What are mental or cognitive processes?

Cognitive processes refer to a number of tasks the brain does continuously. They are
procedures in charge of processing all the information we receive from the
environment. Imagine you are sitting on your sofa while watching a movie. Even though the
movie is interesting, you start smelling something burning. What do you do? Fortunately,
your brain will center all of its attention in the possible danger you are facing.

Suddenly, you remember that you had a pizza in the oven. You will run to the kitchen as fast
as you can and coordinate a series of motor movements to take it out of the oven. Then you
will decide whether to eat the less burnt parts or go back to the living room. Cognitive
processes have guided this whole scenario and actions.

Types of cognitive processes

1. Sensation and perception

Sensations are caused by different stimuli in our environment. The stimuli first reach our
senses and allow us to filter information from the outside world. Once we receive this
information, perception takes over and we start interpreting these stimuli.

We are continuously using our perception without even noticing it. We are conscious of other
people’s movements, messages we receive on our phone, food flavors, our posture, etc. Our
past experiences also play a part in the interpretation of different stimuli.

Gestalt psychologists were the main researchers in perception.

“The whole is greater than the sum of the parts.”- Gestalt

They believed that we are active human beings that process reality as a whole comprised of
different parts. They also explained how different types of perception can happen including
illusions.

2. Attention

Life has many stimuli happening at the same time, however, we are capable of centering our
attention on the stimuli that interest us. Some actions such as walking and chewing require
little attention. Nonetheless, other activities such as speaking and body language require
focus, especially when we are giving a lecture.
Attention is the cognitive process that makes it possible to position ourselves towards
relevant stimuli and consequently respond to it. There are different types of attention
including

 Arousal

 Focused attention

 Sustained attention

 Selective attention

 Alternating attention

 Divided attention.

Fortunately, we managed to automate certain processes that we have to repeat several times a
day, making it easier to focus on other tasks. For example, at first learning to drive and focus
on all the things one must do is difficult but after a while, it is done naturally and without
thinking.

3. Memory

What is the capital of France? Who was your best friend in primary school? How do you play
the guitar? Our memory has the answers to these questions and much more. It allows us to
encode the data we receive from the environment, consolidate and retrieve it later.

We have different types of memory;

 Sensory memory

 Short-term memory

 working memory

 semantic memory
All these types of memories interact together but they don’t all depend on the same
brain areas. An example of this is people with amnesia still remember how to walk but
can’t remember their partner’s name.

Higher cognitive processes

1. Intelligence

According to Gardner’s multiple bits of intelligence, there is not only one intelligence but
several different bits of intelligence. He established that

 intrapersonal intelligence

 linguistic intelligence

 logical-mathematical intelligence

 musical intelligence

are examples of higher cognitive processes. Recently, emotional intelligence has caught
people’s attention, it is the ability to manage the difficulties we face daily.

2. Thought

The complexity and heterogeneity of our thoughts are fascinating. This higher mental process
is responsible for tasks related to

 problem-solving

 reasoning

 decision-making

 creative thinking

 divergent thinking

Sometimes we try to be logical and often ignore how irrational we can be. We take shortcuts
to process information faster not taking into account the details that might be important. This
can lead to cognitive biases, which are deviations from the normal process of reasoning. For
example, we sometimes believe that we are able to figure out what is going to happen in a
game of chance.

On occasions, cognitive biases can lead to cognitive distortions which are extremely negative
and irrational thoughts, for example, “the world hates me”. It’s always important to
remember we are able to stop these thoughts and work on them. If these thoughts overpower
you, it’s crucial you speak to someone.

3. Language

We are capable of producing and comprehending different sounds and words, combine
different letters and phrases and expressing with precision what we want to communicate,
even in different languages. We even use our body language to communicate.

Language development is produced all throughout our lifetime. The communicative skills of
each person vary significantly and can be improved by practice. Some language disorders
especially make it difficult to communicate for different reasons, although it is also possible
to help people with these problems.

Cognitive processes involved in language are fundamental in learning how to effectively

communicate.

Creative thinking

Most people associate creativity with artistic tasks such as writing a novel, painting a picture,
or composing music. While these are all creative endeavors, not all creative thinkers are
artists.

Creativity simply means being able to come up with something new. Therefore, creative
thinking is the ability to consider something – a conflict between employees, a data set, a
group project – in a new way.

 Creative thinking means looking at something in a new way.

 The definition is “thinking outside the box.”

Often, creativity in this sense involves what is called lateral thinking, or the ability to
perceive patterns that are not obvious. The fictional detective Sherlock Holmes uses lateral
thinking in one famous story when he realizes that a dog not barking is an important clue in a
murder case.

Creative people have the ability to devise new ways to carry out tasks, solve problems, and
meet challenges. They bring a fresh, and sometimes unorthodox, perspective to their work.

Some people are naturally more creative than others, but creative thinking ability can be
strengthened with practice.

You can develop creative thinking skills by solving riddles, being aware of (and letting go of)
your assumptions, and through play. Play connotes anything unstructured and relaxing, such
as walking or daydreaming.

Open-Mindedness

Creativity involves thinking of things in a novel way within the context in question. You have
to set aside any assumptions or biases you may have, and look at things in a completely new
way. By coming to a problem with an open mind, you allow yourself the chance to think
creatively.

Problem Solving

Employers don’t simply want to hire creative people because they are impressive. They want
creative employees who will help them to solve work-related issues. Therefore, when
applying for jobs, highlight your ability not only to think creatively, but to use your creativity
to solve important problems.

Organization

Organization is an important part of creativity. While you might need to get a bit messy when
trying out a new idea, you then need to organize your ideas so that other people will be able
to understand and follow through with your vision. Being able to structure a plan of action
with clear goals and deadlines is vital.

Communication

People will only appreciate your creative idea or solution if you can communicate it
effectively to the people you work with (or to your clients or vendors). Therefore, you need to
have strong written and oral communication skills.
You also need to be able to understand a situation fully before thinking creatively about it.
Therefore, you also need to be a good listener. By asking the right questions and understanding the
problem, you can come up with a unique solution.

Examples of Creative Thinking

Opportunities for creative thought in the workplace vary from the obvious artistic position to
the highly technical one. Generally, anything that involves an “Aha” moment is considered
creative. Here are some examples of how to display creative thinking in different jobs.

Artistic Creativity

You don't have to be an artist for your work to have an artistic element. Perhaps you arrange
retail displays for maximum impact, or shape the path of an enticing hiking trail. Other
artistically creative tasks might include designing logos, writing advertising copy, creating
the packaging for a product, or drafting a phone script for a fundraising drive.

 Composing a new fundraising script for volunteers

 Composing dialogue for a television or radio commercial

 Creating an exam to test student knowledge

 Creating packaging for a product

 Designing a logo

 Devising a lesson plan that will engage students

 Proposing a new look for a clothing line

 Writing compelling copy for a print or online advertisement

Creative Problem-Solving

Creative problem-solving stands out as innovative. A creative problem solver will find new
solutions rather than simply identifying and implementing the norm. You might brainstorm
new ways to cut energy use, find new ways to cut costs during a budget crisis, or develop a
unique litigation strategy to defend a client. These all entail creative thinking on your part.

 Brainstorming at a staff meeting to set a strategy for the next year

  Brainstorming ways to cut energy use

 Coming up with new procedures to improve quality

 Devising a more efficient way to process travel reimbursements

 Identifying ways to cut costs during a budget crisis

 Increasing staff productivity by devising performance incentives

 Restructuring a filing system to facilitate easier retrieval of information

 Suggesting new ways of communication to alleviate marital conflict

 Suggesting a way to improve customer service

Meaning of Reasoning

As Sherman defined, “reasoning is a process of thinking during which the individual is

aware of a problem identifies, evaluates, and decides upon a solution”.

Reasoning plays a significant role in one’s adjustment to the environment. It not only determines
one’s cognitive activities but also influences the behavior and personality.

Definitions of Reasoning

 “Reasoning is a stepwise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind” —Garrett.

 “Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful, controlled and selective

thinking”—Gates.

 “Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause and effect
relationships, it may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the
inference of a cause from an observed event”—Skinner.

Thus reasoning is a highly specialized thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally the
cause and effect relationship of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some well-organized
systematic steps based on previous experience combined with present observation.

Types of Reasoning:

1. Inductive reasoning:
It is a specialized thinking aimed at the discovery or construction of a generalized principle
by making use of particular cases, special examples and identifying of elements or relations.

For example, Fatima is mortal, junad is mortal, Karim is mortal; therefore, all human beings
are mortal.

2. Deductive reasoning:

It is the ability to draw some logical conclusions from known statement or evidences. Here
one starts with already known or established generalized statement or principle and applies it
to specific cases. For example, all human beings are mortal you are a human being, therefore,
you are mortal.

Henry has categorized three types of deductive reasoning:

1. Conditioned reasoning:

It is the reasoning tied down by some specific condition such as the following.

For example, if there is a solar eclipse, the street will be dork. There is a solar eclipse

The streets are dark.

2. Categorical reasoning:

This type of reasoning is based on some categorical statements.

For example, all Robins are birds.

All birds lay eggs.

All Robins lay eggs.

3. Linear reasoning:

This type of reasoning involves straight forward relationships among elements.

For example, If Ram is taller than Mohan and Mohan is taller than Sohan, Ram is the tallest.

Topic:: 2

Meaning of Decision Making:

  Decision-making is related to problem.

 Decision means to cut off deliberations and to come to a conclusion. Decision-

making involves two or more alternatives because if there is only one alternative there
is no decision to be made.

 R.S. Davar defined decision-making as “the election based on some criteria of one
behavior alternative hum two or more possible alternatives. To decide means ‘to cut
off’ or in practical content to come to a conclusion.”

 According to McFarland “A decision is an act of choice where in an executive forms

a conclusion about what must I done in a given situation.

 A decision represents behavior ‘chosen from a number of possible alternatives.

Characteristics of decision making

 It is a process of making a choice from alternative course of action.

 Decision is the end process preceded by deliberation and reasoning.

 Decision-making is a focal point at which plans, policies, and objectives are translated
into concrete actions.

 Rationality is another characteristic of decision-making. The human brain with its

ability to learn to remember and to relate many complex factors makes this rationality
possible.

 Decision-making involves commitment. The management is committed to decision

for two reasons. Firstly it leads to the stability of the concern and secondly, every
decision taken becomes part of the expectations of the people involved in the
organization.

 The purpose of decision-making is to select the best alternative, which can significantly contribute
towards organizational aims.

Process of decision making

a. Investigate The Situation:

A detailed investigation is made on three aspects: define problem identification of objectives
and diagnosis. The first step in the decision process is determining the precise problem to be
solved. At this stage, time and effort should be expanded only in gathering data and
information that is relevant to an identification of the real problem.

b. Develop Alternatives:

The search for alternatives forces the individual to see things from many viewpoints, to study
cases from their proper perspectives and to unearth the troubled spots of the problem. To be
more meaningful, only viable and realistic alternatives should be included in the listing.

Brainstorming may be effective at this stage. This is a group approach to developing

creating potential solutions to management problems several persons with a similar interest
sit down at one place and give concentrated thought to what might be done. The objective is
to generate as many ideas as possible.

Criticism must be prohibited. The leader must keep the discussion moving by asking
questions and making statements, which refocus attention on the problem at hand without
proper guidance, discussion can degenerate into an aimless bull session.

c. Evaluate Alternatives and Select the Best One:

The third step in decision making is that of analyzing and evaluating each alternative in terms
of its possible consequences and since individual can never be sure of the actual outcome of
each alternative, uncertainty always exists; consequently, this step is a real challenge
requiring individuals to call on present knowledge, past experience, foresight and scientific
acumen. For the proper analysis of alternatives, Peter Drucker has suggested the following
four criteria:

 The risk,

 Economy for effort,

 Timing, and

 Limitations of resources.

i. Risk:
Every solution naturally carries a risk element. The risk of each course of action must be
weighed against the possible gains from its selection.

ii. Economy of efforts:

That line of action will be selected which gives the greatest results with the least effort, and
obtaining the needed change with the last necessary disturbance of the organization.

iii. Timing:

If the situation has great urgency, the preferable course of action is one that dramatizes the
decision and serves notice on the organization that something important is happening. If, one
the other hand, long, consistent effort is needed, a slow start that gathers momentum may be
preferable.

iv. Limitations of resources:

This is also known as the “principle of limiting factor” which is the essence of decision
making. The key to decision making is to solve the problem posed by alternatives, if possible
by seeking out and solving for the limiting, or strategic, or critical, factor. The most important
resources, whose limitations have to be considered, are the human beings who will carry out
the decision.

d. Implement and Monitor the Decision:

Once the best available alternative has been selected, individuals are ready to make plans to
cope with the requirements and problems that may be encountered in putting it into effect.

Implementing a decision involves more than giving appropriate orders. Resources must be
acquired and allocated as necessary. Individuals set up budgets and schedules for the actions
they have decided upon. This allows them to measure progress in specific terms; next, they
assign responsibility for the specific tasks involved.

They also setup a procedure for progress reports and prepare to make connections if new
problem should arise. Budget, schedules and progress report are all essential to performing
the management functions of control.

Potential risks and uncertainties that have been identified during the earlier evaluation of
alternatives stage must also be kept in mind. There is a natural human tendency to forget
possible risks and uncertainties once a decision is made. Individual can counteract this failing
by consciously taking extra time to re-examine their decision at this point and to develop
detailed plans for dealing with these risks and uncertainties.

After individual have taken whatever steps are possible to deal with potential adverse
consequences, actual implementation can begin. Ultimately, a decision (or a solution) is no
better than the actions taken to make it a reality.

A frequent error of individual is to assume that once they make a decision, action on it will
automatically follow. If the decision is a good one but subordinates are unwilling or unable to
carry it out, then that decision will not be effective.

Action taken to implement a decision must be monitored. Are things working according to
plan? What is happening in the internal and external environments as a result of the decision?
Are subordinates performing according to expectations? What is the competition doing in
response? Decision-making is a continual process for individual—a continual challenge.

Factors Influencing Decision

Making:

Time Pressures:

An important influence on the quality of decisions is how much time the decision maker has
in which to make the decisions. Unfortunately, individual must make most of their decisions
in time frames established by others. Lack of time can force a individual to decide without
gathering important facts or exploring possible solutions thoroughly.

 Value judgments are necessary in the development of objectives and the assignment
of priorities.

 In developing alternatives, it is necessary to make value judgments about the various

possibilities and

 In selecting an alternative, value judgments will be reflected in the alternative chosen.

Organizational Policy:

Decisions are limited by the policies that higher individual develop to guide the actions of the
organization. Decisions that clearly violated policies will be rejected automatically. Some
individual argue, of course to change the policy to fit the decision if the decision seems
sound.

This is good thinking, except that policies cannot be changed overnight. It is usually an easier
and more practical course to alter the proposed decision.

Other Factors:

The list of such factors depends upon one’s flight of imaginations; however, we are listing the
following ones for our consideration:

 The effect of other departments.

 Higher-management attitude.

 Personnel required.

 Budget money.

 Subordinate reactions.

Topic::3
Information Processing
Cognitive psychology sees the individual as a processor of information, in much the same
way that a computer takes in information and follows a program to produce an output.

Assumptions

 Information made available by the environment is processed by a series of processing

systems (e.g. attention, perception, short-term memory);

 these processing systems transform or alter the information in systematic ways;

 the aim of research is to specify the processes and structures that underlie cognitive
performance;

 Information processing in humans resembles that in computers.

Computer - Mind Analogy

Computer brain metaphor

The development of the computer in the 1950s and 1960s had an important influence on
psychology and was, in part, responsible for the cognitive approach becoming the dominant
approach in modern psychology.

The computer gave cognitive psychologists a metaphor, or analogy, to which they could
compare human mental processing. The use of the computer as a tool for thinking how the
human mind handles information is known as the computer analogy.

Essentially, computer codes (i.e., changes) information, stores information, uses information,
and produces an output (retrieves info). The idea of information processing was adopted by
cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works.

For example, the eye receives visual information and codes information into electric neural
activity which is fed back to the brain where it is “stored” and “coded”. This information is
can be used by other parts of the brain relating to mental activities such as memory,
perception and attention. The output (i.e. behavior) might be, for example, to read what you
can see on a printed page.

Hence the information processing approach characterizes thinking as the environment

providing input of data, which is then transformed by our senses. The information can
be stored, retrieved and transformed using “mental programs”, with the results being
behavioral responses.

Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches and areas of
study to produce, for example, social learning theory, cognitive neuropsychology and
artificial intelligence (AI).

Information Processing & Attention

When we are selectively attending to one activity, we tend to ignore other stimulation,
although our attention can be distracted by something else, like the telephone ringing or
someone using our name.

Psychologists are interested in what makes us attend to one thing rather than another
(selective attention); why we sometimes switch our attention to something that was
previously unattended (e.g. Cocktail Party Syndrome), and how many things we can attend to
at the same time (attentional capacity).
One way of conceptualizing attention is to think of humans as information processors who
can only process a limited amount of information at a time without becoming overloaded.

Broadbent and others in the 1950's adopted a model of the brain as a limited capacity
information processing system, through which external input is transmitted.

Basic Terminology
Brain is like the hardware and the Mind is like the software.

Environmental Input

This is information, input from the environment. Not all information is necessarily processed,
as the Executive Processing controls Attention as well as many other factors.

Sensory Store

This is the part of our senses that stores information. In humans it includes sight, hearing,
touch, taste and smell senses, which have limited capacity. The information in the sensory
store is only kept there for a very short time and unless stored in the Short Term Memory, it
quickly fades.

Short Term Memory (STM)

The Short Term Memory is capable of storing information for a limited period of time. This
is what humans use to remember a telephone number in their heads, before they can write it
down. It has limited capacity as well, though much larger than the Sensory Store.

Long Term Memory (LTM)

The Long Term Memory is capable of storing much information, for a very long period of
time. In that time however, the memory is capable of becoming corrupted, changed or
destroyed. Information is encoded into the long term memory from the short term memory,
and is retrieved to the short term memory from the long term memory. It is our long term
memory that we use to remember things like autobiographical memories, such as our
childhood.

Errors in encoding and retrieval can corrupt memories, as well as things such as head trauma.
It also seems that memories fade over time, and can be modified by recalling the memory in a
different way. False Memories are possible.
Executive Processing

This part of the model is responsible for attention to processes, retrieval of required memories
from the Long Term Memory to the short term memory, and using appropriate problem
solving strategies. It too is of limited capacity. Some models suggest that the Executive
Processing and the STM are in fact the same, or at least compete for limited attentional
resources.

Output to Environment

These are the behaviors which the individual displays. For example, my fingers typing this
sentence in the article.

Models and theories

There are several proposed models/theories that describe the way in which we process
information.

1. Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg's theory intelligence is made up of three different components:

 Creative

 Analytical

 Practical abilities.

Creativeness is the ability to have new original ideas, and being analytical can help a person
decide whether the idea is a good one or not. "Practical abilities are used to implement the
ideas and persuade others of their value”.

In Sternberg’s theory, he says that information processing is made up of three different parts:

 Meta components

 Performance components

 Knowledge-acquisition components

These processes move from higher-order executive functions to lower order functions.
Metacomponents are used for planning and evaluating problems, while performance
components follow the orders of the meta components, and the knowledge-acquisition
component learns how to solve the problems.

This theory in action would be like working on an art project. First you have to decide what
you want to draw and then plan and sketch it out. During this process you would be
monitoring how it is going, and if it is what you really wanted to accomplish. All these steps
fall under the meta component processing, and the performance component would be the
actual painting. The knowledge-acquisition portion would be learning how to draw what you
want to draw.

2. Information processing model: The Working Memory

The definition of information processing is, "the sciences concerned with gathering,
manipulating, storing, retrieving, and classifying recorded information".

It suggests that for information to be firmly implanted in memory, it must pass through three
stages of mental processing;

 Sensory memory

 Short-term memory

 Long-term memory

An example of this is the working memory model. This includes the central executive,
phonologic loop, episodic buffer, visuo-spatial sketchpad, verbal information, long term
memory, and visual information. The central executive is like the secretary of the brain. It
decides what needs attention and how to respond.

The central executive then leads to three different subsections. The first is phonological
storage, sub vocal rehearsal, and the phonological loop. These sections work together to
understand words, put the information into memory, and then hold the memory. The result is
verbal information storage.

The next subsection is the visuo-spatial sketchpad which works to store visual images. The
storage capacity is brief but leads to understanding of visual stimuli.
Finally, there is an episodic buffer. This section is capable of taking information and putting
it into long-term memory. It is also able to take information from the phonological loop and
visuo-spatial sketchpad, combining them with long-term memory to make "a unitary episodic
representation. In order for these to work, the sensory register takes in via the five senses:
visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and taste. These are all present since birth and are able to
handle simultaneous processing (e.g., food – tastes it, smell it, see it).

3. Cognitive development theory

Another approach to viewing the ways in which information is processed in humans was
suggested by Jean Piaget in what is called the Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory.
Piaget developed his model based on development and growth. He identified four different
stages between different age brackets characterized by the type of information and by a
distinctive thought process. The four stages are:

 the sensorimotor (from birth to 2 years),

 preoperational (2–6 years),

 concrete operational (6–11 years),

 Formal operational periods (11 years and older).

During the sensorimotor stage, newborns and toddlers rely on their senses for information
processing to which they respond with reflexes. In the preoperational stage, children learn
through imitation and remain unable to take other people’s point of view. The concrete
operational stage is characterized by the developing ability to use logic and to consider
multiple factors to solve a problem. The last stage is the formal operational, in which
preadolescents and adolescents begin to understand abstract concepts and to develop the
ability to create arguments and counter arguments.

In short, cognitive abilities vary according to our development and stages in life. It is at the
adult stage that we are better able to be better planners, process and comprehend abstract
concepts, and evaluate risks and benefits more aptly than an adolescent or child would be
able to.

Topic::4

Executive Functions
Executive functions (also known as cognitive control) are responsible for controlling
cognitive processes like reasoning, problem solving, attention, organizing, planning, and
timing. These controls are responsible for the management and regulation of mental
processes. The frontal lobe is the brain area that is responsible for executive functions, in
particular the anterior cingulated cortex.

Executive function can be defined as the ability to plan and coordinate a willful action in
the face of alternatives, monitor and update action as necessary, and suppress
distracting material by focusing attention on the task at hand.

Executive function” is an umbrella term for the management, regulation, and control of
cognitive processes, including working memory, reasoning, problem solving, social
inhibition, planning, and execution.

The executive system is a theoretical cognitive system that manages the processes of
executive function. This system is thought to rely on the prefrontal areas of the frontal lobe,
but while these areas are necessary for executive function, they are not solely sufficient.

There are the two main areas involved with cognitive control: organization and regulation.

When the executive functions are not working properly it can cause abnormal behavior in
individuals that can interfere with work and social situations and cause difficulty with
independence, planning, and organizing. Depression, attentional disorders like ADHD, and
learning difficulties can result from abnormal cognitive control functioning.

Role of the Executive System

The executive system is thought to be heavily involved in handling novel situations outside
the domain of the routine, automatic psychological processes (i.e., ones that are handled by
learned schemas or set behaviors). There are five types of situation where routine behavior is
insufficient for optimal performance, in which the executive system comes into play:

 planning or decision making;

 error correction or troubleshooting;

 novel situations with unrehearsed reactions;

  dangerous or technically difficult situations;

 overcoming of a strong habitual response; resisting temptation.

A prepotent response is a response for which immediate reinforcement (positive or negative)

is available or is associated with that response. Executive functions tend to be invoked when
it is necessary to override prepotent responses that would otherwise occur automatically. For
example, on being presented with a potentially rewarding stimulus like a piece of chocolate
cake, a person might have the prepotent “automatic” response to take a bite. But if this
behavior conflicts with internal plans (such as a diet), the executive system might be engaged
to inhibit that response.
Topic::5
Problem solving
Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving
problems.

The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best
resolves the issue.

The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases,
people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge
to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.

The Steps in Problem-Solving

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many

researchers refer to this as the problem-solving cycle. The following steps include
developing strategies and organizing knowledge.

Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is
not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong
source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define
the problem so that it can be solved.

Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The
approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences.
Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the
available information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The
more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate
solution.

Allocating Resources: Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other
resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine
how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more
resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want
to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution.

Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work
towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will
reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.

Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the
results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be
immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or
it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of
treatment.