MERIDIANS.

The direction of a line

is usually defined by the horizontal
angle it makes with a fixed reference
line or direction.

4 TYPES OF MERIDIAN.
1. True Meridian – also known as astronomic or geographic meridian. This line
passes through the geographic north and south poles of the earth and the
observer’s position.

2. Magnetic Meridian – a fixed line of reference which lies parallel with the
magnetic lines of force of the earth. Its direction is defined by a freely suspended
magnetic needle of a compass held at the observer’s position. Magnetic
meridians are not parallel to the true meridians since they converge at a
magnetic pole which is located some distance away from the true geographic
poles.

3. Grid Meridian – a fixed line of reference parallel to the central meridian of a

system of plane rectangular coordinates. One central meridian, which coincides
with a true meridian, is usually selected and all other meridians are made parallel
to this meridian. The use of grid meridians is applicable only to plane surveys of
limited extent. In such types of survey it is assumed that all measurements are all
projected to a horizontal plane and that all meridians are parallel straight lines.

4. Assumed Meridians – an arbitrarily chosen fixed line of reference which is taken

for convenience. This meridian is usually the direction from a survey station to an
adjoining station or some well-defined and permanent point. It is used only on
plane surveys of limited extent since they are difficult or may be impossible to re-
establish if the original reference points are lost or obliterated.

UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS.

1. 1.The Degree – The sexagesimal system is used in which the circumference of a
circle is divided into 360 parts or degrees. The angle of one degree is defined as
the angle which requires of the rotation needed to obtain one complete

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 revolution. The basic unit is the degree, which is further subdivided into 60
minutes, and the minute is subdivided into 60 seconds. The ᵒ, ‘ and ‘’ are used to
denote degrees, minutes and seconds, respectively.

2. The Grad – The grad is the unit of measure in the centesimal system. In this system
the circumference of a circle is divided into 400 parts called grads. The grad is
subdivided into 100 centesimal minutes and a centesimal minute is further
subdivided into seconds. The symbol g, c and cc are used to denote grads,
centesimal minutes, and centesimal seconds, respectively. It will be noted that
200 grads is equal to 180 degrees.

3. The Mil – The circumference is divided into 6400 parts called mils, or 1600 mils is
equal to 90 degrees. It is commonly used in military operations as in fire direction
of artillery units.

4. The Radian – The radian is another measure of angle used frequently for a host of
calculations. One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the center of a
circle by an arc length exactly equal to the radius of the circle. One radian
equals or approximately 57.2958 degrees and, one degree equals or
approximately 0.0174533 radians. The radian is sometimes referred to as the
natural unit of angle because there is no arbitrary number in its definition. It is
used in computations such as determining the length of circular arcs and where
high speed electronic digital computers are used.

DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS.

1. True North – north point of the true meridian. In maps and sketches, it is portrayed
in the direction of the actual location of the earth’s north geographic pole and is
always shown along a vertical line. It is symbolized by a star, an asterisk, or the
letter TN.

2. Magnetic North – a north point that is established by means of a magnetized

compass needle when there are no local attractions affecting it. At any point on
the earth’s surface its direction is indicated by the direction of the magnetic lines
of force passing through the point at a particular time. Magnetic north may be
located either east or west of true north. The point is usually symbolized by a half
arrowhead or the letter MN.

3. Grid North – a north point which is established by lines on a map which are
parallel to a selected central meridian. It may coincide with lines directed
towards true north. Grid north may be symbolized by a full arrowhead or the
letter GN or Y.

4. Assumed North – is used to portray the location of any arbitrarily chosen north
point. It may be symbolized by a small blackened circle or the letter AN.

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 DIRECTION OF LINES. The direction of line is defined as the horizontal angle the line
makes with an established line of reference.

KINDS OF ANGLES-

1. Interior Angles – The angle between adjacent lines in a closed polygon. These
angle may be measured clockwise and counterclockwise.
Sum of Interior angle for closed polygon = (n – 2) 180°
n = number of sides

2. Deflection Angles – The angle between a line and the prolongation of the
preceding line. It may turn to the right (clockwise) or to the left
(counterclockwise) and it is necessary to append the letters R or L to the
numerical value to define the direction in which the angle has been turned.
Right deflections (positive) are considered to have signs opposite to left
deflections (negative).

3. Angles to the Right – Angles to the right are measured clockwise from the
preceding line to the succeeding line.

4. Bearings – The bearing of the line is the acute horizontal angle between the
reference meridian and the line. A quadrantal system is used to specify bearings
such that a line may fall under one of the following quadrants: NE, SE, NW, and
SW.

5. Forward and Back Bearing – Using the quadrantal system any line in the surface
of the earth may be defined by two directions which differ from each other by
exactly 180 degrees. When the bearing of a line is observed in the direction in

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 which the survey progresses, it is referred to as a forward bearing, if the bearing
of the same line is observed in an opposite direction it is called the back bearing.

6. Azimuths – The azimuth of a line is its direction as given by the angle between the
meridian and the line measured in clockwise direction from either the north or
south branch of the meridian.

7. Forward and Back Azimuth

Rule 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater than 180 deg., subtract 180
deg. to obtain the back azimuth.
Rule 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less than 180 deg., add 180 deg.
to determine the back azimuth.

MAGNETIC DECLINATION. The magnetic poles are not points but oval areas
located about 2,000 km away from the actual location of the geographic poles of the
earth. The horizontal angle and direction by which the needle of a compass deflects
from the true meridian at any particular locality is called the magnetic declination.
Deflection of the needle may be eastward or westward of the true meridian. At any
location on the earth’s surface magnetic bearings (or azimuths) may easily be
converted to true bearings (or azimuths) and vice-versa, if the declination is known.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES-
1. Azimuth OA = 141°16’ (SE Quad)
B.A. = 180° - 141°16’= 38°84’
Bearing = S38°84’E

Azimuth OB = 217°23’ (SW Quad)

B.A. = 217°23’ - 180° = 37°23’
Bearing = S37°23’W

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 Az OC = 48°23’ (NE Quad)
B.A. = Az; Bearing = N48°23’E

2. Az AB = 70°42’
Az BA = 250°42’
ABC = 97°18’ Left (CCW)
so Az BC = 250°42’ - 97°18’
= 153°24’
SE Quadrant:
B.A. = 180° - 153°24’
= 26°36’
Bearing = S 26°36’E

3. In an old survey made when the declination was 2°10’ W the magnetic bearing
of the given line was N 35°15’E. The declination in the same locality is now 3°15’E.
What are the true bearing and the present magnetic bearing that would be
used in retracing the line?

Magnetic Bearing (past) N35°15’E

Declination (past) -2°10’
True Bearing= 35°15’-2°10’
True Bearing= N33°05’E
Declination (present)= -3°15’

Therefore, Magnetic Bearing (present)= 33°05’-3°15’= N29°50’E

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.