MEIOSIS

It is the reduction cell division where the new daughter cells have
one set of chromosomes only (half the original number) and are
genetically dissimilar to parent cell.

Thus, meiosis is used to produce gametes/sex cells in sexual

reproduction.

The cell goes through similar stages and uses similar strategies to
organize and separate chromosomes. In meiosis, however, the
cell has a more complex task. It still needs to separate sister
chromatids (the two halves of a duplicated chromosome), as in
mitosis. But it must also separate homologous chromosomes,
the similar but non-identical chromosome pairs an organism
receives from its two parents.

Meiosis is a two-step division process. Homologues pairs

separate during a first round of cell division, called meiosis I.
Sister chromatids separate during a second round,
called meiosis II.

Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell
can produce four gametes (eggs or sperm). In each round of
division, cells go through four stages: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.
 MEIOSIS I
Before entering meiosis I, a cell must first go through
interphase. As in mitosis, the cell grows during G1 phase, copies
all of its chromosomes during S phase, and prepares for division
during G2 phase.

During prophase I, differences from mitosis begin to appear. As

in mitosis, the chromosomes begin to condense, but in meiosis I,
they also pair up. Each chromosome carefully aligns with its
homologue partner so that the two match up at corresponding
positions along their full length.

For instance, in the image below, the letters A, B, and C represent

genes found at particular spots on the chromosome, with capital
and lowercase letters for different forms, or alleles, of each gene.
The DNA is broken at the same spot on each homologue—here,
between genes B and C—and reconnected in a criss-cross
pattern so that the homologues exchange part of their DNA.
This process, in which homologous chromosomes trade parts, is
called crossing over. It's helped along by a protein structure
called the synaptonemal complex that holds the homologues
together. The chromosomes would actually be positioned one on
top of the other—as in the image below—throughout crossing
over; they're only shown side-by-side in the image above so that
it's easier to see the exchange of genetic material.

After crossing over, the spindle begins to capture chromosomes

and move them towards the centre of the cell (metaphase plate).
This may seem familiar from mitosis, but there is a twist. Each
chromosome attaches to microtubules from just one pole of the
spindle, and the two homologues of a pair bind to microtubules
from opposite poles. So, during metaphase I, homologue pairs—
not individual chromosomes—line up at the metaphase plate for
separation.
 THE PHASES OF MEIOSIS I:
 Prophase I: The starting cell is diploid, 2n = 4. Homologous
chromosomes pair up and exchange fragments in the process of
crossing over.

 Metaphase I: Homologue pairs line up at the metaphase plate.

 Anaphase I: Homologues separate to opposite ends of the cell.

Sister chromatids stay together.

 Telophase I: Newly forming cells are haploid, n = 2. Each

chromosome still has two sister chromatids, but the chromatids of
each chromosome are no longer identical to each other.
 When the homologous pairs line up at the metaphase plate, the

orientation of each pair is random. For instance, in the diagram above,

the pink version of the big chromosome and the purple version of the

little chromosome happen to be positioned towards the same pole and go

into the same cell. But the orientation could have equally well been

flipped, so that both purple chromosomes went into the cell together.

This allows for the formation of gametes with different sets of

homologues.

In anaphase I, the homologues are pulled apart and move apart to

opposite ends of the cell. The sister chromatids of each chromosome,

however, remain attached to one another and don't come apart.

Finally, in telophase I, the chromosomes arrive at opposite poles of the

cell. In some organisms, the nuclear membrane re-forms and the

chromosomes decondense, although in others, this step is skipped—since

cells will soon go through another round of division, meiosis II.

Cytokinesis usually occurs at the same time as telophase I,

forming two haploid daughter cells.

 MEIOSIS II
Cells move from meiosis I to meiosis II without copying their
DNA. Meiosis II is a shorter and simpler process than meiosis I,
and meiosis II is technically “mitosis for haploid cells."

The cells that enter meiosis II are the ones made in meiosis I.
These cells are haploid—have just one chromosome from each
homologue pair—but their chromosomes still consist of two sister
chromatids. In meiosis II, the sister chromatids separate, making
haploid cells with non-duplicated chromosomes.
 PHASES OF MEIOSIS II:
 Prophase II: Starting cells are the haploid cells made in meiosis I.
Chromosomes condense.

 Metaphase II: Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.

 Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate to opposite ends of the cell.

 Telophase II: Newly forming gametes are haploid, and each

chromosome now has just one chromatid.

 Further explanation:

During prophase II, chromosomes condense and the nuclear

envelope breaks down, if needed. The centrosomes move apart, the
spindle forms between them, and the spindle microtubules begin to
capture chromosomes.

The two sister chromatids of each chromosome are captured by

microtubules from opposite spindle poles.

In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up individually along the

metaphase plate.

In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate and are pulled towards
opposite poles of the cell.

In telophase II, nuclear membranes form around each set of

chromosomes, and the chromosomes decondense. Cytokinesis splits
the chromosome sets into new cells, forming the final products of
meiosis: four haploid cells in which each chromosome has just one
chromatid. In humans, the products of meiosis are sperm or egg cells.
 IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

 What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis

(points required to answer questions accordingly)?

1) In meiosis, there are two divisions; while in mitosis, only one

division.
2) In meiosis, four daughter cells are produced. In mitosis, only two.
3) In meiosis, the number of chromosomes is halved. In mitosis, the
daughter cells produced have the same number of chromosomes.
4) In meiosis, the cells produced are haploid. In mitosis, the cells
produced stay the same - stay diploid.

 Why is meiosis used to produce gametes/sex cells?

1) It halves the number of chromosomes, so; the number of

chromosomes stays the same each generation and does not
double.
2) Haploid Nuclei produced
3) It gives rise to genetic variation.
4) Gametes produced have different alleles: through crossing over
and independent assortment.
 Crossing Over

Each parent cell has pairs of homologous chromosomes, one

homologue from the father and one from the mother. In meiosis, the
maternal and paternal chromosomes can be shuffled into the daughter
cells in many different combinations (in humans there are 223 possible
combinations).

This ensures genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms.

Further genetic variation comes from crossing over, which may occur
during prophase I of meiosis.
In prophase I of meiosis:

 The replicated homologous pair of chromosomes comes

together in the process called synapsis
 Sections of the chromosomes are exchanged (by breaking
sections and having them recombine). This is done by multi-
enzyme complexes.

After crossing over, the resultant chromosomes are neither

entirely maternal nor entirely paternal, but contain genes from
both parents. Synapsis and crossing over occur only in
meiosis.

Meiosis gives rise to genetic variation, because of:

1. Independent/Random Assortment
The parental chromosomes are randomly distributed into the
gametes.

2. Crossing over/ Recombination

Multi-enzyme complexes are responsible for this process
involving crossing over between paternal and maternal
chromosomes. The point where chromatids/sections break is
called chiasmata.
Mutation may also give rise to genetic variation if it occurs.

All of the processes above produce new combinations of

new alleles, giving rise to genetic variation.

 Haploid Nucleus: A nucleus that contains half the number of

chromosomes compared to somatic/body cells. It contains one
 chromosome from each homologous pair and is the type of
nucleus found in gametes.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Sexual Reproduction: is the process involving the fusion of

haploid nuclei of two gametes to form a diploid zygote and the
production of genetically dissimilar offspring (an offspring that
is genetically different from the parents).

 Fertilisation: the fusion of two haploid nuclei of gametes to

form a diploid zygote.
 Advantages of Sexual Disadvantages of Sexual
Reproduction Reproduction
 Variation in offspring  2 parents needed
 More adaptation to  Long time for next generation
the environment to develop
 New varieties  Wastage of energy and
created gametes (pollen or sperm or
eggs…)
 Less susceptible to  May need a pollinator for

genetic diseases plants

 More evolution  Negative Variation could result
in weaker species

Mammalian Gametes

The mammalian gametes are sperm (male) and egg (females).

They show various adaptations to facilitate fertilisation.
 Fertilisation: the fusion of two haploid nuclei of gametes to
form a diploid zygote.

 Spermatogenesis: the formation of spermatozoa.

 Oogenesis: the formation of an ova.

 Egg cell:
o Adaptations of Egg Cells:

 Haploid / 23 chromosomes / half set of chromosomes in

nucleus so that diploid zygote with 46 chromosomes formed
at fertilisation
 Lipid droplets / food store to supply energy / nutrients for
division
 Large cell size / surface area to have an increased chance of
fertilisation
 Cortical granules to prevent more sperm entry / polyspermy
 Release of a chemical to attract sperm / chemotaxis
 Membrane with ‘sperm receptors’ on surface to allow sperm
to bind
 A lot of mRNA present to allow early translation of
transcription factors

 Sperm Cells:

Sperm cells are also called Spermatozoa; they are haploid cells
containing 23 chromosomes. Their production starts at puberty.

The Structure of Sperm Cells:

Each sperm cell has a haploid nucleus and it has a tail for motility which
propels through the cervix, uterus and fallopian tubes towards the egg.
The ATP is generated by highly specialised mitochondria in the anterior
part of the sperm.

In the head of the sperm, there are specialised secretory vesicles called
Acrosomal Vesicles. These vesicles contain hydrolytic enzymes called
acrosomes that help the sperm cell penetrate the egg's outer coat.

o Adaptations of Sperm Cells:

 Hydrodynamic/streamlined shape providing reduced

resistance
 Acrosome vesicle containing enzymes/acrosin involved in
digestion / break down of the zona pellucida / jelly layer
 Haploid nucleus allows restoration of diploid / full
complement / 46 chromosomes at fertilisation
 Mitochondria in large number to supply ATP / energy for
movement
 Flagellum present for propulsion / swimming / motility
 Markers / receptors in cell surface membrane to bind to egg
cell surface membrane / detect chemicals released by ovum
 Microtubules found in tail to produce whip-like movements of
the tail which keep the mature sperm in suspension in semen
and may help it 'swim' towards the egg.
 Nucleus containing highly condensed haploid chromosomes.
The condensed state reduces amount of energy needed to
transport it.
  Comparing male and female gametes:

Feature Sperm Cell Egg Cell

Size Small Larger than Sperm
Movement Tail lashes from one Doesn't move by itself - Cilia
side to other and Peristalsis in oviduct
move it
Number Millions are Once a month (From puberty
Produced constantly produced to Menopause)

 Structural Differences Between Egg Cells and Sperm Cells:

 Sperms have flagella

 Sperms have acrosomes
 Egg Cell has food/energy storage that is different from
energy story type in sperm
  Egg Cell has more cytoplasm
 Sperm has a streamlined shape
 Egg Cells have fewer mitochondria
 Egg Cell has a jelly layer/Zona Pellucida
 Egg Cells have Cortical Granules
 Egg Cell has larger surface area, thus more cell membrane

FERTILISATION IN MAMMALS AND PLANTS

GAMETOGENESIS AND FERTILISATION IN MAMMALS

In males, a diploid Primary Spermatocyte divides in meiosis I to

form two Secondary Spermatocyte (which are haploid). Each of
these then divides in meiosis II, forming four haploid Spermatids
which mature into spermatozoa.

Primary oocytes (diploid) are formed prenatally and remain

suspended in prophase of meiosis I (each chromosome in
condensed state, formed from two chromatids) for years until the
onset of puberty.

At the time of ovulation; one Primary Oocyte will complete

meiosis one resulting in two cells which are both haploid.
Even though the DNA content of both new cells is equal (both
haploid); but the cytoplasm and cell contents do not divide
equally. One cell gets the majority of the cytoplasm, is larger, and
is more complete in terms of structure and organelles - it is known
as the Secondary Oocyte and is the cell that goes on to be
fertilised.

The other cell produced is much smaller and is known as the

primary Polar Body. It is insignificant in fertilisation and either
dies immediately or continues through meiosis II to give two polar
bodies that will also die. It only allows the production of a haploid
cell while maintaining most the cytoplasm content.
After ovulation, the Secondary Oocyte continues to metaphase
of meiosis II. Meiosis II is completed only if fertilization occurs,
resulting in a fertilized mature ovum and the second polar body
(which also dies).
  Steps for fertilisation:

1. Acrosome reaction

Sperm cells will meet the Secondary Oocyte. Acrosomes in

sperm will release hydrolysing enzymes when the sperm head
meets the jelly outer layer of Secondary oocyte (Zona
Pellucida).
Enzymes will digest a channel through this jelly layer for
sperm to burrow (dig a hole) through cell surface and
membrane.

How are enzymes released from acrosomes?

 Stimulus: receptors, contact with zona pellucida,
presence of chemicals
 Acrosome swells
 Vesicle / acrosome fuses with sperm cell surface
membrane
 Enzymes are released by exocytosis
2. Membranes fuse

Cell membrane surface of sperm fuses with the cell

membrane of oocyte; enabling haploid nucleus from sperm to
enter cytoplasm of oocyte.

3. Egg cell Response/ Cortical Reaction

Special secretory vesicles called the cortical granules will

move towards the cell membrane and fuse with it.
They release their contents by exocytosis (enzymes and
chemicals).
This will cause changes in surface layers of oocyte that stop
other sperm from entering it (maintain chromosome number
for forming zygote). They prevent Polyspermy. The new
membrane formed is the Fertilisation Membrane.

4. Meiosis Restarted

The presence of the sperm nucleus in the cytoplasm of the

oocyte causes the second meiosis division to occur. This
division will happen rapidly and will produce a haploid ovum
(egg cell that has completed meiosis) and a polar body that
like all the others will die.
This provides a haploid egg nucleus to fuse with a haploid
sperm nucleus.

5. Fertilisation
 Chromosomes from the haploid sperm nucleus and from the
haploid egg nucleus combine to form a diploid zygote.

FERTILISATION INCREASES GENETIC VARIATION.

 Functions of Fertilisations:
 To produce a zygote
 To produce original / full complement of DNA / chromosomes
/ genetic material / diploid / 2n number
 To allow mixing of genes / genetic material / genetic
variation

GAMETOGENESIS IN PLANTS

Gametogenesis also occurs in plants to produce pollen grains

and egg cells.

Plants have two phases/generations in their lives which they

can be classified into:

 Sporophyte: this generation is diploid and produces spores

by meiosis.
 Gametophyte: this generation results from meiosis and gives
rise to gametes by mitosis.

In flowering plants; both phases are observed at once. The

main body of the plant is the diploid sporophyte while the
haploid gametophytes are reduced to parts of the contents of
the anther and the ovary. They are produced by meiosis from
spore mother cells.

On the anthers of flowering plants, pollen sacs are carried (4

per anther). Each Pollen Sac contains a large number of
Microspore Mother Cells which are diploid and divide by
meiosis. They produce Microspores which are haploid and
represent the gametophyte generation.
Microspores will divide by mitosis to produce the actual
gametes (pollen/male gametes). A special kind of mitosis will
occur; one cell will envelope the other to form one pollen grain
containing two haploid mitoses. Technically, mitosis of the
haploid nucleus will occur without cytokinesis or any sort of
division.

The haploid nuclei are known as a Tube nucleus and a

Generative Nucleus.

The Tube Nucleus produces a pollen tube which will

penetrate through the stigma, style, and ovary down into the
ovule.

The Generative Nucleus is the one that fuses with the nucleus
of the ovule to form a diploid zygote.

Pollen grains have a very thick outer cell wall - the exine is
the outermost layer.
In the ovary of the plants, meiosis will occur. This will cause the
formation of ova (egg cells) in chambers known as ovules.
Ovules are attached to the wall of the ovary by a tissue known as
the placenta; a complex structure of integuments (coverings)
forms around tissue known as the nucleolus. In the centre, the
embryo sac forms the gametophyte generations.
Megaspore Mother Cells are diploid and divide by meiosis to
give haploid Megaspore Cells. One mother gives rise to 4
Megaspore Cells. Three degenerate and only one continues to
grow and develop.

The megaspore undergoes three mitotic divisions resulting in

an embryo sac containing an egg cell (the mega gamete), two
polar bodies and many other small cells which some degenerate.
  Details:
The lone remaining megaspore undergoes repeated mitotic divisions to
produce eight haploid nuclei that are enclosed within a seven-celled
embryo sac. Within the embryo sac, the eight nuclei are arranged in
precise positions. One nucleus is located NEAR THE OPENING OF THE
EMBRYO SAC IN THE EGG CELL. Two are located IN A SINGLE CELL IN THE
MIDDLE OF THE EMBRYO SAC AND ARE CALLED POLAR NUCLEI; two
nuclei are CONTAINED IN CELLS CALLED SYNERGIDS THAT FLANK THE
EGG CELL; and the other three nuclei reside in cells called the
antipodals, LOCATED AT THE END OF THE SAC, OPPOSITE THE EGG CELL.

FERTILISATION IN PLANTS
After pollen is deposited on the stigma, it must germinate and
grow through the style to reach the ovule (this occurs if they
"recognise" each other as being from the same species only).
Enzymes are secreted and those digest stigma, style -
towards the ovary; forming a pathway. Enzymes by digesting
female parts of flowers break them down into nutrients like
amino acids that could be used in the pollen tube elongation.
The microspores, or the pollen, contain two nuclei: the pollen tube
nucleus and the generative nucleus. The pollen tube nucleus
grows into a pollen tube through which the generative nuclei
travel through.
After pollination, the generative nucleus will undergo mitosis to
form two generative nuclei.

The germination of the pollen tube requires water, oxygen, and

certain chemical signals.
As it travels through the style to reach the embryo sac, the pollen
tube's growth is supported by the tissues of the style. During this
process, if the generative cell has not already split into two cells, it
now divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen tube is guided by
the chemicals secreted by the synergids (helper cell) present in
the embryo sac.

Eventually, the pollen tube enters the ovule sac through the
micropyle. The growth of the pollen tube is very fast due to the
rapid elongation of the cell.

o Once the pollen tube enters the micropyle. Of the two sperm
cells:
 One male nucleus (product of division of generative nucleus)
fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote
  The other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei (refer to
them as nuclei not bodies), forming a triploid cell (Triploid
Primary Nucleus) that develops into the endosperm.
Together, these two fertilization events in angiosperms are
known as double fertilization.
After fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter. The
fertilized ovule forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the
ovary become the fruit, usually enveloping the seed.

o Functions of Pollen tube:

 Forms a pathway/ grows down through the style

 Grows towards the ovary / ovule / micropyle / egg cell
  It is the product of digestive enzymes digging through style
 Enzymes break down protein / pectin / middle lamella
through hydrolysis. This allows Pollen tube to travel/move
easily through style with low resistance.
 Transports generative nucleus
 Fuses with embryo sac (membrane) / tip breaks down when
it enters the micropyle / allows male nuclei to enter embryo
sac

Enzymes digesting style and stigma produce substances like

nutrients that could be used to stimulate pollen tube growth.
Fertilisation will produce a diploid zygote (with the full number of
chromosomes), this allows a proper organism to be formed and
develop. It also ensures that future organism show genetic
variation (which is done through meiosis and having different
parents).

In conclusion:
 Generative nucleus divides to form two male gametes by mitosis
 Pollen tube fuses with embryo sac
 This is known as double fertilisation
 One male gamete / nucleus fuses with egg cell nucleus to produce a
diploid zygote
 Other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to produce triploid
endosperm