J.

Rothberg October 6, 2011

Introduction to Quantum Mechanics: Part 2

1 Algebra of State Vectors

What does the State Vector mean?

“A state vector is not a property of a physical system, but rather represents an

experimental procedure for preparing or testing one or more physical systems.”
F. Laloë[4] quoting A. Peres.[5]

There are other interpretations of the state vector: it may refer to an ensemble of identi-
cally prepared systems or even to a single system. Le Bellac (Quantum Physics, page 97
footnote) says

“... the state vector describes the physical reality of an individual quantum sys-
tem. This point of view is far from universally shared... This diversity of view-
points has no effect on the practical application of quantum mechanics.”

These state vectors like |xi are called “kets”, a name proposed by Dirac; it is part of the word
“bracket”. This way of writing state vectors in Quantum Mechanics is called Dirac Notation.

1.1 Inner Product

With ordinary vectors the inner product can be written as A · B or B · A but with state
vectors we define for each vector a “dual” vector.
There is a one-to-one correspondence between a vector and its dual vector. From a more
mathematical perspective the dual vector provides a mapping from the ket vector onto com-
plex numbers (the inner product). see Cohen-Tannoudji[6] page 110.
The dual vector corresponding to c|θi is c∗ hθ|.
Notice the complex conjugate of the constant c.
The inner products of the orthonormal basis states are hx|xi = 1 and hy|yi = 1 and hy|xi = 0.
Suppose
|ψi = λ|xi + µ|yi
hψ| = λ∗ hx| + µ∗ hy|
|φi = α|xi + β|yi
hφ| = α∗ hx| + β ∗ hy|
where |xi and |yi are orthogonal and normalized.
Show that
hψ|φi = hφ|ψi∗
we see that hψ|ψi is real.

1
2 Principles of Quantum Mechanics
2.1 Postulates - Preliminary Version

1. The state of a system is represented by a vector |Φi. This is chosen to be normalized and
|hΦ|Φi|2 = 1. This is called the state vector of the system. hΦ| is the dual vector.
2. If |Φi and |Ψi represent two physical states the probability amplitude for finding the
system prepared in state Φ to be observed in the state Ψ is given by the inner product hΨ|Φi.
The probability is the magnitude squared of the amplitude, |hΨ|Φi|2 .
After testing for state |Ψi the system is in the state |Ψi with the probability given above.
Recall that a probability is a real number between 0 and 1.

2.2 Measurement
A system has been prepared in the state |Φi. The state of the system after the testing or
“measurement” is |Ψi and we can take the point of view that the original state has been
projected along this “direction” in the vector space.
This projection of the state after a measurement is sometimes called ”state-vector collapse”
or wave function collapse or reduction.
This state-collapse is sometimes considered a postulate of Quantum Mechanics. In this
perspective we do not discuss the details of the measurement process itself.
Suppose we prepare a state |Φi and expand it in a series of basis states |xi.
X
|Φi = ax |xi
x

The ax are the amplitudes for each basis state. The amplitude is ax = hx|Φi.
Mermin[7] says

“...the link between |Φi and the value of x revealed by the measurement is this:
the probability of getting the output x is just px = |ax |2 , where ax is the am-
plitude of |xi in the expansion of |Φi. This connection between amplitudes and
the probabilities of measurement outcomes is known as the Born rule, after the
physicist Max Born.”

Paraphrasing Mermin

“ The postmeasurement state |xi contains no trace of the information present in

the premeasurement state |Φi. (beyond revealing that the amplitude ax 6= 0) ....
the state |Φi collapses or is reduced to the state |xi by the measurement.

An operator in Quantum Mechanics transforms a state into another state. A measurement

is represented by an operator.

2
2.3 Expansion in basis states
A state |Φi can be expanded in a series of basis states:

|Φi = |+ih+|Φi + |−ih−|Φi

In general X
|Φi = |ui ihui |Φi
i

where |ui i are the basis states and hui |Φi are the expansion coefficient or amplitudes.
A linear combination of state vectors is (usually) a valid state vector.
The probability of |Φi being found in state |ui i is |hui |Φi|2 , the magnitude squared of the
expansion coefficient (amplitude).

2.4 Mixture vs. Superposition

We must distinguish between a linear combination or superposition of states (sometimes called
a pure state) and a mixture of states.
a) A beam of light polarized at 45 degrees (between x and y) can be described as an equal
weighted superposition of x and y polarization states. √12 (|xi + |yi).
b) A beam of light formed by combining equal intensities of light polarized in the y direction
and light polarized in the x direction (using mirrors, for example) is completely different and
will give different results if you send it through a Polaroid analyzer in certain directions. This
is called a mixture.
What is such a light beam called? What Polaroid directions will enble you to distinguish
between these beams?

2.5 Matrix Representation

States in the two dimensional vector space and operators can be “represented” by two di-
mensional matrices. “Represented” means that the matrices will obey the same algebraic
relationships as the abstract states and operators.
When we form a matrix representation we do this in a particular basis.
The states |+i and |−i can be represented as column matrices in the +, − basis this way:
à ! à !
1 0
|+i is represented by and |−i is represented by
0 1
à !
h+|ψi
In general a state |ψi is represented by:
h−|ψi
The dual vectors are represented by row matrices.
³ ´ ³ ´
h+| is represented by 1 0 and h−| is represented by 0 1
à ! à !
a ³ ´ ³ ´ a
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
The dual of is a b and a b = |a|2 + |b|2
b b

3
Notice that Ã
the two
! basis states are normalized
à ! and orthogonal: à !
³ ´ 1 ³ ´ 0 ³ ´ 1
1 0 =1 0 1 =1 0 1 =0
0 1 0

Operators acting on such states will be represented by 2 × 2 matrices. for example:

à ! à ! à !
h̄ 0 1 h̄ 0 −i h̄ 1 0
Sx = 2 Sy = 2 Sz = 2
1 0 i 0 0 −1

The operator Sz represents a Stern-Gerlach measurement (SGz) of the z component of spin.

Similarly Sx represents a measurement (SGx) of the x component.

The most general normalized state is represented by

à !
λ
|χi = where |λ|2 + |µ|2 = 1
µ

λ and µ are complex and can be parametrized by λ = cos θ and µ = sin θ eiδ .

We are sometimes casual about equating an operator to its matrix representation. They are
different objects and more correctly a special symbol rather than an “=” should be used. In
his notes McIntyre uses =˙ to mean “represented by”.

2.6 Eigenstates and Measurements

Sakurai[3] quotes P. A. M. Dirac, one of the founders of modern quantum mechanics and
comments:
“A measurement always causes the system to jump into an eigenstate of the
dynamical variable that is being measured”
What does all this mean? We interpret Dirac’s words as follows: Before a mea-
surement of observable A is made the system is assumed to be represented by
some linear combination...
X X
|Φi = ci |ui i = |ui ihui |Φi
i i

where the |ui i are the eigenstates of an operator A corresponding to what is being measured.
“When the measurement is performed the system is ‘thrown into’ one of the
eigenstates, say |u0 i of the observable A. ...
When the measurement causes |Φi to change into |u0 i it is said that A is measured
to be u0 . It is in this sense that the result of a measurement yields one of the
eigenvalues of the observable being measured.”

If A|u0 i = u0 |u0 i we say that |u0 i is an eigenstate or eigenvector of the operator A and u0 , a
number, is the eigenvalue.
The probability for finding the system in the state |u0 i after the measurement or equivalently
for measuring u0 is |hu0 |Φi|2 as we have seen before.

4
2.7 Averages and Expectation Values
If we make measurements on a collection of identically prepared systems (an ensemble) what
will be the average of the measured values?
The average of a collection of values (even in everyday situations) is
X
Ave = Valuei × Probabilityi
i
P
The average is i ai |hai |Φi|2 where ai are the possible measured values.
P P
This can be written i ai hΦ|ai ihai |Φi = hΦ|A|Φi since A = i |ai iai hai |
ai is the eigenvalue of A in the state |ai i which is an eigenstate of A A|ai i = ai |ai i

The expectation value of an operator A in the state |Φi is hAi = hΦ|A|Φi.

This is the average value of the results of measurements of A on an ensemble of identically
prepared systems |Φi

Example: The average value of the z component of spin for a system in state |Φi is the
expectation value of Sz that is: hSz i = hΦ|Sz |Φi

2.8 Conjugate Operators

An operator A transforms a state |ψi into a new state |ψ 0 i. We write |ψ 0 i = A|ψi.
The operator which transforms the corresponding dual state (the “bra” in Dirac’s language)
is written as A† . Then hψ 0 | = hψ|A† .
From hψ 0 |φi = hφ|ψ 0 i∗ we obtain the important result

hψ|A† |φi = hφ|A|ψi∗

The Hermitian conjugate of A is A† . see Cohen-Tannoudji[6] p. 118.

1
3 x basis states for Spin 2

Using SG devices prepare the states |+ix and |−ix .

Select the state |+ix and measure |+i and |−i with a SGz device.
What is the probability of observing the output in the +z direction?
The probability amplitude is h+|+ix .
The probability or amplitude squared is |h+|+ix |2 . We observe a probability of 1/2.
Write |+ix as a linear combination of orthonormal z basis states:

|+ix = a|+i + b|−i

where a and b are in general complex.

5
 1
Then we see that h+|+ix = a and we require |a|2 = 2
to agree with the experiment.
so we find a = √1 eiα .
2

We will choose (by convention) α = 0 so a = √12 . Similarly for b.

So we find that
1
|+ix = √ (|+i + |−i)
2

3.1 Operators

Matrix Representation
An operator transforms a state. A|ψi = |φi. Expand the states in the z basis.
|ψi = |+ih+|ψi + |−ih−|ψi
|φi = |+ih+|φi + |−ih−|φi
Then A|ψi = |φi bcomes

A (|+ih+|ψi + |−ih−|ψi) = |+ih+|φi + |−ih−|φi

Take the inner product with h+| and also with h−|

h+|A|+ih+|ψi + h+|A|−ih−|ψi = h+|φi

h−|A|+ih+|ψi + h−|A|−ih−|ψi = h−|φi

Write this as a matrix equation.

à !à ! à !
h+|A|+i h+|A|−i h+|ψi h+|φi
=
h−|A|+i h−|A|−i h−|ψi h−|φi

Average value
The operator A is associated with the measurement of an observable. Expand operator A,
as a spectral decomposition in terms of projection operators on basis states.

A = |+ia+ h+| + |−ia− h−|

where a+ and a− are the measured values of the observable in each of the two basis states.
For components of spin a+ = h̄2 and a− = − h̄2
Evaluate
hψ|A|ψi = hψ|+i h+|ψi a+ + hψ|−i h−|ψi a− = P+ a+ + P− a−
where P+ and P− are the probabilities for finding each of the basis states.

6
This is the average value of the measured quantity in the state |ψi. It is called the expec-
tation value of A and is often written as hAi.
P
In general the average is n Pn an where n labels the basis states.

Eigenvalues
A is diagonal in this basis. The diagonal elements of A are the eigenvalues of A and the
states |+i and |−i are the eigenstates of A. Notice that A|+i = a+ |+i. If the system to be
measured is in an eigenstate of the operator A then the state is not changed as a result of
the measurement. If it is in a linear superposition of states then after the measurement it
“collapses” into one of the eigenstates.

3.2 Spin Operators

The operators corresponding to measurements of the components
of spin 12 written in the z basis are :
à ! à ! à !
h̄ 0 1 h̄ 0 −i h̄ 1 0
Sx = 2 Sy = 2 Sz = 2
1 0 i 0 0 −1

Of course the Sz operator is diagonal in the z basis.

The eigenstates of Sz are |+iz = |+i |−iz = |−i
à ! à !
1 0
and
0 1

The eigenstates of Sx are |+ix = √1 (|+i + |−i) |−ix = √1 (|+i − |−i)

2 2
à ! à !
√1 1 √1 1
and
2 1 2 −1

The eigenstates of Sy are |+iy = √1 (|+i + i|−i) |−iy = √1 (|+i − i|−i)

2 2
à ! à !
√1 1 √1 1
and
2 i 2 −i

sin 2a = 2 sin a cos a cos 2a = cos2 a − sin2 a

sin(a ± b) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b cos(a ± b) = cos a cos b ∓ sin a sin b

cos2 a − sin2 b = cos(a + b) cos(a − b)

sin2 a − sin2 b = sin(a + b) sin(a − b)
cos2 a − cos2 b = − sin(a + b) sin(a − b)

7
 Direction of the Stern-Gerlach to prepare a state

Example

A beam of atoms is prepared in the state |ψi = cos 2θ |+i + sin 2θ |−i

The state which is orthogonal to this state is |ψ⊥ i = sin 2θ |+i − cos 2θ |−i

This is an eigenstate of the spin operator Sθ = cos θ Sz + sin θ Sx (derived below).

The average value of the x component of spin is h̄2 sin θ and the average value of the z
component is h̄2 cos θ. The average value of the y component is 0.
In what direction does the spin point on the average?
In what direction should a Stern-Gerlach device be oriented to prepare these states?
For the particular values θ = 0, π2 , π check that the state and the averages agree with what
you expect. Which way would you say that the spin points for these cases?

Rewrite the states in the z basis using the matrix representation.

   
cos 2θ sin 2θ
   
|ψi =   |ψ⊥ i =  
sin 2θ − cos 2θ

 θ

cos2 2
cos 2θ sin 2θ
 
|ψihψ| =  
cos 2θ sin 2θ sin2 θ
2

 
sin2 θ
2
− cos 2θ sin 2θ
 
|ψ⊥ ihψ⊥ | =  
θ θ
− cos sin 2 2
cos2 2θ

 
cos2 2θ − sin2 θ
2
2 cos 2θ sin 2θ
 
|ψihψ| − |ψ⊥ ihψ⊥ | =  
2 cos 2θ sin 2θ − cos2 2θ + sin2 θ
2

 
cos θ sin θ
h̄   h̄
Sθ = 2   = 2 (Sz cos θ + Sx sin θ)
sin θ − cos θ

8
 Eigenstates, Directions, and Averages
The Stern-Gerlach device has a magnetic field direction at an angle θ with the z axis in the
x, z plane. Compare with expectations for θ = 0, θ = π2 , θ = π.

Check that |ψi is an eigenstate of Sθ with eigenvalue + h̄2 .

     
cos θ sin θ cos 2θ cos θ cos 2θ + sin θ sin 2θ
h̄     h̄  
Sθ |ψi = 2    =
2  
sin θ − cos θ sin 2θ sin θ cos 2θ − cos θ sin 2θ
 
cos 2θ
h̄  
Sθ |ψi = h̄2 |ψi = 2  
sin 2θ

Evaluate the average value (expectation value) hψ|Sθ |ψi = hSθ i.

   
³ ´ h̄ cos θ sin θ cos 2θ
   
hSθ i = cos 2θ sin 2θ 
2   
sin θ − cos θ sin 2θ

References
[1] A. P. French and Edwin F. Taylor, An Introduction to Quantum Physics, W. W. Norton,
1978.

[2] M. Le Bellac, Quantum Physics. Cambridge University Press, 2006.

[3] J. J. Sakurai, Modern Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, 1985.

[4] F. Laloë, “Do we really understand quantum mechanics?”, Am. J. Phys. 69 (6), 2001

[5] A. Peres, “What is a state vector?”, Am J. Phys. 52 (7) 1984.

[6] C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B. Diu, F. Laloë, Quantum Mechanics, John Wiley,1977.

[7] N. David Mermin, “From Cbits to Qbits”, Am. J. Phys. 71 (1), 2003.

[8] John S. Townsend, A Modern Approach to Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, 1992.

Quantum Physics, University Science Books, 2010.

[9] M. Le Bellac, Quantum Information and Quantum Computing. Cambridge University

Press, 2006.