the grease evenly over the slide ways. Wipe off any excess grease that may pileup at the
slide travel.

 Proceed to clean and lubricate the inking device and plunger using some solvent and
grease used on the slide ways.
80
5.3. INDIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPE

CONTENTS TO BE COVERED UNDER THIS UNIT:
1. Description and Purpose of ophthalmoscope
2. Description of major subsystems of ophthalmoscope
3. The Illumination System of ophthalmoscope
4. The Electrical System of ophthalmoscope
5. The Vision Box of ophthalmoscope
6. The Head Band of ophthalmoscope
7.Preventive maintenance ophthalmoscope
8. Care of Electrical System of ophthalmoscope
9. Care of Optical System of ophthalmoscope
10. Preventive maintenance schedule of ophthalmoscope
11. Check list for preventive maintenance of ophthalmoscope
12. Trouble shooting and repair of ophthalmoscope
Group activity:
1. What is Indirect Ophthalmoscope and its applications …?
2. What is the difference between direct and
indirect ophthalmoscope….?
Time: 5 Minutes
5.3.1. INTRODUCTION TO INDIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPE

It provides a wider view of the inside of the eye. Furthermore, it allows a better view of the fund
us of the eye, even if the lens is clouded by cataracts. An indirect ophthalmoscope can be either
monocular or binocular. It is used for peripheral viewing of the retina.
5.3.2. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF INDIRECT OPHTHALMOSCOPE

The modern Indirect Ophthalmoscope functions as the eye piece of a stereo-microscope for
which a hand held high positive aspheric lens (17D, 20D or 30D) serves as the objective. When
viewed properly, a magnified image of the retina is seen.
Some of the advantages of the instrument as com-pared to the direct ophthalmoscope are:
1. Stereoscopic view
2. Greater field of view
3. Increased illumination and
4. Reduced distortion.
81
An additional advantage is that the doctor is at distance from the patient. However, the final
image seen is inverted and the magnification is much lesser than in a direct ophthalmoscope.
Description of major subsystems: An indirect ophthalmoscope has four major subsystems.
1. An illumination system
2. An electric system
3. A stereoscopic viewing system (vision box)
4. A head band that supports the illumination system and the vision box.
All models of the indirect ophthalmoscopes are similar in construction. A picture of Indirect
Ophthalmoscope is shown in
figure33
Figure 33 Indirect ophthalmoscope, A. Top- head band mounted, B- Bottom spectacle mounted
THE ILLUMINATION SYSTEM: This consists of a tungsten filament lamp or a halogen lamp and
affront silvered concave reflect or suitably positioned behind the lamp. Two condensing lenses
are placed in front of the lamp. The lens close to the lamp is fixed while the other lens could be
moved forward or backward and fixed in position with the help of a spring loaded screw. There
is provision for introducing filters of required characteristics in the path of the light. The light
coming through the second lens is reflected using affront silvered mirror to provide the
illumination at the eye of the patient. The mirror could be tilted and fixed in any required position
for easy examination. The size of the spot could be varied by pushing in stops of different sizes
in the path of the light near the bulb.
THE ELECTRICAL SYSTEM: This consists of a step down transformer provided with a switch,
a rheostat, a fuse and a sufficiently long connecting cable. The transformer is either fixed on the
wall near the examination table or kept in the box of the instrument.
THE VISION BOX: This has two eye pieces. They can be moved laterally in the vision box to
match with the inner pupillary distance of the doctor. The hand held high power positive
aspheric lens gives a real inverted image of the patient’s retina in space in front of the lens. The
light from this image meets a 90° wedge formed by two mirrors in the vision box. The wedge
divides the beam into two beams which are further reflected by two 45° mirrors (or total
reflecting prisms) before they reach the eye of the doctor through the eye pieces.
82
Figure 34 Schematic of vision box

The ray diagram indicating the working of vision box is as shown in figure34.The vision box is rigidly
attached to the illumination system. This is usually well sealed so that no dust enters the box.
Figure 35 Teaching attachment
In some instruments, a pair of semi-silvered reflectors can be fixed in the vision box. These are
known as teaching attachments. They are useful for assistants (students) to look at what the
doctor is looking at. The picture of an indirect ophthalmoscope with this attachment is shown in
figure 35
The Head Band: The illumination system and the attached vision box are attached to a head
band that a doctor can wear conveniently. The cable for the lamp is also attached to the head
band. The illumination system, vision box combination could be tilted and fixed at the desired
position using screws on the head band. While in use, the eye pieces are as close to the
doctor’s eyes as possible to give a wide field of view. The illumination system and the vision box
are also attached to a spectacle frame. The box provided for the instrument is such that when
not in use the instrument together with the head band and the cables could be kept in marked
positions in the box. Sometimes, the instrument with the head band is kept hanging on a hook
on the wall near the examination area. Since the examination using indirect ophthalmoscope is
done without any external light, one can arrange such that when the ophthalmoscope is
removed from its hook the room light is turned off and the light is turned on when the instrument
is back on its hook.
83
5.3.3. PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Group activity:
 Discuss the main steps and consideration to

maintain Indirect ophthalmoscope
Time: 5 Minutes
Care of Electrical System: The switch and the rheostat in the electrical system may wear off in
usage.
Check them for smooth movement and proper functioning. Replace them if found defective.
Care of Optical System: As described earlier, the optical system in the vision box is well sealed
so that no dust enters the box. It is enough if the exposed lens surfaces are cleaned. The
instrument is so constructed that the two eye pieces slide on groves provided and as long as
they are not disturbed a single image is seen, after the inter pupillary distance adjustment. If the
eye pieces are disturbed and do not move in the groves provided, diplopic may be caused. To
correct this, the eye pieces should be brought back to move on the groves provided.
Preventive maintenance schedule: Suggested frequency - once a week.

Check list for preventive maintenance:
• Do you get a clear spot of light when the instrument is turned on and the light beam is
obtained on the wall or table top at a distance of one meter?
• Does the brightness of the spot vary when the brightness control knob is operated?
• Do the filters move in and out of the path of the beam as desired?
• Do you see a single image while looking through the eye pieces?
• Do the head band fittings move freely when the knobs are turned?
• Does the spectacle fit properly in the case of spectacle mounted instruments?
• The answer to all these should be “yes”. If not, action should be taken as described under
trouble shooting.
5.3.4. TROUBLESHOOTING AND REPAIR
Bulb not glowing:

• Turn off the power supply and remove the bulb and check for continuity using a multimeter.
• If continuity exists the fault is in the electrical system.
• If not, replace the bulb. Care should be taken not to touch the new bulb with bare fingers.
Strategic spares:
• A spare bulb
• A spare fuse
Tools needed:
• Multimeter
• Watch makers screwdriver set
• Watch makers wrench set
• Soldering rod and solder
• Optics cleaning supplies
• Cloth and powder for cleaning headband
84
5.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY
 Keratometer is a diagnostic instrument for measuring the curvature of the anterior

surface of the cornea, particularly for assessing the extent and axis of astigmatism. It is
used to measure corneal power of the eyes.
 A keratometer uses the relationship between object sizes (O), image sizes (I), the
distance between the reflective surface and the object (d), and the radius of the
reflective surface (R).
 Lensometry is an optical bench consisting of an illuminated moveable target, a powerful
fixed lens, and a telescopic eyepiece focused at infinity.
 The lensometer works on the badal principle with the addition of an astronomical
telescope for precise detection of parallel rays at neutralization.
 It is used to measure the focal powers of lenses (spherical, cylindrical and sphero
cylindrical) It can also determine the de-centration in the lens.
 Indirect Ophthalmoscope provides a wider view of the inside of the eye. It allows a better
view of the fund us of the eye, even if the lens is clouded by cataracts.
85
References
DESCRIPTION:
1. Quality matters program (2012). marylandonline. Retrievedjanuary 12, 2012 from
http://www. qmprogram.org/about.
2. Creative commons attribution-share alike 3.0 unported, http:/ / creative commons. org/
licenses/ by-sa/ 3
3. On optic vertriebsgesellschaftmbh – managing director: h. jochenkaber – hrlübeck, hrb 3475

– vat no. 161662634
4. Ophthalmic Instruments from of prof. allvargullstrandnobel prize winner in physiology and medicine
5. Orbis, saving sight worldwide, gupide to ophthalmic equipment, version 9.04.04
6. Instruction manual, sl - 17, ukl.http.//www.kowa-europe.com
7. hasunuma-cho, ltabashi-ku, Tokyo, 174-8580 japan
8. Topcon corporation dubai office, office no.102, khalafrashd al nayli bldg., deira, dubai, uae .
9. Orbs, basic care and maintenance of ophthalmic equipment,
10. Occupational safety and health administration (OSHA), www.osha.gov (800) 321- OSHA (6742)
11. assoc. prof. jennifer p. craig, phdmscbsc (hons) mcoptomfaaofbcla, department of ophthalmology.
12. gold man h, schmidtth.uberapplanations-tonometrie. ophthalmologica. 1957; 134: 221-242.
13. Medical equipment maintenance manual, a first line maintenance guide for end users,
Ministry of health and family welfare, new delhioctober 2010.
14. Bon optic vertriebsgesellschaftmbh – managing director: h. jochenkaber – hrlübeck, hrb

3475 – vat no. 161662634.
15. Applanation tonometer, user’s manual, eq-6703www.amconlabs.com.
16. Tonometer, ® ta01i, instruction manual v2.2 04/12
86

Ophthalmic Equipments Training Biomedical

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ophthalmic Equipments Training Biomedical

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ophthalmic Equipments Training Biomedical

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Pharmacy and Medical

APPROVAL STATEMENT OF THE MINISTRY

Assegid Samual CheruHuman

List of acronyms and abbreviations

AAT PC Addis Ababa Tegbare-id Polytechnique

HBC Human Bridge College

KPTC Kombolcha Polytechnique College

HTM Health Technology Management

CCD Charge Coupled Devices

IOP Inter ocular pressure

IPD Inter-Pupillary Distance

JUIT Jimma University Institute of Technology

ND No Diopters (an intermediate position b/n the diopters)

CHAPTER 1: Caring, Respectful and Companionate Healthcare Service ___________________ 1

1.2. Healthcare Ethics __________________________________________________________ 6

CHAPTER 2: Slit Lamp _________________________________________________________ _31

2.5. Preventive maintenance procedure of Slit Lamp __________________________________ 37

CHAPTER 3: Application of Tonometer _____________________________________________40

3.9. Safety for Tonometer _________________________________________________________ 47

4.9. Chapter Summary __________________________________________________________ 69

CHAPTER 5: Ophthalmoscope, Keratometer and Lensometer ___________________________ 70

5.1. Introduction to Keratometer ____________________________________________________71

5.2. Introduction to Lensometer ____________________________________________________ 75

Introduction to the Manual

PARTICIPANT SELECTION CRITERIA

COURSE DURATION (4 DAYS)

Activity 1.1: Individual reflection

• What are Compassionate, Respect and Caring (CRC)?

Time Allowed 15 minutes

1.1.1. DEFINITION OF CRC

Compassionate, respectful and Caring (CRC) -

•Why CRC a transformational agenda?

Time Allowed 10 minutes

1.1.2. WHY CRC A TRANSFORMATION AGENDA?

Helping health professionals’ to become compassionate and respectful practitioners remains a

STUDIES SHOWED THE NEED FOR CRC

NATIONAL STRATEGY AND APPROACHES FOR CRC

EXCEPTIONS TO THE REQUIREMENT TO MAINTAIN CONFIDENTIALITY

GENERAL PRINCIPLE OF INFORMED CONSENT

1.2.3. PREVENTIVE ETHICS IN THE ASPECT OF CRC

WHAT IS PREVENTIVE ETHICS?

WHY IS PREVENTIVE ETHICS IMPORTANT FOR CRC HEALTHCARE WORKERS?

ETHICS as discussed in the previous sessions, is considered as a standard of behavior and a

1.3. PRINCIPLES AND STANDARDS OF COMPASSIONATE CARE

Qualities of Compassionate Care

Role play on qualities of compassionate care:

After waiting for 10 minutes, the healthcare provider started to examine

Time allowed: 30 minutes

1.3.2. ELEMENTS OF COMPASSIONATE CARE

3. Virtuous Response: It is the “Enactment of a virtue toward a person in suffering,’’ and it is

4. Seeking to Understand: refers to healthcare providers trying to know the patient as a

5. Relational Communication: is an important element of compassion identified by patients

1.3.3. PRINCIPLES OF COMPASSIONATE CARE

ADDRESSING THREATS OF COMPASSION

1.4. RESPECTFUL CARE

Definition of Dignity (ልእልና)

• Dignity is a quality of the way we treat others.

4. Communication (may be verbal or non-verbal): explaining and understanding information,

Definition of Respect (አክብሮት)