ASSIGNMENT 2

POLYMER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

SUBMITTED BY –
ARCHIT TODI (17/274)
7TH SEMESTER
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

ASSAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE

JALUKBARI, GUWAHATI-781013
Q1. What are rubbers? Give the characteristics of rubber. What are the different types of
rubbers? Write on synthetic rubber? Write few uses of synthetic rubbers. Difference between
Natural and Synthetic rubbers.

Ans -

Rubbers are polymeric materials characterised by their ability of reversible deformation due
to external deforming forces. They are also known as Elastomers as they shows elastic
properties and they undergoes long range reversible extension even if relatively small force is
applied to it. It is a natural polymer of Isoprene (2-Methyl -1,3 – Butadiene). It is a linear
polymer which undergoes 1, 4 – addition polymerisation of Isoprene.

Natural rubber is prepared from latex which is a colloidal solution of rubber in water. .
Isoprene is a conjugated di-ene containing double bonds at alternate position which
undergoes free radical polymerization like substituted ethylene. It polymerizes to give
polyisoprene polymer, a simple alkene having each unit containing one double bond. Now,
polymerization of Isoprene may follow either of the two pathways; either of cis-
polymerization or trans-polymerization. The rubber formed from cis-polymerization is called
cis-polyisoprene or Natural Rubber. Similarly, the rubber formed from trans-polymerization
is called Synthetic Rubber. The natural rubber has high strength, low hysteresis and good
resistance to tear and flex cracking but it is easily affected by gasoline and solvents.

Characteristics of Rubber –

A) It is elastic, strong and tough.

B) It is highly impermeable to both water and air and therefore, it can be used to retain
water as in rubber bottles, hoses etc.
C) It exhibits a great resistance to abrasion, tearing and cutting over a wide range of
temperature from 7 to 115°C.
D) It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity.
E) The synthetic rubber offers great resistance to acids, petroleum products, etc.

Different types of Rubber –

A) Natural rubber
B) Synthetic rubber
Synthetic Rubber –

The rubber which are artificially prepared i.e. man-made are called synthetic rubbers. They
have wide applications in daily life as well as in industry. Synthetic rubber is usually derived
from additional polymers of polyene monomers and, unless the synthetic rubber is disclosed
as a polysulfide rubber, laminates containing such a layer will be classified with additional
polymers. Synthetic rubber serves as a substitute for natural rubber in many cases, especially
when improved material properties are required. Depending on the chemicals added and the
properties associated with it, the synthetic rubber can be as hard as a bowling ball or as
resilient as a rubber band or as soft as a sponge.

Synthetic Rubber (also known as Gutta-Parcha) was obtained by the free radical
polymerization of Isoprene. The rubber so formed has all trans-configuration as a result of
this, synthetic rubber has a highly regular zigzag chain which cannot be stretched. This
accounts for non-elasticity of Synthetic Rubber. Furthermore, synthetic rubbers have
excellent heat resistance, lower temperature resistance and improvements in heat ageing. The
downside is that synthetic rubber is not biodegradable at all because it consists of inorganic
materials.

Different types of Synthetic Rubber –

A) Polychloroprene (Neoprene):
Neoprene or Polychloroprene is formed by the free radical polymerisation of
chloroprene.
B) Acrylo-Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (Buna N):
Buna N is obtained by the copolymerisation of 1, 3–butadiene and acrylonitrile in the
presence of a peroxide catalyst.
C) Styrene Butadiene Rubber (Buna S):
Buna S is obtained by the copolymerisation of 1, 3–butadiene and styrene in the ratio
of 3:1 in the presence of sodium (polymerizing agent).
D) Polyisobutylene (Butyl Rubber):
Butyl rubber is prepared by the hydrogenation of n-butane followed by isomerisation
of iso-butylene.
E) Chlorosulphonated Polyethylene (Hyplon):
Hyplon Rubber is prepared by chlorinated sulphur oxide and ethylene.
Uses of synthetic rubbers –

A) Neoprene:
1. It is used as an insulator and has superior resistance to vegetable and mineral oils.
2. It is used in the manufacture of hoses, gaskets, shoe heels, stoppers, conveyor
belts and printing rollers etc.
B) Buna-N:
1. It is resistant to the action of petrol, lubricating oil and organic solvents and hence
used in making oil seals, tank lining, etc.
2. It is used to make protective gloves in the nuclear industry.

C) Buna-S:
1. It is used for manufacturing automobile tyres.
2. It is used for making floor tiles, footwear components, cable insulation, etc.
D) Butyl Rubber:
1. Used in making balloons and inner lining tubes.
2. Also used in sealing of automobile engines etc.
E) Hyplon:
1. It is used in making snow shoes and gloves.
2. Used in manufacturing of different types of conveyor belts.

Difference between Natural and Synthetic rubber –

Natural Rubber Synthetic Rubber

1. Natural rubber is a natural biosynthetic 1. Synthetic rubbers are man-made

polymer obtained from a tree called Hevea polymers under controlled conditions.
brasiliensis.

2. Naturally occurs in plant cells. 2. Synthesised from crude by-products by

using solution or emulsion polymerization
techniques.

3. Monomers include cis-1,4-isoprene 3. Monomers are different in each synthetic

rubber type.
4. Polymer content or the quality of latex 4. High quality rubbers with consistent
vary widely and depends on clone, polymer content can be obtained with very
 geographical area, weather, soil type, etc. low impurities.
5. Properties are difficult to change. 5. Properties can be adjusted to suit the final
application

6. Antioxidants are naturally present. 6. Antioxidants are absent.

7. Natural rubber has poor resistance to 7. Synthetic rubbers have excellent heat
ozone, polar fluids, and chemicals. It is resistance, oil resistance, ozone and weather
swollen and weakened by hydrocarbon oils resistance, polar fluids resistance, and better
and is degraded by oxygen and ozone as it aging and chemical resistance. 
ages.

Q2. Write a detailed report on Fibre reinforced plastics.

Ans-

INTRODUCTION:

Fibre-reinforced plastic, is a composite material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with

fibres. The fibres are usually glass, carbon, although other fibres such as paper or wood or
asbestos have been sometimes used. The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinyl ester or polyester
thermosetting plastic, and phenol formaldehyde resins are still in use. Fibre-reinforced plastic
are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries.

Composite materials are engineered or naturally occurring materials made from two or more
constituent materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties which
remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. Most composites have strong, stiff
fibres in a matrix which is weaker and less stiff. The objective is usually to make a
component which is strong and stiff, often with a low density. Commercial material
commonly has glass or carbon fibres in matrices based on thermosetting polymers, such as
epoxy or polyester resins. Sometimes, thermoplastic polymers may be preferred, since they
are mouldable after initial production. There are further classes of composite in which the
matrix is a metal or a ceramic. For the most part, these are still in a developmental stage, with
problems of high manufacturing costs yet to be overcome. Furthermore, in these composites
the reasons for adding the fibres (or, in some cases, particles) are often rather complex; for
example, improvements may be sought in creep, wear, fracture toughness, thermal stability,
etc.

Fibre reinforced polymer are composites used in almost every type of advanced engineering
structure, with their usage ranging from aircraft, helicopters and spacecraft through to boats,
ships and offshore platforms and to automobiles, sports goods, chemical processing
equipment and civil infrastructure such as bridges and buildings. The usage of FRP
composites continues to grow at an impressive rate as these materials are used more in their
existing markets and become established in relatively new markets such as biomedical
devices and civil structures. A key factor driving the increased applications of composites
over the recent years is the development of new advanced forms of FRP materials. This
includes developments in high performance resin systems and new styles of reinforcement,
such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles.

The FRPs are increasingly being considered as an enhancement to or substitute for

infrastructure components or systems that are constructed of traditional civil engineering
materials, namely concrete and steel. FRP composites are lightweight, no-corrosive, exhibit
high specific strength and specific stiffness, are easily constructed, and can be tailored to
satisfy performance requirements. Due to these advantageous characteristics, FRP composites
have been included in new construction and rehabilitation of structures through its use as
reinforcement in concrete, bridge decks, modular structures, formwork, and external
reinforcement for strengthening and seismic upgrade.

The applicability of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) reinforcements to concrete structures as

a substitute for steel bars or pre-stressing tendons has been actively studied in numerous
research laboratories and professional organizations around the world. FRP reinforcements
offer a number of advantages such as corrosion resistance, non-magnetic properties, high
tensile strength, lightweight and ease of handling. However, they generally have a linear
elastic response in tension up to failure (described as a brittle failure) and a relatively poor
transverse or shear resistance. They also have poor resistance to fire and when exposed to
high temperatures. They lose significant strength upon bending, and they are sensitive to
stress-rupture effects. Moreover, their cost, whether considered per unit weight or on the
basis of force carrying capacity, is high in comparison to conventional steel reinforcing bars
or pre-stressing tendons. From a structural engineering viewpoint, the most serious problems
with FRP reinforcements are the lack of plastic behaviour and the very low shear strength in
the transverse direction. Such characteristics may lead to premature tendon rupture,
particularly when combined effects are present, such as at shear-cracking planes in reinforced
concrete beams where dowel action exists. The dowel action reduces residual tensile and
shear resistance in the tendon. Solutions and limitations of use have been offered and
continuous improvements are expected in the future. The unit cost of FRP reinforcements is
expected to decrease significantly with increased market share and demand. However, even
today, there are applications where FRP reinforcements are cost effective and justifiable.
Such cases include the use of bonded FRP sheets or plates in repair and strengthening of
concrete structures, and the use of FRP meshes or textiles or fabrics in thin cement products.
The cost of repair and rehabilitation of a structure is always, in relative terms, substantially
higher than the cost of the initial structure. Repair generally requires a relatively small
volume of repair materials but a relatively high commitment in labour. Moreover the cost of
labour in developed countries is so high that the cost of material becomes secondary. Thus
the highest the performance and durability of the repair material is, the more cost-effective is
the repair. This implies that material cost is not really an issue in repair and that the fact that
FRP repair materials are costly is not a constraining drawback.

When considering only energy and material resources it appears, on the surface, the argument
for FRP composites in a sustainable built environment is questionable. However, such a
conclusion needs to be evaluated in terms of potential advantages present in use of FRP
composites related to considerations such as:

a) Higher strength
b) Lighter weight
c) Higher performance
d) Longer lasting
e) Rehabilitating existing structures and extending their life
f) Seismic upgrades
g) Defence systems
h) Space systems
i) Ocean environments
In the case of FRP composites, environmental concerns appear to be a barrier to its feasibility
as a sustainable material especially when considering fossil fuel depletion, air pollution,
smog, and acidification associated with its production. In addition, the ability to recycle FRP
composites is limited and, unlike steel and timber, structural components cannot be reused to
perform a similar function in another structure. However, evaluating the environmental
impact of FRP composites in infrastructure applications, specifically through life cycle
analysis, may reveal direct and indirect benefits that are more competitive than conventional
materials.

Composite materials have developed greatly since they were first introduced. However,
before composite materials can be used as an alternative to conventional materials as part of a
sustainable environment a number of needs remain.

 Availability of standardized durability characterization data for FRP composite

materials.

 Integration of durability data and methods for service life prediction of structural
members utilizing FRP composites.

 Development of methods and techniques for materials selection based on life cycle
assessments of structural components and systems.

Ultimately, in order for composites to truly be considered a viable alternative, they must be
structurally and economically feasible. Numerous studies regarding the structural feasibility
of composite materials are widely available in literature. However, limited studies are
available on the economic and environmental feasibility of these materials from the
perspective of a life cycle approach, since short term data is available or only economic costs
are considered in the comparison. Additionally, the long term effects of using composite
materials needs to be determined. The by-products of the production, the sustainability of the
constituent materials, and the potential to recycle composite materials needs to be assessed in
order to determine of composite materials can be part of a sustainable environment. Therefore
in this chapter describe the physicochemical properties of polymers and composites more
used in Civil Engineering. The theme will be addressed in a simple and basic for better
understanding.

MANUFACTURING PROCESS:

A) Melting

Once the batch is prepared, it is fed into a furnace for melting. The furnace may be heated by
electricity, fossil fuel, or a combination of the two. Temperature must be precisely controlled
to maintain a smooth, steady flow of glass. The molten glass must be kept at a higher
temperature (about 1371 °C) than other types of glass in order to be formed into fiber. Once
the glass becomes molten, it is transferred to the forming equipment via a channel
(forehearth) located at the end of the furnace.

B) Forming into Fibres

Several different processes are used to form fibers, depending on the type of fiber. Textile
fibers may be formed from molten glass directly from the furnace, or the molten glass may be
fed first to a machine that forms glass marbles of about 0.62 inch (1.6 cm) in diameter. These
marbles allow the glass to be inspected visually for impurities. In both the direct melt and
marble melt process, the glass or glass marbles are fed through electrically heated bushings
(also called spinnerets). The bushing is made of platinum or metal alloy, with anywhere from
200 to 3,000 very fine orifices. The molten glass passes through the orifices and comes out as
fine filaments.

C) Continuous-filament Process

A long, continuous fiber can be produced through the continuous-filament process. After the
glass flows through the holes in the bushing, multiple strands are caught up on a high-speed
winder. The winder revolves at about 3 km a minute, much faster than the rate of flow from
the bushings. The tension pulls out the filaments while still molten, forming strands a fraction
of the diameter of the openings in the bushing. A chemical binder is applied, which helps
keep the fiber from breaking during later processing. The filament is then wound onto tubes.
It can now be twisted and plied into yarn.

D) Staple-fiber Process

An alternative method is the staple-fiber process. As the molten glass flows through the
bushings, jets of air rapidly cool the filaments. The turbulent bursts of air also break the
filaments into lengths of 20-38 cm. These filaments fall through a spray of lubricant onto a
revolving drum, where they form a thin web. The web is drawn from the drum and pulled
into a continuous strand of loosely assembled fibers. This strand can be processed into yarn
by the same processes used for wool and cotton.
 E) Chopped Fiber

Instead of being formed into yarn, the continuous or long-staple strand may be chopped into
short lengths. The strand is mounted on a set of bobbins, called a creel, and pulled through a
machine which chops it into short pieces. The chopped fiber is formed into mats to which a
binder is added. After curing in an oven, the mat is rolled up. Various weights and
thicknesses give products for shingles, built-up roofing, or decorative mats.

F) Glass Wool

The rotary or spinner process is used to make glass wool. In this process, molten glass from
the furnace flows into a cylindrical container having small holes. As the container spins
rapidly, horizontal streams of glass flow out of the holes. The molten glass streams are
converted into fibers by a downward blast of air, hot gas, or both. The fibers fall onto a
conveyor belt, where they interlace with each other in a fleecy mass. This can be used for
insulation, or the wool can be sprayed with a binder, compressed into the desired thickness,
and cured in an oven. The heat sets the binder, and the resulting product may be a rigid or
semi-rigid board, or a flexible bat.

G) Protective Coatings

In addition to binders, other coatings are required for fiberglass products. Lubricants are used
to reduce fiber abrasion and are either directly sprayed on the fiber or added into the binder.
An anti-static composition is also sometimes sprayed onto the surface of fiberglass insulation
mats during the cooling step. Cooling air drawn through the mat causes the anti-static agent
to penetrate the entire thickness of the mat. The anti-static agent consists of two ingredients a
material that minimizes the generation of static electricity, and a material that serves as a
corrosion inhibitor and stabilizer.

Sizing is any coating applied to textile fibers in the forming operation, and may contain one
or more components (lubricants, binders, or coupling agents). Coupling agents are used on
strands that will be used for reinforcing plastics, to strengthen the bond to the reinforced
material. Sometimes a finishing operation is required to remove these coatings, or to add
another coating. For plastic reinforcements, sizings may be removed with heat or chemicals
and a coupling agent applied. For decorative applications, fabrics must be heat treated to
remove sizings and to set the weave. Dye base coatings are then applied before dying or
printing.
 H) Forming into Shapes

Fiberglass products come in a wide variety of shapes, made using several processes. For
example, fiberglass pipe insulation is wound onto rod-like forms called mandrels directly
from the forming units, prior to curing. The mold forms, in lengths of 91 cm or less, are then
cured in an oven. The cured lengths are then de-molded lengthwise, and sawn into specified
dimensions. Facings are applied if required, and the product is packaged for shipment.

I) Carbon fibre

Carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer or carbon-fibre-reinforced plastic (often carbon fiber), is a

very strong and light fibre-reinforced polymer which contains carbon fibres. Carbon fibres
are created when polyacrylonitrile fibres (PAN), Pitch resins, or Rayon are carbonized
(through oxidation and thermal pyrolysis) at high temperatures. Through further processes of
graphitizing or stretching the fibres strength or elasticity can be enhanced respectively.
Carbon fibres are manufactured in diameters analogous to glass fibres with diameters ranging
from 9 to 17 μm. These fibres wound into larger threads for transportation and further
production processes. Further production processes include weaving or braiding into carbon
fabrics, cloths and mats analogous to those described for glass that can then be used in actual
reinforcement processes. Carbon fibres are a new breed of high-strength materials. Carbon
fibre has been described as a fibre containing at least 90% carbon obtained by the controlled
pyrolysis of appropriate fibres. The existence of carbon fibre came into being in 1879 when
Edison took out a patent for the manufacture of carbon filaments suitable for use in electric
lamps.

J) Glass fibre Material

FRPs use textile glass fibres; textile fibres are different from other forms of glass fibres used
for insulating applications. Textile glass fibres begin as varying combinations of SiO 2, Al2O3,
B2O3, CaO, or MgO in powder form. These mixtures are then heated through a direct melt
process to temperatures around 1300 degrees Celsius, after which dies are used to extrude
filaments of glass fibre in diameter ranging from 9 to 17 μm. These filaments are then wound
into larger threads and spun onto bobbins for transportation and further processing. Glass
fibre is by far the most popular means to reinforce plastic and thus enjoys a wealth of
production processes, some of which are applicable to aramid and carbon fibres as well
owing to their shared fibrous qualities. Roving is a process where filaments are spun into
larger diameter threads. These threads are then commonly used for woven reinforcing glass
fabrics and mats, and in spray applications. Fibre fabrics are web-form fabric reinforcing
material that has both warped and weft directions. Fibre mats are web-form non-woven mats
of glass fibres. Mats are manufactured in cut dimensions with chopped fibres, or in
continuous mats using continuous fibres. Chopped fibre glass is used in processes where
lengths of glass threads are cut between 3 and 26 mm, threads are then used in plastics most
commonly intended for moulding processes. Glass fibre short strands are short 0.2–0.3 mm
strands of glass fibres that are used to reinforce thermoplastics most commonly for injection
moulding.

K) Aramid fibre Material

Aramid fibres are most commonly known Kevlar, Nomex and Technora. Aramids are
generally prepared by the reaction between an amine group and a carboxylic acid halide
group (aramid); commonly this occurs when an aromatic polyamide is spun from a liquid
concentration of sulphuric acid into a crystallized fibre. Fibres are then spun into larger
threads in order to weave into large ropes or woven fabrics (Aramid). Aramid fibres are
manufactured with varying grades to base on varying qualities for strength and rigidity, so
that the material can be somewhat tailored to specific design needs concerns, such as cutting
the tough material during manufacture.

CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES

Based on modulus, strength, and final heat treatment temperature, carbon fibers can be
classified into the following categories:

1. Based on carbon fiber properties, carbon fibers can be grouped into:

a) Ultra-high-modulus, type UHM (modulus >450Gpa)

b) High-modulus, type HM (modulus between 350-450Gpa)
c) Intermediate-modulus, type IM (modulus between 200-350Gpa)
d) Low modulus and high-tensile, type HT (modulus < 100Gpa, tensile strength
> 3.0Gpa)
e) Super high-tensile, type SHT (tensile strength > 4.5Gpa)
 2. Based on precursor fibre materials, carbon fibres are classified into:
a) PAN-based carbon fibres
b) Pitch-based carbon fibres
c) Mesophase pitch-based carbon fibres
d) Isotropic pitch-based carbon fibres
e) Rayon-based carbon fibres
f) Gas-phase grown carbon fibres

3. Based on final heat treatment temperature, carbon fibres are classified into:

a) Type-I, high-heat-treatment carbon fibres (HTT), where final heat treatment

temperature should be above 2000°C and can be associated with high-modulus
type fibre.

b) Type-II, intermediate-heat-treatment carbon fibres (IHT), where final heat

treatment temperature should be around or above 1500°C and can be
associated with high-strength type fibre.

c) Type-III, low-heat-treatment carbon fibres, where final heat treatment

temperatures not greater than 1000°C. These are low modulus and low
strength materials. 

STRUCTURE

The characterization of carbon fiber microstructure has been mainly been performed by x-ray
scattering and electron microscopy techniques. In contrast to graphite, the structure of carbon
fiber lacks any three dimensional order. In PAN-based fibers, the linear chain structure is
transformed to a planar structure during oxidative stabilization and subsequent carbonization.
Basal planes oriented along the fiber axis are formed during the carbonization stage. Wide-
angle x-ray data suggests an increase in stack height and orientation of basal planes with an
increase in heat treatment temperature. A difference in structure between the sheath and the
core was noticed in a fully stabilized fiber. The skin has a high axial preferred orientation and
thick crystallite stacking. However, the core shows a lower preferred orientation and a lower
crystallite height.
PROPERTIES

In general, it is seen that the higher the tensile strength of the precursor the higher is the
tenacity of the carbon fiber. Tensile strength and modulus are significantly improved by
carbonization under strain when moderate stabilization is used. X-ray and electron diffraction
studies have shown that in high modulus type fibers, the crystallites are arranged around the
longitudinal axis of the fiber with layer planes highly oriented parallel to the axis. Overall,
the strength of a carbon fiber depends on the type of precursor, the processing conditions,
heat treatment temperature and the presence of flaws and defects. With PAN based carbon
fibers, the strength increases up to a maximum of 1300 ºC and then gradually decreases. The
modulus has been shown to increase with increasing temperature. PAN based fibers typically
buckle on compression and form kink bands at the innermost surface of the fiber. However,
similar high modulus type pitch-based fibers deform by a shear mechanism with kink bands
formed at 45° to the fiber axis. Carbon fibers are very brittle. The layers in the fibers are
formed by strong covalent bonds. The sheet-like aggregations allow easy crack propagation.
On bending, the fiber fails at very low strain.

APPLICATIONS:

The two main applications of carbon fibers are in specialized technology, which includes
aerospace and nuclear engineering, and in general engineering and transportation, which
includes engineering components such as bearings, gears, cams, fan blades and automobile
bodies. Recently, some new applications of carbon fibers have been found. Others include:
decoration in automotive, marine, general aviation interiors, general entertainment and
musical instruments and after-market transportation products. Conductivity in electronics
technology provides additional new application. Fibre-reinforced plastics are best suited for
any design program that demands weight savings, precision engineering, finite tolerances,
and the simplification of parts in both production and operation. A molded polymer artifact is
cheaper, faster, and easier to manufacture than cast aluminium or steel artifact, and maintains
similar and sometimes better tolerances and material strengths. The Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution IV also used FRP for its spoiler material. 
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS:

FRP allows the alignment of the glass fibres of thermoplastics to suit specific design
programs. Specifying the orientation of reinforcing fibres can increase the strength and
resistance to deformation of the polymer. Glass reinforced polymers are strongest and most
resistive to deforming forces when the polymers fibres are parallel to the force being exerted,
and are weakest when the fibres are perpendicular. Thus this ability is at once both an
advantage and a limitation depending on the context of use. Weak spots of perpendicular
fibres can be used for natural hinges and connections, but can also lead to material failure
when production processes fail to properly orient the fibres parallel to expected forces. When
forces are exerted perpendicular to the orientation of fibres the strength and elasticity of the
polymer is less than the matrix alone. In cast resin components made of glass reinforced
polymers such as UP and EP, the orientation of fibres can be oriented in two-dimensional and
three-dimensional weaves. This means that when forces are possibly perpendicular to one
orientation, they are parallel to another orientation; this eliminates the potential for weak
spots in the polymer.

CONCLUSION:

This brief report of FRP has summarized the very broad range of unusual functionalities that
these products bring (Carbon FRP, Glass-FRP and Aramid fibre materials). While the
chemistry plays an important role in defining the scope of applications for which these
materials are suited, it is equally important that the final parts are designed to maximize the
value of the inherent properties of these materials. Clearly exemplify the constant trade-off
between functionality and processability that is an ongoing challenge with these advanced
materials. The functionality that allows these materials to perform under extreme conditions
has to be balanced against processability that allows them to be economically shaped into
useful forms. The ability of a polymer material to deform is determined by the mobility of its
molecules, characterized by specific molecular motions and relaxation mechanisms, which
are accelerated by temperature and stress. Since these relaxation mechanisms are material
specific and depend on the molecular structure, they are used here to establish the desired link
with the intrinsic deformation behaviour.