Chapter 3

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF

ROTATIONAL MOTION

EQUILIBRIUM AND ELASTICITY

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS OF ROTATIONAL MOTION

❑ What do the motions of a compact disc, a wheel, a circular saw blade, and a ceiling fan have in common?
❑ None of these can be represented adequately as a moving point; each involves a body that rotates about an axis that
is stationary in some inertial frame of reference.

➢ Beyond the point approach

➢ The size and the shape of the body counts The rigid body approach
➢ We neglect the deformation Real-world bodies can be very complicated; the forces that
act on them can deform them—stretching, twisting, and
squeezing them. We’ll neglect these deformations for now
and assume that the body has a perfectly definite and
unchanging shape and size.

j
rij The distance between any two arbitrary
points rij is always constant in time
i
Point (0D)
Rigid body (3D),
shape+volume
Rotation makes no sense
Rotation makes sense ➔
➔ pure translation
translation + rotation
LEARNING GOALS

By studying this chapter, you will learn:

Kinematics

❑ How to describe the rotation of a rigid body in terms of angular coordinate, angular velocity, and angular acceleration.
❑ How to analyze rigid-body rotation when the angular acceleration is constant.
❑ How to relate the rotation of a rigid body to the linear velocity and linear acceleration of a point on the body.
❑ The meaning of a body’s moment of inertia about a rotation axis, and how it relates to rotational kinetic energy.
Dynamics
❑ What is meant by the torque produced by a force.
❑ How the net torque on a body affects the rotational motion of the body.
❑ How to analyze the motion of a body that both rotates and moves as a whole through space.
❑ What is meant by the angular momentum of a particle or of a rigid body.
❑ How the angular momentum of a system changes with time.
Equilibrium
❑ The conditions that must be satisfied for a body or structure to be in equilibrium.
❑ What is meant by the center of gravity of a body, and how it relates to the body’s stability.
❑ How to solve problems that involve rigid bodies in equilibrium.
(I) Rotation of rigid body - KINEMATICS

1. Angular Velocity and Acceleration

y P – particular point of the body described by (𝑟,

Ԧ 𝜃)
𝜃 – coordinate for rotation

P
𝑟Ԧ
 Angular displacement  of a rotating body =2-1.
x
Every part of a rotating rigid body has the same average angular velocity av =/t.

Angular Velocity As a Vector

Average angular velocity

𝜃2 − 𝜃1 ∆𝜃 ratio of the angular displacement
𝜔𝑎𝑣−𝑧 = = []SI=rad/s
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

Instantaneous angular velocity

∆𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜔𝑧 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Average angular acceleration Instantaneous angular acceleration

𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ∆𝜔𝑧 ∆𝜔𝑧 𝑑𝜔𝑧 𝑑2 𝜃

𝛼𝑎𝑣−𝑧 = = 𝛼𝑧 = lim = = 2
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

ratio of the angular velocity

[𝛼]SI=rad/s2

2. Rotation with constant angular acceleration

One can deduce similar motion laws as for straight line motion with constant acceleration
3. Relating Linear and Angular Kinematics

Linear Speed in Rigid-Body Rotation

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, every particle in the body moves in a circular path.
The circle lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and is centered on the axis.

relationship between linear

and angular speeds

❑ The farther a point is from the axis, the greater its linear speed.
❑ The direction of the linear velocity vector is tangent to its circular
path at each point
Linear Acceleration in Rigid-Body Rotation

We can represent the acceleration of a particle moving in a circle in terms of its centripetal arad and tangential atan components.

▪ tangential acceleration of a point on a rotating body

▪ always tangent to the circular path of the particle

The component of the particle’s acceleration directed toward the rotation

axis, the centripetal component of acceleration arad is associated with the
change of direction of the particle’s velocity.

always points toward the axis of rotation

𝑎Ԧ = 𝑎Ԧ 𝑡𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎Ԧ 𝑟𝑎𝑑

The magnitude:
4. Energy in Rotational Motion

❑ A rotating rigid body consists of mass in motion, so it has kinetic energy.

❑ We will express this kinetic energy in terms of the body’s angular speed and a new quantity, called moment of inertia, that
depends on the body’s mass and how the mass is distributed.
We consider the body as being made up of a large number of particles, with masses mi at distances ri from the axis of rotation.

y
Rigid body: 𝑚 = σ 𝑚𝑖

𝑟Ԧ𝑖 mi The linear velocities of each particle (i): 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑟𝑖 𝜔

 1 2 1
x The kinetic energy of the particle i: 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝜔2 𝑟𝑖 2
2 2
𝜔
z The total kinetic energy:

𝜔 – is the same for all mi

1 1
𝐾 = ෍ 𝐾𝑖 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝜔2 𝑟𝑖 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 2 𝜔2
2 2
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

Moment of inertia
𝑰 = ෍ 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝒊 𝟐 [I]SI =kgm2
of the body
𝟏 𝟐 𝒊
𝑲= 𝑰𝝎
𝟐 Equivalent of the mass m in the translational motion
Interpretation of the moment of inertia I

𝑰 = ෍ 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝒊 𝟐 Accounts /depends on how the body’s mass is distributed in space

𝒊

❑ The greater the moment of inertia, the greater the kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating with a given angular speed .
❑ From K=W ➔ The greater a body’s moment of inertia, the harder it is to start the body rotating if it’s at rest and the
harder it is to stop its rotation if it’s already rotating.
➔ I is also called the rotational inertia

General calculation formalism

y Continuous system
y
Discrete system 𝑰 = න 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝒎 = 𝝆 න 𝒓𝟐 𝒅𝑽
mi
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜌𝑑𝑉
x x
𝜔 𝜔
Triple (volume) integral
z 𝑰 = ෍ 𝒎𝒊 𝒓𝒊 𝟐
z
𝒊
Moments of Inertia of Various Bodies
The moment of inertia depends on the: Math: Triple volume integral calculations….
➢ shape of the body
➢ how the rotation axis is placed

rod, axis through center rod, axis through one end Solid sphere

❑ A body doesn’t have only one moment of inertia, it has infinitely many because there are many axes around which it can
rotate.
❑ There is a parallel axis theorem that gives the relationship between the moment of inertia ICM of a body of mass M about an
axis through the center of the mass CM and the moment of inertia of any axis parallel to the original one but displaced with a
distance d.
𝐼𝑃 = 𝐼𝐶𝑀 + 𝑀𝑑 2
(II) Rotation of rigid body - DYNAMICS

1.Torque
forces acting on a body can affect its translational motion

Which aspects of a force determine how effective it is in causing or changing rotational motion?
❑ the magnitude and direction of the force are important, but also
❑ the point on the body where the force is applied

Which of these three equal-

magnitude forces is most likely
to loosen the tight bolt ?

To describe these aspects we

introduce a new physical quantity:
TORQUE
combines F and the point on the
body where the force is applied
Torque as a Vector

z Direction of 𝜏Ԧ ➔ the RIGHT HAND RULE


𝐹Ԧ

y
𝑟Ԧ
x

Opposite rotation direction ➔ opposite torque direction

The torque of a force about a point is the product of the force magnitude and the lever arm of the force

no effect on rotation

෢
𝜏 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝐹Ԧ
2. Torque and Angular Acceleration for a Rigid Body

Consider a rigid body constituted by a large number of particles, rotating around the z axis.

The net force acting on mi is: 𝐹Ԧ𝑖 = 𝐹Ԧ𝑡𝑎𝑛

𝑖
+ 𝐹Ԧ𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑖

𝐹Ԧ𝑖
y
Newton’s 2nd law:
𝐹Ԧ𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑖
𝐹Ԧ𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑖
𝑖 𝑖
𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑟Ԧ𝑖 mi
 𝑖
𝑟𝑖 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑖
= 𝑟𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛
x
𝑖
𝑟𝑖 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝛼𝑧
𝜔 𝑖
𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑟𝑖 𝛼𝑧
𝑖
z 𝑟𝑖 𝐹𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝜏𝑖 the torque on ith particle
𝜏𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝛼𝑧

The total torque, if we sum over all the i particles: 𝜏Ԧ = ෍ 𝜏Ԧ𝑖 = ෍ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝛼𝑧 = 𝐼𝛼𝑧
𝑖 𝑖

𝜏Ԧ = ෍ 𝜏Ԧ𝑖 = 𝐼𝛼𝑧 Rotational analogy of the Newton’s 2nd law of

𝑖
translational motion

𝐹Ԧ = ෍ 𝐹Ԧ𝑖 = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
𝑖
3. Complex motion of rigid body
the motion of a rigid body can always be divided into:
❑ translation of the center of mass and
❑ rotation about the center of mass

... rotation about ... plus translation

the center of mass ... of the center of mass.

=
This baton toss can be
represented as a combination of

The total (translation + rotation) kinetic energy:

translation rotation
4. Work and Power in Rotational Motion

When you pedal a bicycle, you apply forces to a rotating body and do work on it.
We can express this work in terms of torque and angular displacement.

P1
P2
The work done by 𝐹Ԧ𝑡𝑎𝑛 when the point P moves from P1 to P2 is:

The total work W done by the torque during an angular

displacement from 1 to 2 is:

Equivalent in
If the torque remains constant while the angle changes by a finite amount = 2 - 1 translational
motion of:
Work-energy theorem

1 2 1 2
𝑊 = ∆𝐾 = 𝐾2 − 𝐾1 ⇒ 𝑊= 𝐼𝜔 − 𝐼𝜔 (discuss the analogy with the translational motion)
2 2 2 1

Power
= The rate of doing work
𝑑𝑊 𝑑 𝑑𝜃
𝑃= = 𝜏𝑧 𝜃 = 𝜏𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧 𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑃 = 𝜏𝑧 𝜔 Analogy with P = Fv in translation

In case when 𝜏𝑧 is constant in time

5. Angular Momentum

❑ Every rotational quantity (rotational motion) is the analog of some quantity in the translational motion of a particle.
❑ The analog of momentum 𝒑 of a particle is angular momentum, a vector quantity denoted as 𝑳

Particle linear momentum Particle angular momentum

Let’s calculate the angular momentum

𝐿 = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑚𝑣Ԧ = 𝑟Ԧ × 𝑝Ԧ

of a particle with mass m moving in the xy-plane.

When a net force acts on a particle, its velocity and momentum change, so its angular momentum may also change.

𝑑𝑝Ԧ
=0 (𝑣Ԧ and 𝑑 𝑣Ԧ = 𝐹Ԧ
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ = 𝐹Ԧ 𝑑𝑡
m𝑣Ԧ colinear) 𝑑𝑡

2nd principle of dynamics The rate of change of angular momentum of a particle 2nd principle of dynamics for
for rotational motion equals the torque of the net force acting on it. translational motion
Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body
the total angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about the z-axis with angular speed 

𝐿𝑖 = 𝑟𝑖 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑟𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖

Analogy with: 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Vectorial

𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔

𝑑𝐿
= ෍ 𝜏Ԧ = 𝐼 𝛼Ԧ𝑧
𝑑𝑡

For rotation about an axis of symmetry, 𝜔 and 𝐿 are parallel and along
the axis. The directions of both vectors are given by the right-hand rule
6. Conservation of Angular Momentum

Like conservation of energy and of linear momentum, this principle is a universal conservation law, valid at all scales from
atomic and nuclear systems to the motions of galaxies.

This principle follows directly from

if 𝐿 = const
When the net external torque acting on a system is zero, the total angular
momentum of the system is constant (conserved).
𝑰𝟏 - large 𝑰𝟐 - small
𝟏 - small 𝟐 - large

Ex. When a skater or ballerina spins with arms outstretched and then pulls her
arms in, her angular velocity increases as her moment of inertia decreases.

𝐿 = const ⇒ 𝐼1 𝜔1 = 𝐼2 𝜔2

𝐼1
𝜔2 = 𝜔1 𝐼1 > 𝐼2 ⇒
𝐼2
𝜔2 > 𝜔1
(III) EQUILIBRIUM

A particle is in equilibrium—i.e the particle does not accelerate—in an inertial frame of reference if the vector sum of
all the forces acting on the particle is zero σ 𝐹Ԧ = 0.

For an extended body, the equivalent statement is that the center of mass of the body has zero acceleration if
the vector sum of all external forces acting on the body is zero.

When both
first condition for equilibrium conditions fulfilled
simultaneously
➔
A second condition for an extended body to be in equilibrium is that the body must have no
static equilibrium
tendency to rotate.
(no translation or rotation)
second condition for equilibrium
To be in static equilibrium, a body at rest must satisfy both conditions for equilibrium: It can have no tendency to accelerate as a whole
or to start rotating.

This body has no tendency to accelerate This body has a tendency to

This body is in static equilibrium as a whole, but it has a tendency to start accelerate as a whole but no
rotating tendency to start rotating
Center of Gravity
In most equilibrium problems, one of the forces acting on the body is its weight. We need to be able to calculate the torque of this
force. The weight doesn’t act at a single point; it is distributed over the entire body. But we can always calculate the torque due to
the body’s weight by assuming that the entire force of gravity (weight) is concentrated at a point called the center of gravity (CG).

If we the variation of 𝑔Ԧ with the altitude ⇒ 𝑔Ԧ constant over the vertical dimension of the body, then the
body’s center of gravity is identical to its center of mass

the torque 𝜏Ԧ𝑖 vector of the weight 𝑤𝑖 with respect to O

z
mi The total torque:
𝑟Ԧ𝑖 𝑤𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖 𝑔Ԧ

𝑟Ԧ𝐶𝑀
O When we multiply and divide this by the total mass of the body
x 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔Ԧ

We get:
Finding and Using the Center of Gravity

❑ We can often use symmetry considerations to locate the center of gravity of a body, just as we did for the center of mass.
❑ The center of gravity of a homogeneous sphere, cube, circular sheet, or rectangular plate is at its geometric center.
❑ The center of gravity of a right circular cylinder or cone is on its axis of symmetry.

Finding the center of gravity of an irregularly shaped body—i.e. coffee mug.

Strategy valid for any complex shape body

Position of CG and equilibrium against overturn

In (a) the center of gravity is within the area bounded by the supports, and the car is in equilibrium. The car in (b) and the truck in
(c) will tip over because their centers of gravity lie outside the area of support.

The lower the center of gravity and the larger the area of support, the more difficult it is to overturn a body.
❑ Four-legged animals such as deer and horses have a large area of support bounded by their legs; hence they are naturally stable and
need only small feet or hooves.
❑ Animals that walk erect on two legs, such as humans and birds, need relatively large feet to give them a reasonable area of support.
(IV) STRESS, STRAIN, AND ELASTIC MODULI

The rigid body is a useful idealized model, but the stretching, squeezing, and twisting of real bodies when forces are applied are often
too important to ignore.

LEARNING GOALS
By studying this chapter, you will learn:
❑ How to analyze situations in which a body is deformed by tension, compression, pressure, or shear.
❑ What happens when a body is stretched so much that it deforms or breaks.
Stress => characterizes the strength of the forces causing the deformation: “force per unit area”

Strain => describes the resulting deformation

When the stress and strain are small enough, we often find that the two are directly proportional, and we call the
proportionality constant an elastic modulus.

Tensile and Compressive Stress and Strain An object in tension

UNIT SI: 1 pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

(same as for pressure)
Young’s modulus
Similar analysis for compression:
For many materials, Young’s modulus has the same value for both tensile
An object in compression
and compressive stresses.
However, composite materials such as concrete and stone are an
exception; they can withstand compressive stresses but fail under
comparable tensile stresses. Stone was the primary building material used
by ancient civilizations such as the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Romans, so
their structures had to be designed to avoid tensile stresses => arches in
doorways and bridges, where the weight of the overlying material
compresses the stones of the arch together and does not place them
under tension.

Young’s modulus

today we reinforce the concrete by iron (1856 COIGNET) => high tolerance to tensile stress
Bulk Stress and Strain

When the stress is a uniform pressure on all sides, and the resulting deformation is a volume change
➔bulk stress (or volume stress) ➔ bulk strain (or volume strain)

Ex. object is immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas) at rest: the fluid exerts a force on any part of the object’s surface; this force is
perpendicular to the surface.

The force 𝐹⊥ per unit area that the fluid exerts on the surface of an immersed object is called the pressure p in
the fluid:
Unit : [Pressure]SI = 1 Pa (1N/m2)
1 atmosphere = 1 atm = 1.013  105 Pa

Pressure plays the role of stress in a volume deformation

The corresponding strain is the fractional change in volume:

The Hooke’s law takes the form:

bulk modulus

❑ the minus sign in this equation : an increase of pressure always causes a decrease in volume.
❑ If p is positive V is negative => B>0

❑ For small pressure changes in a solid or a liquid =const

❑ However, B for a gas, however, depends on the initial pressure p0.

The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called the compressibility and is denoted by k

the fractional decrease in volume −V/V0, per unit increase p

in pressure

Unit : [k]SI = Pa-1 (those of a reciprocal pressure)

Materials with small bulk modulus and large compressibility are easier to compress
Shear Stress and Strain
Forces are applied tangent to opposite surfaces of the object

If the forces are small enough the Hooke’s law is obeyed:

For a given material, S is usually 1/3 to 1/2 as large as

Young’s modulus Y for tensile stress.

Observations ❑ the concepts of shear stress, shear strain, and shear modulus apply to solid materials only.
❑ shear refers to deforming an object that has a definite shape ➔ doesn’t apply to gases and liquids, which
do not have definite shapes.
(V) Elasticity and Plasticity
Hooke’s law—the proportionality of stress and strain in elastic deformations—has a limited range of validity.
What are the limitations of Hooke’s law? We know that if you pull, squeeze, or twist anything hard enough, it will bend or break.

We can plot a graph of stress as a function of strain [0->a] proportionality range, Hook law valid, slope =Young modulus
[a-b] stress and strain are no longer proportional, and Hooke’s law is not
obeyed.

However, from [0 to b] (<1% strain) = fully reversible deformation range:

original shape restored when force cancels. The forces are conservative; the
energy put into the material to cause the deformation is recovered when the
stress is removed. In region O-b the material shows elastic behavior. Point b=
the yield point; the stress at the yield point is called the elastic limit.
Beyond point b, the strain continues to increase. But when we remove the
load (i.e. in c ) the material does not come back to its original length => plastic
deformation: when removing stress the initial shape not recovered ➔
irreversible deformation
[b-d] = plastic flow or plastic deformation
❑ Ductile materials: large b-d zone
❑ Brittle materials: point d close to the elastic limit Brittle =fragil

Point d – fracture point, material broken by the stress.

The stress required to cause actual fracture of a material is called the breaking
stress, the ultimate strength, or (for tensile stress) the tensile strength.
Two materials, such as two types of steel, may have very similar elastic constants but
vastly different breaking stresses.
Elastic Hysteresis
Something very curious can happen when an object is stretched and then allowed to relax (ex. stress-strain curve for vulcanized
rubber that has been stretched by more than seven times its original length).
The stress is not proportional to the strain, but the behavior is elastic because when the load is removed, the material returns
to its original length.
However, the material follows different curves for increasing and decreasing stress ➔elastic hysteresis.

❑ The work done by the material when it returns to its original shape is less than
the work required to deform it; there are nonconservative forces associated
with internal friction.

❑ Rubber with large elastic hysteresis is very useful for absorbing vibrations,
such as in engine mounts and shock-absorber bushings for cars.
What we have studied so far:

Basic concepts (fundamentals) of Mechanics:

Kinematics, Dynamics, Work, energy and conservation laws

Different levels of approach:

o point approach (0D) – pure translational motion
o rigid body (2D,3D) – translation + rotation
o beyond the rigid body approach: deformation and elasticity

Next:
Applications of basic concepts in advanced phenomena

o Periodic motion, oscillations

o Wave phenomena
Mechanical waves, Sound waves: Acoustics , Ultrasounds