DERIVATION AND WORD FORMATION

1. DERIVED WORDS

Prefixes and suffixes are grammatical affixes (particles) that we add to a word stem
to change its meaning and/or its grammatical function. Prefixes are affixed before
and suffixes after the main part of a word.
Prefixes are particles we add before of a word to make a new word with a different
meaning. Prefixes can create a new word opposite in meaning to the word stem.
They can also make a word negative or express relations of time, place or manner.
Here are some examples:

Word Stem Prefixed Word Type of meaning

Complete In-complete Opposite

Existent Non-existent Negation/Opposite

History Pre-history Time

Cab Mini-cab Size

Planetary Inter-planetary Location

Channel multi-channel Number

LIST OF THE MOST COMMON PREFIXES

PREFIX MEANING EXAMPLES

anti- against/opposed to anti-government, anti-racist,
anti-war

auto- self autobiography, automobile

de- reverse or change de-classify, decontaminate,

demotivate

dis- reverse or remove disagree, displeasure,

disqualify
 down- reduce or lower downgrade, downhearted

extra- beyond extraordinary, extraterrestrial

hyper- extreme hyperactive, hypertension

il-, im-, in-, ir- not illegal, impossible, insecure,

irregular

inter- between interactive, international

mega- very big, important megabyte, mega-deal, megaton

mid- middle midday, midnight, mid-October

mis- incorrectly, badly misaligned, mislead, misspelt

non- not non-payment, non-smoking

over- too much overcook, overcharge, overrate

out- go beyond outdo, out-perform, outrun

post- after post-election, post-war

pre- before prehistoric, pre-war

pro- in favour of pro-communist, pro-democracy

re- again reconsider, redo, rewrite

semi- half semicircle, semi-retired

sub- under, below submarine, sub-Saharan

super- above, beyond super-hero, supermodel

tele- at a distance television, telepathic

trans- across transatlantic, transfer

ultra- extremely ultra-compact, ultrasound

un- remove, reverse, not undo, unpack, unhappy

under- less than, beneath undercook, underestimate

up- make or move higher upgrade, uphill

Suffixes are particles we add after a word stem to create a new word with a different
grammatical function. For example:

Word Stem Suffix New Word/Gram. Function

Manage -ment Management/Noun

Logical -ly Logically/Adverb

Use -ful Useful/Adjective

COMMON SUFFIXES
Noun suffixes

Suffix Examples of nouns

-age baggage, village, postage

-al arrival, burial, deferral

-ance/-ence reliance, defence, insistence

-dom boredom, freedom, kingdom

-ee employee, payee, trainee

-er/-or driver, writer, director

-hood brotherhood, childhood, neighbourhood

-ism capitalism, Marxism, socialism (philosophies)

-ist capitalist, Marxist, socialist (followers of

philosophies)

-ity/-ty brutality, equality, cruelty

-ment amazement, disappointment, parliament

-ness happiness, kindness, usefulness

 -ry entry, ministry, robbery

-ship friendship, membership, workmanship

-sion/-tion/-xion expression, population, complexion

Adjective suffixes

Suffix Examples of adjectives

-able/-ible drinkable, portable, flexible

-al brutal, formal, postal

-en broken, golden, wooden

-ese Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese

-ful forgetful, helpful, useful

-i Iraqi, Pakistani, Yemeni

-ic classic, Islamic, poetic

-ish British, childish, Spanish

-ive active, passive, productive

-ian Canadian, Malaysian, Peruvian

-less homeless, hopeless, useless

-ly daily, monthly, yearly

-ous cautious, famous, nervous

-y cloudy, rainy, windy

Verb Suffixes

Suffix Examples of verbs

 -ate complicate, dominate, irritate

-en harden, soften, shorten

-ify beautify, clarify, identify

-ise/-ize economise, realise, industrialize (-ise is most

common in British English; -ize is most
common in American English)

Adverb Suffixes

Suffix Examples of adverbs

-ly calmly, easily, quickly

-ward(s) downwards, homeward(s), upwards

-wise anti-clockwise, clockwise, edgewise

PRACTICE:

As early as the 18th century, doctors noticed that workers whose jobs required
them to maintain certain body positions for long periods of time developed
musculoskeletal problems. In the last 20 years, research has clearly established
the connection between certain job tasks and repetitive stress injuries, or RSI’s.

Two elements are at work here: “static work” and “force.” “Static work” refers to the
musculoskeletal effort required to hold a certain position, even a comfortable one.
For example, when we sit and work at computers, keeping our head and torso
upright requires either small or great amounts of static work depending upon the
efficiency of the body positions we choose. “Force” refers to the amount of tension
our muscles generate. For example, tilting your head forward or backward from a
neutral, vertical position quadruples the amount of force acting on your lower neck
vertebra. This increase of force is due to the increase in muscular tension
necessary to support your head in a tilted position.

The term “ergonomics” is derived from two Greek words: “erg,” meaning work and
“nomoi,” meaning natural laws. Ergonomists study human capabilities in
relationship to work demands. In recent years, ergonomists have attempted to
define postures which minimize unnecessary static work and reduce the forces
acting on the body. All of us could significantly reduce our risk of injury if we could
adhere to the following ergonomic principles:

1. All work activities should permit the worker to adopt several different, but
equally healthy and safe postures

2. Where muscular force has to be exerted it should be done by the largest

appropriate muscle groups available.

3. Work activities should be performed with the joints at about mid-point of

their range of movement. This applies particularly to the head, trunk, and
upper limbs. (Cortlett, 1983)

Here, however, we arrive at a problem: In order to put these recommendations into

practice, a person would have to be a skilled observer of his or her own joint and
muscle functioning and would have to be able to change his or her posture to a
healthier one at will. No one develops this sort of highly refined sensory awareness
without special training. Therefore, in order to derive the benefits of ergonomic
research, we must learn how to observe our bodies in a new way.

2. -ING SUFFIX

Words ending in -ing can be gerunds, verbal nouns, or present participles.

Distinguishing between these and using them correctly is not always easy – until
you understand these three simple rules:

1. The gerund is a verb which is used as if it were a noun. Since it is a verb, it can
not be qualified by an adjective, nor preceded by an article, but it can be
modified by an adverb and take a complement, for example:
a. Seeing is believing.
b. Living in New York is exciting but rather expensive.
2. A verbal noun is a noun formed from a verb; some of these end in -ing. It can
take a determiner, and be qualified by adjectives, for example:
a. The book was easy reading.
b. He managed to make a good living.
3. A participle is an adjective qualifying a noun or a pronoun, for example:
a. This is an interesting book.
b. The winning team will go through the finals.

A participle it is also used to form the progressive forms of verb tenses:

a. I'm taking my brother to the station tonight.

b. The man was phoning his friend, when the lights went out.

READING: WHAT IS EXERGY?

Exergy is a concept in the thermodynamics field of physics that has come to

replace entropy as a more accurate representation of what happens to energy
when it is used in an open system, such as in industrial or biological processes on
Earth. Simply stated, exergy represents the amount of energy present in a system
that is available for useful work. As the system performs its function, exergy is used
in the process and can never be recovered.

In this sense, the use of exergy contributes to the overall entropy of the universe
itself. This is because entropy represents a trend towards a maximum distribution
of energy to the point where it is no longer possible for change to take place, which
is more succinctly referred to as heat death. The concept of heat death represents
a period in the far future for the entire universe, which is considered a closed
system where outside energy never enters. Ultimately, energy in the fundamental
form of heat is projected to be equally distributed throughout space, creating an
entirely homogenous environment where life itself would be impossible. An
analysis of exergy energy is, therefore, a method of taking the natural, widespread
process of entropy and looking at it on a smaller, local scale for machines or any
ordered process or creature that consumes energy to function or live in a higher
state of order.

Measuring chemical exergy can be important as it is a way to represent the

consumption of natural resources and the inevitable loss of a part of the mass of
these resources on Earth as they are converted to heat, which is lost to space. An
automobile engine is a good example of a system that consumes exergy to work.
As the energy in the fuel that the engine burns is converted to heat and pressure in
the engine, this energy is vented to the outside environment in waste heat and
mechanical motion, which eventually is carried into space and is no longer
recoverable for useful work.

Exergy in this way complies with the second law of thermodynamics, which states
that different energy levels between systems or bodies have a tendency to
equalize over time. The first law of thermodynamics is also consistent with the
principle, where it states that matter can neither be created or destroyed. Since
exergy analysis is a method of describing the available energy in a system that can
perform work, it does not claim that energy has been destroyed, but instead merely
that it has reached a state where the system can no longer make use of it.

Calculating the exergy development for a system can be done with a variety of
mathematical formulas. They are dependent on to what use energy is put in the
system, whether to produce exergy heat, pressure, sound, light, or other forms of
useful energy-based work. One formula used in an attempt to represent all factors
is:

Ε = U – Ueq + po(V -Veq) – Τo(S – Seq) - Σμo(ni – nieq)i.

In the formula, U, V, S, and ni all represent factors within an ordered system like a
machine or life form that include its internal energy level, mass by volume, and
inherent entropy. Its size as measured by its molecular weight. The values
represented by po, To, and uo are placeholders for the external environment,
including pressure, temperature, and chemical interactions. The value of eq stands
for thermodynamic equilibrium, which all systems trend towards with their
surrounding environment.
While the increase in exergy and entropy are both considered to be an ultimate
example of how any increased order brought to matter will eventually be undone,
such a concept is based on the idea that the universe is a closed system. Like a
clock that is gradually winding down, all ordered processes are considered to be
headed for a state of maximum entropy and randomness. If the universe, however,
is an open system where outside energy enters as continually occurs on Earth by
the energy of the Sun, then increasing order can be prolonged indefinitely. Both
physics theories that postulate the presence of a multiverse of multiple parallel,
interacting universes, or that of a higher power overseeing the cosmos suggest the
universe could be an open system where energy enters from outside and exergy is
replenished.