I. O.

Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 8 sem I, 2020

5. Word Classes

All English words belong to one or another of the major or minor word classes (see 2.7.). A word
is assigned to a particular class according to its role in a phrase: nouns are the heads of noun
phrases, verbs of the verb phrases, adjectives of the adjective phrases, adverbs of the adverb
phrases. Prepositions are obligatory constituents of prepositional phrases, determiners (including
the articles “a” and “the”) are obligatory with singular count nouns. Pronouns stand either for
single nouns or whole noun phrases. Conjunctions connect phrases, clauses, sentences or even
larger units, such as paragraphs.
There is a close connection between functions and their realisations or, put differently, between the
eight word classes and phrases and between phrases and the five clause elements - subjects, verbals,
objects, complements and adverbials. The various types of word classes have different functions in
the phrases, and, in turn, phrases function as one or another clause element. Noun phrases, for
example, can function as subjects, objects, or, sometimes, adverbials; either noun phrases or adjective
phrases can function as complements; (only!) verbs function as parts of the verb element of a clause
(see 2 and 3).

5.1. Lexical and function words

5.1.1. Definitions and classification

Most grammars organize the lexicon - according to the grammatical behaviour and main function
of its words - into lexical words and function words, but there is more than one classification of
the word classes inside these two categories. This happens due to gradience 1 , an important
principle in grammar that leads to boundary fuzziness, generated in morpho-syntax by the fact
that word classes share characteristics among them.
Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, p. 16) identify inserts as a third class (see 2.7.) whose members
occur mainly in spoken language and are peripheral to grammar. Inserts have the following
characteristics:
 They are often marked off by a break in intonation in speech, or by a punctuation mark in
writing: e.g. Well, we made it.
 They generally carry emotional and discoursal meanings, such as oh, ah, wow, used to
express a speaker's emotional response to a situation, or yeah, no, okay, used to signal a
response to what has just been said.
 Inserts are generally simple in form, though they often have an atypical pronunciation
(e.g. hm, uh-huh, ugh, yeah). Example: Hm hm, very good!

1
Gradience = the absence of a clear-cut boundary between one category and another, for example between cup and
mug in semantics (Oxford Dictionaries).
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 8 sem I, 2020

5.1.2. Characteristics of lexical words

According to Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, pp. 15-6), lexical words, the main carriers of
information in a text, are subdivided into the following word classes (or parts of speech): nouns,
lexical verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
They share the following characteristics:
 Lexical words are members of open classes.
 Lexical words are the most numerous, and their number is growing continuously.
 They often have a complex internal structure and can be composed of several parts: e.g.
unfriendliness = un +friend + li + ness.
 Lexical words can be heads of phrases.
 They are generally the words that are stressed most in speech.
 They are generally the words that remain if a sentence is compressed in a newspaper headline: e.g.
Elderly care crisis warning.
Nouns typically refer to concrete people and things as well as to abstract ideas and phenomena
(John, teacher, book, land, peace, rain).
Lexical/main verbs typically denote actions (work, write, play), processes (change, develop,
increase) or states (sleep, fear, amaze).
Adjectives typically describe qualities, characteristics, and properties of objects, people and
phenomena expressed by nouns. (nice, difficult, easy)
Adverbs specify the circumstances (place, time, manner) in which an action takes place (here,
now, slowly).

5.1.3. Characteristics of function words

Function words have little or no lexical meaning. The same Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, p.
16) note that there are seven classes of function words: determiners, pronouns, auxiliary
verbs, prepositions, adverbial particles, coordinators, and subordinators.
The major classes in this category are prepositions, coordinators, auxiliary verbs, and pronouns.
Their main role is to indicate meaning relationships and to facilitate the interpretation of units
containing lexical words, by showing how the units are related to each other.
They share the following characteristics:
 Function words belong to closed classes, which have a very limited and fixed
membership. For example, English has only four coordinators: and, or, but and (rarely)
nor.
 Individual function words tend to occur frequently, and in almost any type of text.
Function words can be conveniently grouped according to the lexical word to which they are
associated:
grammatical unit function words
clause subordinators, wh-words, the negator not, the infinitive marker to
clause/ phrase coordinators
verb phrase auxiliaries, modals, adverbial particles
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 8 sem I, 2020

noun phrase determiners, pronouns, numerals, prepositions

5.1.4. Word-class ambiguities

 In English there are many words with multiple memberships, that is, they belong to more
than one class. For instance, without a context, we cannot know whether progress is a noun
(the rate of progress) or a verb (her ambition to progress). Other examples are presented in
the table below.
form noun verb adj adv prep sub examples
before ● She had never asked him that before.

● He was there before her.

● They'd started leaving before I arrived.

early ● Steele kicked an early penalty goal.

● He has also kicked a penalty goal early in the match.

fight ● There was a hell of a fight.

● They're too big to fight.
narrow ● He plans to narrow his focus to certain markets.

● Current review programs are too narrow.

as ● This was the beginning of his life as a cultivator.

● As they watched, a flash of fire appeared.

outside ● You can open the outside window.

● He's gone outside.
● It's sitting outside your house.

Under the same circumstances, only can be:

 adverb: I only ate the egg on the plate.
 adjective: She was an only child.
 conjunction: I’d like to, only I’m not sure how you feel about it.
That is an extreme example, as it can belong to five different classes. It can be
 determiner (preceding a noun): I know that girl.
 demonstrative pronoun: Who gave you that?
 conjunction (connecting two clauses): She claimed that she was innocent.
 relative pronoun (functioning as the subject, object, or complement of a relative clause):
It's a book that I used to read once.
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 8 sem I, 2020

 adverb (before an adjective or adverb): I’m not that desperate.

Unlike such words, homonyms share the same form, but they are not related in meaning at all.
As Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, p. 35) note, some word-class ambiguities are systematic (see 5.1.1.,
gradience). They give the example of the class of quantifiers (e.g. all, some, any, much), which can
function with similar meanings as determiners, pronouns or adverbs:
 as determiners:
He kept whistling at all the girls.
 as pronouns:
Is that all I've got dad?
 as adverbs:
Don't get all mucky.
Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002, p. 35) enumerate the word classes which are not easily classified or
which cut across other categories: wh-words, existential there, the negator not, the infinitive marker
to, and numerals.

EXERCISES

Exercise 5.1 Noun suffixes

Convert the following words into nouns by adding noun suffixes and making any other
consequent changes. Some words may take more than one noun suffix.
1. perform
2. able
3. conceive
4. speak
5. construct

*Exercise 5.2 Noun classes

Construct two sentences for each of the following nouns. Use the noun in the (a) sentence as
a count noun and the noun in the (b) sentence as a non-count noun.
1. beer
2. beauty
3. sound
4. sugar
5. paper

Exercise 5.3 Number

Supply the plural form for each of the singular nouns listed below.
1. analysis
2. thief
3. criterion
4. deer
5. stimulus
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 8 sem I, 2020

Exercise 5.4 Dependent and independent genitives

Specify whether the underlined genitives are dependent or independent by putting ‘D’ or ‘I’
in the brackets that follow each genitive.
1. In a recent poll 48 per cent of Americans thought that Japan’s ( ) economy is bigger than
America’s ( ).
2. The British government’s ( ) £50 billion sale of state-owned housing is going at a snail’s (
) pace.

*Exercise 5.5 Dependent and independent genitives

Construct two sentences for each of the following genitives. Use the genitive in the (a)
sentence as a dependent genitive and in the (b) sentence as an independent genitive.
1. the neighbours’
2. Russia’s

Exercise 5.6 Verb suffixes

Convert the following words into verbs by adding verb suffixes and making any consequent
changes. Some words may take more than one verb suffix.
1. real
2. hyphen
3. ripe
4. margin

Exercise 5.7 Classes of irregular verbs

Give the three principal parts for each of these irregular verbs.
1. grow
2. put
3. drive
4. send
5. break

Exercise 5.8 Adjective suffixes

Convert the following words into adjectives by adding adjective suffixes and making any
consequent changes. Some words may have more than one adjective suffix.
1. style
2. cycle
3. wish
4. allergy
5. care

*Exercise 5.9 Adjective classes

Construct three sentences for each of the following central adjectives. Use the adjective in
the (a) sentence as a pre-modifier of a noun, in the (b) sentence as a subject complement, and
in the (c) sentence as an object complement.
1. useful
2. foolish
3. difficult
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 8 sem I, 2020

Exercise 5.10 Gradability and comparison

Give the inflected comparative and superlative of each of these adjectives.
1. pure
2. cruel
3. easy
4. narrow
5. happy

5.13 Adverb suffixes

Convert the following words into adverbs by adding - ly or - ically and making any consequent
changes.
1. genetic
2. realistic
3. lazy
4. specific

Exercise 5.14 Pronoun classes

Circle the antecedents of the underlined pronouns and possessive determiners.
1. Scientists have discovered that pets have a therapeutic effect on their owners.
2. A dog, for instance, can improve the health of the people it comes in contact with.
3. In a recent study, the blood pressure of subjects was measured while they were petting their
pets.
4. In general, an individual’s blood pressure decreased while he was in the act of petting his pet.

Exercise 5.15 Personal pronouns

Specify the person (first, second, or third), number (singular or plural), and case (subjective or
objective) of the underlined personal pronouns. If the pronoun has a form that neutralizes the
distinction in number or case, state the alternatives, and if only one of the alternatives fits the
context underline that alternative.
1. Most of us don’t have the time to exercise for an hour each day.
2. We have our hearts in the right place, though.
3. I think ‘diet’ is a sinister word.
4. It sounds like deprivation.
5. But people who need to lose weight find that they need to lose only half the weight if they
exercise regularly.

Exercise 5.16 Possessives

Indicate whether the underlined words are possessive determiners or possessive pronouns.
1. Can you tell me your address?
2. You’ve made a mistake. The phone number is not his.
3. This is Doris and this is her husband David.
4. Justin borrowed one of my videos, but I can’t remember its title.

Exercise 5.17 Reflexive pronouns

Fill in each blank with the appropriate reflexive pronoun.
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 8 sem I, 2020

1. We congratulated ____________ on completing the job in good time.

2. I ____________ have arranged the meeting.
3. I wonder, Tom, whether you wouldn’t mind helping ____________.
4. I hope that you all enjoy ____________.

Exercise 5.18 Demonstrative pronouns

Specify whether the underlined word is a demonstrative pronoun or a demonstrative determiner.
1. This happens to be the best meal I’ve eaten in quite a long time.
2. Put away those papers.
3. That is not the way to do it.
4. You’ll have to manage with these for the time being.

Exercise 5.19 Relative pronouns

Indicate whether the underlined clause is a relative clause or a nominal relative clause.
1. We could see whoever we wanted.
2. They spoke to the official who was working on their case.
3. This is the bank I’m hoping to borrow some money from.
4. You can pay what you think is appropriate.

Exercise 5.20 Pronouns

Indicate whether the underlined pronouns are personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative,
reciprocal, interrogative, relative, or indefinite.
1. Nobody has ever seen a unicorn.
2. I intend to collect beetles.
3. What do you want me to do?
4. He can resist everything except temptation.
5. She did it all by herself.

Exercise 5.21 Indefinite pronouns

Indicate whether the underlined determiners are definite articles, indefinite articles,
demonstratives, possessives, interrogatives, relatives, or indefinites.
1. His parents would not let him see the video.
2. Many applicants were given an interview.
3. Whose shoes are those?
4. What plans have you made for the weekend?

Exercise 5.22 The articles and reference

Indicate whether the underlined phrases are generic or non-generic.
1. There is no such beast as a unicorn.
2. The train is late again.
3. The dinosaur has long been extinct.
4. Teachers are poorly paid in this country.
5. He came on a small market where women were selling dried beans.

Exercise 5.23 The articles and reference

Indicate whether the underlined phrases are specific or non-specific.
 I. O. Macari, Morpho-syntax, Lecture 8 sem I, 2020

1. Can you find me a book on English grammar?

2. Here is a book on English grammar.
3. I’d like a strawberry ice cream.
4. He says he hasn’t any stamps.
5. Who is the woman you were talking to at lunch?

Exercise 5.24 Meanings of the modals

Paraphrase the meanings of the underlined modals in the sentences below.
1. If you hit volleys like this you will have lots of success.
2. In addition to the basic volley, you may have to play half-volleys.
3. If played badly, a half-volley can have drastic consequences.
4. The grip must be firm on impact.
5. Although you can use a two-handed volley, the major disadvantage is one of reach.

*Exercise 5.25 Meanings of the modals

Explain the ambiguity of the underlined modals in the following sentences by paraphrasing the
different meanings.
1. They may not smoke during the meal.
2. Could you explain these figures to the tax inspector?

*Exercise 5.26 Conjunctions

Examine the sentences below. Then explain the differences in the uses of the coordinators (and
and or) and the subordinator when
1. The election was held last month, and the government was decisively defeated.
2. The election will be held in June or in July.
3. I intend to travel where I like and when I like.

Exercise 5.26 Prepositions

Indicate whether the underlined words are subordinators or prepositions by putting ‘S’ or ‘P’ in
the brackets that follow each word.
While ( ) he developed the theory of special relativity in ( ) about 1905, Albert Einstein lived
with ( ) a fellow student of physics who became his first wife. Some researchers believe that ( )
his wife Mileva should get at least some of the credit for ( ) the theory, since ( ) there are letters
from ( ) Einstein to her that refer to ‘our work’ and ‘our theory’.

Exercise 5.27 Word classes

At the end of each sentence you will find a label for a word class. Underline all the words in the
sentence that belong to that word class.
1. It is remarkably difficult to define what literature is. – main verb
2. Some definitions of literature say that it is language used for making fiction. – noun
3. Other definitions say that it is language used for the purpose of pleasing aesthetically. –
preposition
4. However, some critics have shown convincingly that the two definitions are necessarily
connected. – adverb