Power System Analysis

Prof. Debapriya Das

Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur

Lecture - 04
Resistance & Inductance

So, next is disadvantages of low power factor.

(Refer Slide Time: 00:20)

So, what are the disadvantages? For a three-phase balance system, for example; say if
load is PL say some terminal voltage is V and power factor is COSϕ , then load current is

PL
given by I L = . This is equation 35. Now if PL and V if both are constants
3VCOSϕ
say then the load current I L is inversely proportional to the power factor- if PL and V

both are constants. That is ϕ constant COSϕ is constant, then if COSϕ is low then I L is

large if PL V constant. Then COSϕ is low, so I L will be large. The poor power factor of

the system has the following disadvantages.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:21)

So, this is for first couple of hours this is for your some general ideas of the system or
power factor. Now number one: the rating of generators and transformers are inversely
proportional to the power factor. Thus generators and transformers are required to deliver
same load that is real power at low power factor if power factor is poor. Hence, system
KVA or MVA supply will increase right, because if power factor is poor although to
supply the same real power that KVA or MVA supply will increase because reactive
power will increase right. Now hence, many many other things are associated with that
later we will discuss.

At low power factor the transmission lines feeders or cable have to carry more current for
the same power to be transmitted. Because because of poor power factor more your what
you call reactive power has to flow through the line. So, thus conductor size will increase
because current will increase, therefore capacity of the conductor will increase conductor
size will increase. If current density in the line is to be kept constant right, therefore at
low power factor the transmission lines feeder or cable will have to carry more current
for the same power to be transmitted.

Thus conductor size will increase. If current density in the line is to be kept constant
right, therefore more copper is required to for transmission lines feeders and cables to
deliver the same load but at low power factor. Then we get at low power factor current
will be high right, therefore the conductor size will increase, therefore this if conductor
size increases is you did if you did more volume of the copper will be required right. So,
that way that way it is I will explain right. If it is now conductors are (Refer Time: 03:26)
ACSR conductors right all these things are there, but volume of the conductor will
increase right for the same load to be transmitted. Therefore, power factor is an poor
power factor has lot of disadvantages right.

Number 3 is power loss is proportional to the square of the current and hence inversely
proportional to the square of the power factor. So, more power losses incur at low power
factor and hence poor efficiency. That means, transmission line efficiency will be poor
because line current will increase and therefore power loss will increase. So, this is
number 3.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:06)

And number 4 is low lagging power factor result in large voltage drop, which result in
poor voltage regulation. Hence additional regulating equipment is required to keep the
voltage drop within permissible limit. So, all these are the disadvantages of poor power
factor. We always want that for any system it should operate at unity power factor
perhaps reality it may not be possible, but we want that. So, electric utilities insist the
industrial consumer, particularly industrial consumers to maintain the power factor 0.8 or
above right. In industry they have different parts of tariff right, sometimes they charge
they charge on kilowatt demand, KVA demand they have two part or three part tariff. If
your power factor is poor then KVA demand will be more, then more tariff based on KVA
demand also they charge utilities they charge from the industry on KVA demand. That is
why they have to improve the power factor right.

So, the power tariffs are devised to penalize the consumers with low lagging power factor
and force them to install power factor correct correction devices. For example, some
capacitor, that if your power factor is poor you will take you will draw more KVA from
the utility. And in this case you have to pay more money because they have a two part
tariff they charge on your maximum KVA demand also. If your KVA demand is less
means power factor is better. Or KVA demand is more means power factor is poor. So,
that is why they will always try to see that KVA demand is less, because they one part of
that tariff is based on their kilo volt ampere or KVA demand right.

Now various causes of low power factor: most of the induction motors operate at lagging
power factor. The power factor of these motors falls with the decrease of load. This is one
reason.

(Refer Slide Time: 06:21)

Then second one is: occurrence of increase supply main voltage during low load period.
The magnetizing current of inductive reactances increase and power of the electrical
plant as a whole comes down right; it is it is actually power factor right. Third one is:
very low lagging power factor of agriculture motor pump set. Agricultural motor pump
set they operate at very low power factor right, I mean very poor and because of that also
sometimes agricultural motor pump sets also you will find that frequent working of the
winding fault will be there. Then arc lamps, electric discharge lamps, and some other
electric equipments operate at very low power factor right. Arc and induction furnaces
operate on very low lagging power factor.

So, these are some of the equipment they operate at very low lagging power factor right.
These are some of the, so what you call they are common reason for low various cases
for low power factor. Next will take another example right: a peak demand of a
generating station is 90 megawatt and load factor is 0.6: the plant capacity factor and
plant use factor are 0.5 and 0.8 respectively. This plant capacity factor and plant use
factor earlier we have discussed. Determine daily energy produced b installed capacity of
plant.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:10)

And c, that reserve capacity of plant and d utilization factor. These four things we have to
obtain daily energy produced, then installed capacity of plant, then reserve capacity of
plant, and d utilization factor. So, solution maximum demand is 90 megawatt, this is
given maximum demand is given 90 megawatt right and your load factor is given 0.6 that
is also given. Therefore, average demand = maximum demand * load factor, so average
demand = (90*0.6) =54 megawatt this is the average demand. Now daily energy
produced = average demand * 24 = 54*24 = 1296 megawatt hour right.

So, from equation 3 now plant factor is equal to this part b, but b we have to find out
installed capacity of plant. Now plant factor = (annual energy produced) / (maximum
plant rating * T); plant factor is given 0.5 it is given right and actual energy produced
already you have got it 1296 megawatt hour this also you have got it. Therefore therefore,
1296
maximum plant rating = = 108 megawatt.
0.5 × 24

(Refer Slide Time: 09:39)

This is the plant rating. Therefore, plant rating is equal to installed capacity. So, installed
capacity is 108 megawatt.

Now part c reserve capacity = (installed capacity) – (peak demand). Installed capacity is
108 megawatt and peak demand is 90 megawatt that is already given, peak demand is
given 90 megawatt right, therefore 108 - 90 that is 18 megawatt. And from equation 2
utilization factor UF = (maximum demand of the system) / (rated system capacity).
Maximum demand is 90 megawatt and this is rated system capacity that is installed
capacity that is the same thing , that is the rated system capacity 108 megawatt so
90
utilization factor is = 0.833 right.
108

So, this is the general. So some examples; some 4-5 examples standard examples we
have taken for these you know that introduction part all together structure of power
systems and few other aspects right. So, from this sums we have some general ideas
regarding the different terminology, regarding transmission, generation transmission, and
distribution systems. Plus we have seen that relationship between load factor and loss
factor that how direct it is not possible, but some relationships has been established. And
those formula for relationship between loss factor and load factor are commonly used
right. And some general ideas you have regarding different type of load factor, loss factor,
utilization factor, coincidence factor, then demand factor, then diversity factor, all this
terminology in the beginning we have used right. And after this we will start for this
thing is that that what you call that resistance, inductance, capacitance of the
transmission line.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:04)

First we will see that resistance, then we will see that your what you call inductance, and
then will see the capacitance of the this thing transmission line right. So, these are the
common thing for this power system course. And so first thing is that will start from the
this thing that resistance and inductance of transmission lines after that we will see that
your what you call that capacitance.

So, basic purpose of a transmission network is to transfer electrical energy. That we have
seen these thing we have the previous thing from generating units at various locations to
that distribution systems which ultimately supplies the load. So, transmission system
actually transmits power from the generating to the consumer distribution side right. So,
transmission line also interconnect neighboring power utilities, just we have discussed
before right which allows not only economic dispatch of electrical power within regions
during normal conditions, but also transfer of power between regions during emergencies
right. So, this is that interconnected operations we have seen before, that how actually
different areas are interconnected, how it will be useful that reasons for interconnections
right.

Basically a transmission line has four parameters: resistance, inductance, capacitance and
shunt conductance. These four parameters are there for transmission system a
transmission line. So, generally your resistance is the important part of a transmission
line, because it consumes a copper loss I 2 R right; that is the major thing. So, resistance
here is important.

And for transmission system that for different your what you call different voltage levels
the different type of conductors are used. Particularly for transmission system if I can
recall all sort of thing that you will find the conductors names (Refer Time: 14:28) name
of the animals, like zebra, then tiger, then your wolf that different name of the different
type of animals right; those conductors. And it depends on the voltage levels different
conductors has different resistance per ohm per kilometer and as well as that reactance
right.

So, while of course, it has a bundled conductors are there, double circuit lines are there,
different type of when you have seen that high tension transmission line. We have seen in
each phase you may have 2 or 3 or even more conductors, bundle conductors are there,
sometime single conductors are there in each phase right. So, all these things your this
resistance depends on the your of course it depends on the type of the material whatever
ρl
used for the conductor and its cross sectional area, because we know r = (Refer
a
Time: 15:59) a is the cross sectional area of the conductor.

So when, if I recall correctly the resistance of course it depends on the cross sectional
area. If you have a very large if the cross section of the conductor is large right then
ρl
r= . So, later the resistance will be lower. But in the case of reactance resistance in a
a
very in a 33 KV to 400 KV transmission lines say resistance are different, they are totally
different I mean quite lower value to higher, higher value to lower, lower value from low
voltage to high voltage. Where is in the case of inductance and hence the reactance
whenever we try to compute I was making some computation I found that reactance part;
generally V with voltage level from 33 KV to say 400 KV reactant (Refer Time: 16:33) it
will find varies in between 0.26; 0.26ohm per kilometer to 0.34 or 0.35 ohm per
kilometer. This way more or less it varies right. For a resistance where resistance
variation is much more for your transmission line; so later will try to see.

So, this shunt conductance actually we have told three parameters: for resistance,
inductance, capacitance, and shunt conductance.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:01)

So, shunt conductance actually accounts for leakage current flowing across the insulators,
and ionized path ways in the air. But these leakage currents are negligible as compared to
the current flowing in the transmission lines. So, this shunt conductance theme will not
consider for this our study, but for the sake of clarification basically for transmission line
we consider four parameters: so resistance, inductance, capacitance, and your
conductance. So, it is for across the insulator it may happen and ionized path ways in the
air. But the series resistance causes a real power loss in the conductor, because I 2 R loss
will be there. So, resistance of the conductor is very important in transmission efficiency
evaluation and economic studies, because if resistance is more then power loss will be
more. So, this is very important.

Second thing is: the power transmission capacity of the transmission line is mainly
governed by the series inductance. For a transmission line if you see that r by x ratio is
quite small or otherwise x by r ratio is quite high right. Therefore, your power
transmission capacity of the transmission line is mainly governed by the series
inductance right. And third point is the shunt capacitance causes charging current to flow
in the line right and assumes importance for medium and long transmission line long
overhead lines.
If it is a cable then perhaps at low voltage level 11 KV also you have to consider the
charging current you cannot ignore. But for overhead transmission line this charging a
your shunt capacitance upto 33 KV level you may ignore, but 66 even 33 KV people are
considering it, but if it is 66 KV or above you have to consider the your shunt
capacitance. But if the distribution side at 11 KV side there is no need to consider the for
overhead distribution; overhead 11 KV distribution system there is no need to consider
the your charging capacitance or shunt capacitance right. But for cable you have to
consider; even it is 11 KV also you have to consider; because there charging capacitance
is quite I mean it has a significant value. You cannot you cannot ignore that.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:59)

So, these parameters are uniformly distributed throughout, but can be lumped for the
purpose of analysis on a approximate basis. Actually transmission line you have seen
these parameters are uniformly distributed right, but for our understanding and for our
analysis will consider they can be lumped for the purpose of analysis on a approximate
basis. So, this way we will analyze. For example, let us start from the line resistance.

ρ ×l
Generally the dc resistance of a solid round conductor is given by we put Rdc = .
A
This is equation 1, because this is a second topic so this is again equation 1. ρ =
resistivity of the conductor, l = length of the conductor and A =cross sectional area of the
conductor right. So, the conductor resistance is affected by three factors: one is the
frequency, second is the spiraling, and third is the temperature. This three factors
basically affects the conductor resistance. And this is basically a dc resistance
ρ ×l
Rdc = .
A

(Refer Slide Time: 21:24)

So, the dc resistance of a stranded conductor is greater than the value given by equation
1. Because spiraling; actually if you look at the transmission (Refer Time: 21:41)
conductors they are actually your spiralling of the strands make them longer than the
conductor itself. It is not a solid round conductor, it is conductor but it is stranded
conductor and because of spiralling that actual length is slightly or longer than the
conductor itself right. This increase in resistance due to spiralling is around 1 percent for
three strand conductors and about 2 percent for concentrically stranded conductors; so
little bit higher. But 1 percent, 2 percent is not that very high, but you have to consider.

Now when an alternating current flows through a conductor the current distribution
actually is not uniform. For dc current the current distribution is uniform right over the
conductor cross sectional area and the degree of non uniformity increases with increase
in frequency. Actually if it is a dc current no there is suppose cross-sectional area is say 5
centimeters square for a very large of course, 5 centimeter square and say 5 ampere
current is flowing. So, current density will be (5 /5)= 1 ampere per centimeter square.
And it is uniform for dc current.

But when alternating current or ac current flows right through a conductor the current
distribution is not uniform right, over the conductor cross sectional area. And the degree
of non uniformity increases with increase in frequency. And this will see later on when
you will study this inductance. The current density is greatest at the surface of the
conductor this causes the ac resistance to be somewhat higher than the dc resistance. And
this effect is called as skin effect. When you will study inductance at that time will see
what is skin effect right. That means, at every point of that cross section the current
density is not uniform for your this thing, for a alternating current; current density is
different.

That means this shows that ac resistance is higher than the dc resistance right.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:09)

So, this effect actually is known as Skin Effect. So, the conductor resistance increases
with the increase of the temperature. You know that if temperature varies then conductor
resistance also will increase right. For small changes in temperature right the resistance
increases linearly as temperature increases. If temperature changes is small the resistance
will also this thing increase your what you call linearly. And the resistance at of
RT R0 (1 + α 0T ) : this is equation 2.
temperature T is given by you know this =

Where RT = resistance at T 0 Celsius these are all basic thing and R0 = resistance at 00

Celsius and α 0 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 00 Celsius. So, by using

equation 2 the resistance R2 at a temperature T2 0 Celsius can be found.

(Refer Slide Time: 25:27)

1
(T2 +
)
R2 α0
0
If the resistance R1 at a temperature T Celsius is known that is that
1 = , then
R1 (T + 1 )
1
α0

see if you know the resistance R2 at temperature T2 0 centigrade can be found if the

resistance; R2 can be found at T or temperature T2 if the resistance R1 at temperature T1

if it is known to you. So, what will do from this relation? We will write one equation
R2 R0 (1 + α 0T2 ) another one will write =
= R1 R0 (1 + α 0T1 ) and (Refer Time: 26:05) then
 1
(T2 +
)
R2 α0
you will get = right.
R1 (T + 1 )
1
α0

Now this is that your, what you call this is the resistance. Although will study everything
slowly and slowly and I believe that many of you have studied these, inductance,
capacitance all these things right. So, during this time apart from of course next will
come inductance; after that capacitance and after that that medium line long line short
line, but before that I am giving one exercise to all of you and you try to do these.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:58)

For example: this is an exercise for you right. Suppose you have all these things will
study, but in advance I am giving. Suppose you have a transmission line this side is
sending end, this voltage is say V1∠δ1 , this side is receiving end is sending end voltage

V2 ∠δ 2 right, this impedance of the line is (r + j x), current flowing through this line is I

and here you have load (P +j Q); this is the load right.

Now, I am not writing anything but my recorded voice you can make out right. Now my
objective is I want to maintain this V1 and V2 ; this is voltage magnitude, V2 voltage
magnitude I want to maintain my V1 must be equal to V2 ; I want to maintain that. For

which I have to connect a shunt capacitor here which is injecting that say Q c i put j Q c
which injecting a what you call a reactive power here right- to maintain voltage. Initially
when p when it was not there V2 was say V2 was less than V1 it is a lagging load. So,

V2 was less than V1 current is flowing in this direction. Now as soon as I put some value

Q c here I want through this I want to maintain V1 is equal to V2 . Then then I want to find

out Q c in terms of I made function of in terms of V1 , V2 , P and Q. Delta has to

eliminated there should not be any delta in mathematical expression, I want to find out Q
c must be function of V1 V2 P and Q right.

Only given hint is that your Q c when you will try to find out it will be quadratic equation
of Q c. There will be two solutions for Q c: one is feasible and other is not feasible, but
both the solution will be function of V1 V2 P and Q, but one is feasible other is not

feasible right.

So this exercise I am giving you and those will take this course this is an exercise if you
can do this of your own. I will I will solve it, but before that before those video lecture
when you will see; before that if anybody can do it and can show this to me then I will
appreciate that right. So, this is very interesting problem.