Net Journal of Agricultural Science

Vol. 8(2), pp. 25-32, April 2020

DOI: 10.30918/NJAS.82.20.015
ISSN: 2315-9766
Review

How agro-biodiversity conservation can rebuild

CARICOM small-farming systems
Allan N. Williams1
Executive Director, ACT Consulting Associates (ACA) Ltd, Trinidad & Tobago.
Accepted 16 March, 2020

ABSTRACT

There are two perspectives on climate change that govern our response in terms of the sustainability of
small-scale food production. The familiar perspective focuses on the expectation of deteriorating
environmental conditions. The second perspective, which sees climate change also as a global geographic
shift in climate occurrences, broadens this expectation to concerns of new geographic coverage, biological
connectivity, resilience, resource management, local area governance and equity in benefit from
adaptation/mitigation. A more comprehensive scope of the climate change challenges requires sustainable
agriculture with more practical policy actions and greater applicability of knowledge of agro-ecology. Agro-
biodiversity Conservation presents an investment strategy to increase the volume of options available to the
small-farming community in CARICOM Member States. A policy of on-farm conservation of agro-biodiversity
holds the key to building resilience in CARICOM Agriculture. This approach will not only reinforce the
perception that farmers are the most important custodians of climate-change adaptation, but also that their
collective local knowledge can become an irreplaceable element in managing the inter-links in our farming
system.

Keywords: Climate change, CARICOM small farms, agro-biodiversity, farming options.

E-mail: [email protected].
1
This Article is based on a Lecture Series delivered by the Author to agricultural support communities in Trinidad & Tobago, St. Kitts
and Belize in 2011 and sponsored by CARDI/IICA/CTA.

INTRODUCTION

There has always been a tension in small-scale farming natural and the social science perspectives of a viable
between utilizing highly specialized chemical inputs which framework against agricultural risks in an uncertain
represent the bane of commercial agriculture and a future.
dependence on traditional farming practices. Both of The narrow definition of agrobiodiversity emphasizes
these practices are coming under pressure with the variety and variability of living organisms that contribute
expected impact of climate change on agricultural to food and agriculture in the broadest sense and the
production in the islands of the Caribbean Community knowledge associated with such judicious use. The
(CARICOM)1. Agrobiodiversity can provide all broader definition extends this vision to the full diversity
stakeholders with a coping strategy that bridges the of organisms living in the agricultural landscapes,
including soil microbes and fauna, weeds, herbivores,
1
The Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) consists of 20 and carnivores. Employing all of these factors should
countries in the Caribbean. The 15 full-fledged member states are: Antigua and result in colonizing the agroecosystem through local
Barbuda; Bahamas; Barbados; Belize; Dominica; Grenada; Guyana; Haiti; management and environment-friendly farming practices.
Jamaica; Montserrat; St. Lucia; St. Kits and Nevis; St. Vincent and the To promote agrobiodiversity within the broader definition,
Grenadines; Suriname; Trinidad & Tobago. The 5 Associate Members are
Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, and Turks and however, implies making the small-farm a coherent unit
Caicos Islands. of agricultural activity, spatially and functionally. That will
 Net J Agric Sci 26

include the living and nonliving components in a of increasing ecological change and stress in Earth's
reinforcing cycle of farm interactions. biosphere, with many plant and animal species facing
There are challenges in this approach that must be increasing competition for survival. It is not uncommon to
overcome. The social values of agrobiodiversity differ see a response which appears more like a natural
within farming cultures and more importantly market reaction to an inevitable deteriorating situation.
signals and subsidy policies do not always properly The fact is that climate change can be measured in a
monetize these values. For example, the agro-chemical variety of ways, reflecting distinct dimensions of change
technology which has some attraction for small farmers, with unequal spatial patterns across the world (Garcia et
has the appeal of “keeping it simple” because it is better al., 2014). There is the perspective which, while not
and easier to manage. This supports the denying the grave potential of such events unfolding,
commercialization of the farming system with more takes its cue instead from the behavior of other species in
dependence on off-farm inputs and a reduction in the nature, such as birds, butterflies, mammals. This
potential of recycling processes. This has more credibility perspective comes from the review of studies which have
for farming practices that remain as appendages to investigated the divergent responses to climate change in
monocultural practices, such as in the production of precipitating geographic shifts in tree-born species in 86
banana and sugar for exports and foreign exchange tree species/groups across the eastern United States
earnings, or even for biofuels as source for energy spanning the last three decades (Fei et al., 2017). The
substitution. data showed that more tree species have experienced a
As a policy goal, agrobiodiversity has the potential to westward shift (73%) than a poleward shift (62%) in their
force a paradigm shift in the way research and support abundance. Such an incidence could lead to changes in
systems for small-farms are pursued. Formal scientific composition of forest ecosystems, while putting the
investigations should continue to look at how current on- resilience and sustainability of various forest ecosystems
farm practices can be upgraded for greater yields, pest in question. We humans, on the other hand, tend to stay
resistance and adaptation to stress conditions within the in place because of social and economic constraints.
context of traditional practices. This strategy, however, However, would this perspective give us a different
will also need to accommodate small-farmers opting for response for Caribbean Small-Scale Agriculture in an age
some traditional methods because they meet multiple of rapid climate-change? Are some species in nature
needs in addition to the marketability option, or because forecasting that their habitats are failing; or are they long-
they perform better under low levels of external outputs. term migrants directly on the lookout for new and more
suitable locations as they follow a geographic shift in the
climate they have known?
Climate-change impact The expression of climate-change as a representation
of a “geographic shift in climate occurrences” reflects
Agriculture is the second most important source of much more than the simple migration of species. There
employment and foreign exchange earnings in the has also been some scientific explanation for this
CARICOM islands. In spite of the fact that most of these phenomenon. A study out of Denmark, has shown that
islands import food, local production is still critical to slight variations in Earth's orbit have historically led to
meeting subsistence needs and ensuring the food changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching
security of a significant proportion of the local population. the Earth and as a consequence, a change in local
The impacts of climate change on the agricultural sector, climate (Blosser, 2015). This geographic redistribution
therefore, are amplified due to the limited adaptive perspective of climate-change has two perceivable
capacity of the small farming systems and the occupation affects. The first is a degree of permanence in the very
of low-lying coastal areas. Indeed, the research of the long-term geographical and seasonal re-distribution of
Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCC, climate events. The second is the short-term perceptible
2009) strongly cautions that the expected impact of movement of some species to more accommodating
climate change can threaten the very existence of the habitats. All of this tends to pull us out of the box that
CARICOM countries. defines climate-change only as an intensification of
The case for Climate Change impact on CARICOM current adverse conditions that provoke an involuntary
Agriculture is usually framed within the expectations of a reaction.
continuous flow of adverse events such as global This perspective raises as many new issues as it does
warming, rising sea-levels and more severe tropical new visions. One of the least apparent issues is that the
storms. This perspective sees climate change purely in impact of a geographic re-distribution of climate
terms of its projected short and long-term effects. While conditions can come upon us faster than our responses
such knowledge heightens an awareness of what to anticipate. A study in 2013 indicated that the melting ice
expect, it still begs the question as to whether we are caps have caused the geographic North Pole to drift
building policy options on projections of a limited zero- slowly southward (Oskin, 2013). However, in terms of the
sum game. This model paints a portrait of a linear trend pace of change, it is also a fact that the polar ice caps
 Williams 27

have melted faster in last 20 years than in the last 10,000 response is to monitor such changes and to retain the
years. Such warming, as has already occurred, is capacity to innovate (Shaw et al., 2011). This is in stark
affecting the biological timing (phenology) and contrast to the technological response which presumes
geographic range of plant and animal communities. that a “Roundup-Ready”2 approach can eliminate most
Relationships such as predator-prey interactions are unwanted species whenever and wherever they may
affected by these shifts, primarily when such changes do surface. Herein lies a potential re-direct to agricultural
not occur evenly among species (University of Michigan, research, in pursuing the Conservation of Agro-
2019). Biodiversity as a policy strategy to stabilize the small-
The geographic shift in climate occurrences can also farming capacity.
lead us into a vast array of complex causations. A basic tenet of Agro-Biodiversity is its accommodation
However, within it, we can find a validity for the of variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-
methodology of forecasting by analogy. If the climate we organisms within an integrated farming system. It points
are beginning to experience has shifted from somewhere us towards establishing an agriculture and food
else, then we can learn a lot from the experiences in production system that includes crops, livestock, forestry
locations that have already witnessed some of these and fisheries. It weaves a coherence within the diversity
phenomena. More importantly, the forecasting by analogy of non-harvested species that support crop production
approach provides a platform for a structured approach to (soil micro-organisms, predators, pollinators), as well as
a sound response in agriculture. It allows us to include those in the broader environment that support agro-
strategies and tactics to increase the volume of options ecosystems i.e., agricultural, pastoral, forest and aquatic
available to our farming community. In essence, it is the systems (World Bank, 2008).
scientific interpretation of the institutional realignment that In attempting to recreate the cultural practices in small-
the former President of Guyana sought from the farm production, Agro-Biodiversity Conservation provides
Caribbean’s agricultural research and support facilities, farmer extension services with the need to integrate
when he implored them to move… “away from traditional value propositions in four areas of support to local
structures and organisational forms towards smart public- farmers and the local farm system:
public, private-private and public-private sector
partnerships and alliances” (Jadeo, 2007). a) Natural Resource Management: Small farmers have
at their disposal (smart phones, etc.) the capacity to
understand how the genetic diversity in the ecosystem
AGRO-BIODIVERSITY AS STRATEGIC POLICY can provide the basis for new breeding programs,
improved crops species, enhanced agricultural
There appears to be some validity to the claim that the production, and food security, as well as the mitigation of
climate of the Caribbean region is already changing in risks to natural disasters. There is no need to pretend
ways that seem to signal the emergence of a new climate that this is beyond their comprehension;
regime (Taylor, 2017). Such a geographic shift in climate b) Farm Operations: As more attention is given to the
conditions can have adverse consequences for economic viability of small farms, a biologically diverse
Caribbean Agriculture. One of particular concern to farm will offer more lessons for risk management, cost
agriculture is the change in the geographic distribution of avoidance, stability in production and profit maximization.
pathogens. The emergence of pathogens is the outcome This is probably the best opportunity to change the
of dynamic processes involving host availability, potential vision of the next generation of small farmers;
abundance and susceptibility of the target organisms and
of course the suitability of climate conditions. The c) Businesses links: As a business proposition, the
implication of a geographic-shift perspective is expansive. level of agro-biodiversity provides a sound evaluation of
It brings into focus both the intensity of pest/disease the potential risks to others in the supply chain. This is a
problems and the geographic range of their occurrence. It lucrative link for allowing the more innovative farmers to
is also filled with questions of biological connectivity, adapt to changing source costs and to gain a competitive
resource management, local area governance and equity advantage from first-adapter status;
in benefit distribution. Under the perspective of a
geographic-shift in climate occurrences, our farming d) Climate Change Adaptation Policy: On the policy
environment is no longer naturally protected by our island level, for those who wish to support small-farm
status. The sea around us is not a delimiting factor. production, a knowledge about agro-biodiversity is crucial
If plant-pest/disease is a challenge to our agriculture, to understanding which policies can support resilience to
this perspective alerts us to be concerned with the the economic, environmental, and social challenges that
quantitative estimates of the magnitude of such an will accompany a changing climate.
impact. In a study of the pathogen phenomenon, the
authors have argued that at present, the uncertainty in
predictions of change in the geographic distribution of 2
Round-up is the brand name of a weedicide that was considered easy to use
pathogens is so great, that the essential adaptive and effective, but has now been linked to the emergence of cancer in the body.
 Net J Agric Sci 28

POSITIONING SMALL-FARM PRACTICES IN Conventional plant breeding and mass selections

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS however, are areas in which the paradigm of patent rights
and royalties partially breaks down (Figure 1). Here we
It is not uncommon to hear Caribbean agricultural policy can find an absence of strong patent production, trade
advisors speak of an approach to increasing agricultural secrets, plagiaristic breeding and more open competition.
productivity, in terms of a dichotomy based on input use. Mass selection refers to a method of crop improvement in
In high-input agricultural enterprises, productivity gains which individual plants are selected on the basis of
are achievable through increasing use of high-yielding phenotype from a mixed population. These selected
seeds, propelled by chemical fertilizers and protected by seeds are used to grow the next generation. This is a
chemical pesticides. On the other hand, in the low-input common practice among small farmers, especially those
rain-fed agriculture, we tend to focus on the low level of who have accumulated valuable information from years
external inputs as a limiting factor to raise the average of observations in their particular environment. They just
productivity of such farms. This is not a meaningful have limited opportunities for sharing these experiences.
dichotomy because the diversity of crops and The ultimate goal of managing plant genetic resources
diversification of crop management strategies are both is to ensure that the maximum possible genetic diversity
valid working alternatives for both farming systems. Both of a taxon is maintained and available for utilization
of these are options within the armory of cultural (Maxted and Kell, 2003). Conservation can now become
knowledge that farmers can employ with or without the dynamic form of “plant genetic resources
external inputs. We can easily modify this approach by management” being built on natural farmer selection.
considering how Caribbean small-farm practices can More importantly, such a policy will reinforce the
contribute to the role of Plant Genetic Resources for perception of farmers as relevant custodians of agro-
Agriculture (PGRFA) as the building blocks of agricultural biodiversity and their local knowledge as the unique
production. element of agro-biodiversity conservation. Clearly the
The Conservation of this Agro-Biodiversity offers a issues of biodiversity conservation, plant genetic
systematic and comprehensive approach to protecting resource management and building resilience in our
the stock of genes, species, and ecosystems in the global agricultural systems are nested issues that give us the
as well as the local environment. What we need to opportunity of improving agricultural productivity at both
understand is just how climate-change will impact on the farm and the landscape level.
such options as viable methods of maintaining Agro-biodiversity conservation methods are usually
productivity and increasing total output. We need to focused at the macro level of the eco-system, not at the
understand why PGRFA (high yielding inputs) can micro level of the farm as many conservation practices
function best when we create a third mechanism in our take years to demonstrate their worth in trials which can
production culture, namely Facilitation. be readily adopted by farmers. The necessary conclusion
Plant Genetic Resources3 for Agriculture (PGRFA) is that while plant genetic resources are the cornerstones
provide the essential raw materials for helping farmers of increasing small-farm production, the promotion of
respond to climate change. However, there is a structure sustainable resource use needs to be integrated into the
which we need to overcome. It is the “Patents and broader landscape through land management practices
Property Rights” that accompany the scientific research and planning at different scales. We do have some
into such new material. The world of plant breeding and experiences in integrating these two levels. Agro-
plant genetic research is not only a world of investigative biodiversity conservation policies allow us to prioritize
inquiry, but also a world of commercializing such results land uses in what we call “High Nature Value
and rewarding the inventors (patentability). The extent to Environments” (Williams, 2011). The experience of the
which we can control and utilize such innovations really High Nature Value Index (HNVI) as a bio-diversity
depends on what we consider the paradigm fit of its approach, draws our attention to a policy tool that can
property rights (who owns its use). This is important address landscape fragmentation by patches of
because the patent systems, while necessary to agricultural activity, reverse habitat loss, forest fires and a
incentivize research and development, do not readily loss of critical ecosystem services such as soil
support public facilitation in terms of local adaptation and maintenance and water retention.
innovation.
In the fields of facilitation, Transgenics and Molecular
Plant Breeding are the most protected because these are CREATING A PRODUCTIVE MICROCOSM WITHIN
patentable material. They may accommodate upstream SMALL-FARMS
applications limited by broad claims and negotiated
licenses, but they can also block new uses and allow We have used the term “Facilitation” in adapting
supply companies to use patents as bargaining chips. advanced technologies to small-scale farming.
Facilitation can be described as the cultural practices that
3
Plant genetic resources have been defined as the genetic material of plants, will maintain a compatible microcosm within the
which is of value as a resource for present and future generations of people. production cycle. Geo-physical conditions do bring new
 Williams 29

Figure 1. The intellectual property paradigm. Source: Batur and Dedeurwaerdere (2012).

variables into the viability of our farming system that go pattern of production. There is a lot of innovative potential
beyond the productive capability of the soil and the plant to be harnessed in making Caribbean Agriculture
species. In describing the ecology of inter-cropping, attractive to a new generation of farmers by creating
Vandermeer (1989) notes that its major benefit is that it microcosms or “micro-climates” within small land spaces.
provides a system whereby certain species help or allow
other species to grow by modifying the environment in a
way that is favorable to co-occurring species. We need to THE TACTICAL APPROACH: AN OPTIONS-RICH
move beyond the goal of trying to increase the uptake of SMALL-FARMING SYSTEM
external inputs into the arsenal of farm tools. It is within
that extra step that we introduce the concept of a A decade ago, the United Nations conference on Trade
“Cosmos within the smallest farm”, suggesting that its and Development (UNCTAD) warned that the agriculture
composition should represent a mini-universe that is sector has the potential to transcend from being a
orderly, harmonious and diverse. problem to becoming an essential part of the solution to
In the actual process of growing crops, farmers usually climate change. Its report suggested that this can be
take the genetic claims of seed producers for granted. achieved through a “rapid and significant shift from
However, the success factor for most farmers, resides in conventional, industrial, monoculture-based and high-
their tactics for changing the micro-climate on their farms external-input dependent production towards mosaics of
in an effort to modify and maximize the results from the sustainable production systems that also considerably
simple application of the external inputs. improve the productivity of small-scale farmers”
In our aging traditional cultural solution of rain-fed (UNCTAD, 2010). Today, CARICOM Agriculture
agriculture, crop production goes directly into the continues to be viewed as a choice between a techno-
domestic food consumption system. This is the correct scientific model of chemical-based, high import content
orientation, but it is not always protected by the legal and production system and the more traditional cultural
trading regimes that dominate these local systems. system of rain-fed “low-input” production system. The
Solutions of increased irrigation systems, crop rotation, current state of food production in this region suggests
non-chemical crop production all achieve minimal goals that both of these approaches are struggling to meet our
but fail to rise to the challenge of a growing local food expectations of stability in agricultural production output
demand. The feedback from the local seller’s market and efficiency in agricultural resource use.
does not incentivize the aging farming population to In our search for policies and strategies to build
innovate, nor attract new younger farmers into this resilience to climate-change in Caribbean agriculture,
 Net J Agric Sci 30

stability and efficiency must become the most common agricultural production. The standard expectation is that
watch words. It is clear that Caribbean agriculture will the continuous growing of crops does contribute to a
need strong support from the local scientific community. degradation of this capacity. What is seldom appreciated
Most of the inputs from the techno-scientific solution are is that a policy of promoting agro-biodiversity does have
already available to Caribbean farmers. The issue is the capability of maintaining a nutrient balance in the soil
whether a perspective of climate-change allows us to through its recycling processes (Kaihura et al., 2001). A
believe that biological diversity conservation will provide “Quality Soils” production goal is aimed at incentivizing
us with more options to overcome uncertain events? cultivation practices that simultaneously produce crops
The concept of an “Options Rich Agricultural and improve the quality of the soils, (nutrient recycling,
System” says three things, Firstly, in the dynamic world utilizing the complexity of biological interdependence,
of changing climates, farmers need a more etc.). The guiding principle is that we can improve the
comprehensive range of options to respond to the local quality of our soils while at the same time producing on it.
challenges; secondly we must respond to the challenge Here are some tactical options:
of climate change at a level commensurate with the
magnitude of the need for adaptation; and thirdly the new
farming practices can best promote climate-change 1. Promoting farmer-driven innovations
resilience when they are flexible, multi-functional and
environment enhancing. Farmers innovate when they are working on the edge of
From a farmer point of view, accepting technological what is “known” and feel the necessity to introduce
change is a single point adoption. Adapting to climate system-wide changes that challenge the logic of existing
change is an ongoing process that requires an enabling practices. 90% of farmer-driven innovation is soil-based
environment. The scope of the climate change challenge methods to change their micro-climates. A quality soil
requires a sustainable agriculture based on more policy can become the appropriate focal point for
practical policy actions and greater applicability of incentivizing such innovations.
knowledge of agro-ecology. Here we can conceptualize
at least five (5) cogent policy guidelines:
2. On-farm biodiversity conservation
1. The new “golden rule” for helping small-farming is that
the support structure must respond at a level On-farm conservation of agro-biodiversity holds the key
commensurate with the magnitude of the need for to building resilience in Caribbean agriculture. This can
adaptation; be done through the movement of germplasm or the
2. In traditional agricultural knowledge systems, the word breeding of new varieties and seeds exchange in the
“culture” refers to the tried and tested methods of using partial open innovation paradigm that does not attract
the complexity and diversity of the environment to grow patentable claims. This approach will reinforce the
crops, raise animals and harvest marine species for food. perception that farmers are the most important
These need to be shared more widely. custodians of agro-biodiversity and their collective local
3. If climate change is the visible indication of a shift in knowledge is the unique element in managing the inter-
the stability of the ecosystem, then the current generation links in their farming system.
of farmers has to produce the new “culture” of growing
our food, for our survival and as a lasting legacy to future
generations. They have the experience from observations 3. Incentivizing farm practices
and mass selection.
4. The cultural solutions already exist in the biodiversity The most prevalent incentive structure directed at
of the environment, so agro-biodiversity conservation is farmers, seeks to lower their production costs by
the process that safeguards the environment for future subsidizing some inputs. A Quality Soils programme will
solutions. call on us to subsidize farming practices that
5. A “climate-smart” agriculture is not achievable by a demonstrate stability and efficiencies (at all farm sizes).
single-purpose technology transfer (drought-resistant Here are some examples:
seeds; roundup-ready GMO species). It has to reach a
level that is commensurate with the complexity of climate- - combining inter-cropping, crop rotation and other
change. This is only achievable by increasing the cultural practices to create and use the full range of micro-
options in our farming practices (Options-Rich). environments within the farm (soil, water, temperature,
altitude, slope, fertility);
- maintaining closed cycles of materials and wastes
QUALITY SOILS: A NEW PRODUCTION GOAL through effective recycling practices; and
- innovating with the complexity of biological inter-
Soil quality defines the capacity of the soil to sustain dependencies, in order to achieve some meaningful
 Williams 31

degree of biological pest and weed suppression. production new innovations, supported by scientific
research, with longer-term strategic needs. It has
implications for various factors in agricultural production
4. Leveraging quality soil investments namely:

We can create a “debt/innovation swap” in which farmers, - Nature: continuously rewriting the genome of its fauna
who have received loans for quality soil improvements, and flora;
can swap part of their loan payments for demonstrated - Species: diversity of species in a system;
innovative practices. An accumulation of such practices - Genetic: variability of genetic information in the system;
can be collected and used by the Extension Division of - Spatial Distribution; Vertical or horizontal;
the Ministry of Agriculture as knowledge information - Structural Factors: number of niches/habitats;
transfers, complementing or replacing technology transfer - Functional Content: number of species which serve
that may be prohibitively expensive. different compatible roles;
- Time-Based Responses: cyclical changes (daily,
seasonal) in the system.
5. Landscape Indexation of farm practices
Setting up the framework for agro-biodiversity
The High Nature Value Index (HNVI) (Williams 2011) is a conservation at national and local levels requires more
monitoring tool that scores the compatibility of farming than State action. There is much room for the NGO
practices with the environment. An HNVI ranking can community and even local groups of concerned citizens
become the basis for providing incentives, credit and to act.
other infrastructural support. Furthermore, indexation
exercise can be used to map the landscape and see - Agriculturalists, ecologists and economists need to start
where land-use practices (in agriculture) are defaulting. cooperating in identifying and establishing adequate
assessment strategies (including valuing eco-system
services);
6. Occupy the landscape and seascape - Anthropologists, nutritionists and ecologists should
extend their work to the community level to observe,
HNVI mapping also allows communities of actors to record and preserve ethno-biological species (plants and
occupy the landscape and promote its judicious use organisms) and functions (in health and nutrition);
through legal structures such as “land designations”, - Conservation biologists and agriculturalists can begin
programme actions such as “local area concept plans” exchanges aimed at finding common ground for policy
and local area control through participatory natural initiatives to manage genetic, species and ecosystem
resource utilization authorities. diversity in agricultural landscapes.

The response to this complexity is as global as it is local,

7. Plan ecological coherence in the landscape with the uniform recognition that these issues are nested
within each other.
Climate-change poses the highest risk to sustainability in
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