Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

LAB 2

Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Group Members:

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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Contents
Introduction...........................................................................................................................................3
Objectives..............................................................................................................................................3
Experiment 1: Signal Analysis................................................................................................................3
Procedure..........................................................................................................................................3
Discussion..........................................................................................................................................4
Experiment 2: Capturing and analysing a strain gage’s response using an oscilloscope........................5
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................5
Procedure..........................................................................................................................................5
Results...............................................................................................................................................5
Discussion..........................................................................................................................................6
Experiment 3: Determination of the values of spring constants...........................................................6
Experiment 3a: Single Spring.............................................................................................................6
Introduction...................................................................................................................................6
Procedure......................................................................................................................................6
Results...........................................................................................................................................6
Experiment 3b: Red and Blue Springs in Series..................................................................................8
Procedure......................................................................................................................................8
Experiment 3c: Red and Blue Springs in Parallel................................................................................9
Procedure....................................................................................................................................10
Results.........................................................................................................................................10
Discussion........................................................................................................................................11
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................11
References...........................................................................................................................................11

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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Introduction
The function of a typical measurement system include acquiring, conditioning, processing
and displaying the signal whether it is an analog or a digital signal. In this laboratory
exercise, students were introduced to different types of signals and procedures of acquiring
them. Experimental data was analysed using Microsoft excel to determine various
parameters.

Objectives
The main objectives of the experiment were to:

 To familiarize students with different types of signals, their characteristics , and

properties
 To acquire and analyse the response of a strain gage for a step input
 To experimentally determine spring constant for a single spring and two springs in
series

Experiment 1: Signal Analysis

This experiment was meant to familiarize the students with different types of signals using a
function generator, an oscilloscope, and a frequency counter.

Procedure
A function generator was used to generate a sine wave with a frequency of 50Hz. An
oscilloscope was use to acquire the wave’s a amplitude and frequency. The frequency was
measured using a frequency counter. The above procedure was repeated for 2kHZ and 15kHZ
frequency waves. The wave form was then changed to square and triangular waves. Using the
FFT function provided with the scope, the shapes of the frequency spectrum for the sine
waves of 100Hz and 2.5 kHz, the peak frequency was the FFT plot was determine. The
results were presented as shown below.

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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Oscilloscop Frequency
Signal e   Counter    
Frequency Amplitude
  (Hz) (V) Frequency(Hz) Difference in frequencies %error
50Hz
Sine 50 142 50.02 0.02 0.04%
2kHZ
Sine 2000 142 1990 -10 -0.50%
15kHZ
Sine 14930 160 15000 70 0.47%
2kHZ
Square 2000 150 2040 40 2.00%
2kHZ
Triangl
e 2000 150 2000 0 0.00%

Table 1: Data Sheet for Experiment 1

Discussion
Time and frequency domain are two different ways to see a signal from two different
angles. In time domain, a signal can be seen as a combination of many scaled and shifted
impulse. A plot of a signal, at any instance t, represents strength (amplitude) or the scaling
factor of the shifted impulse. A frequency signal on the other hand, is composed of many sine
and cosine waves of different frequencies. A mathematical tool, as the Fourier series is used
to separate the sines waves that add to form the complex time-domain signal (Konold &
Pollatsek, 2002).The amplitude of each frequency is the amplitude of the time waveform for
that frequency component.

Oscilloscope is more accurate in recording the magnitude frequency of the signal

compared to frequency generator since it is an analogue while the latter provide digital
signals. Generally, analogue signal generators give more exact values as they give continuous
signals. Digital signal generators are less accurate as they give finite range of values.
However, both vales of the frequency agree with the signal generator largely.

Fast Fourier transform (FFT), is a widely used signal-processing and analytic concept.
It first appeared in 1970s when microprocessors entered the commercial design. An algorithm
transforms the structure of a cycle of a waveform into sine components. In other words, FFT
coverts time based signal to a frequency-based signal. It also facilitates identification of
multiple frequencies involved in the signal. FFT is used for many applications in engineering,
science, and mathematics (Shuman et al, 2012). Among them is fault diagnostics in industrial
equipment. Other important applications are analysis of sound waves and image-processing
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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

technologies. It is important to assess the frequency distribution of the power in sound

because the human ear exercises capacity in the hearing process.

Experiment 2: Capturing and analysing a strain gage’s response using

an oscilloscope
Introduction
The purpose of this experiment was to demonstrate the response of a typical second order
system subjected to step input and then analyse the captured signal obtained from an
oscilloscope.

Procedure
The bar with a strain gauge on the table was secured using a C-clamp. The output of strain
gauge was connected to a data conditioning and power supply unit and the appropriate gain
on the unit set. The output of the signal conditioning unit was connected to the oscilloscope.
The beam was then given an initial deflection of about 1 inch at the free end. The beam was
then released to acquire the signal on the oscilloscope. This was repeated severally. Using
the cursor functions of the scope, the periods of the first 5 cycles of the captured signal was
measured and the average period and corresponding average frequency of the signal
determined.

Results
Signal Period(Unit) Per cycle Frequency
1 cycle 35 35 28.6
2 cycles 68 34 28.9
3 cycles 102 34 29.4
4 cycles 167 41.75 29.19
5 cycles 102.2 20.44 29.6
Average Values   0.033038 29.138
Table 2: Data Sheet for Experiment 2

Discussion
The function of the strain gauge with an average frequency of 29.14Hz and an initial
amplitude of 1 inch is given as; f(t)= 1 sin(29.14t). The actual signal of the strain gauge
recorded in the experiment was smooth looking as the one presented in the manual. This is
because the signals generated by the oscilloscope are of different frequencies and, as such, we
cannot have a clear signal. Further, the value of the average period does not coincide with
any of the measured periods since it we do not have a signal that lies clearly at the middle of
other signals.

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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Experiment 3: Determination of the values of spring constants

Experiment 3a: Single Spring
Introduction
An elastic element, such as a spring requires a certain amount of load to induce a
given change in its length. This property of the spring is called the spring constant. This
experiment was conducted to determine the spring constants of two given springs (red and
blue) using linear regression.

Procedure
In this experiment, the length of the spring without any load was determined. 50gm of
load was then added attached at the free end of the spring and the new length of the spring
measured. The above process was repeated for three more loads and for the other spring and
the results tabulated as shown below.

ResultsBlue Spring
Load (gm) Load(N) Spring Length (mm) Spring Length(m) Extension (m)
0 0 150 0.15 0
50 0.49 160 0.16 0.01
100 0.98 165 0.165 0.015
200 1.96 215 0.215 0.065
300 2.94 265 0.265 0.113

Table 3: Data Sheet for the Experiment 3a (Blue Spring)

Plot of Load against Extension for Blue Spring

3.5

3 f(x) = 27.67 x
2.5
Load in N

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Extension in mm

Figure 1: Plot of Load (N) Vs Extension (m) for the blue spring

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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Red Spring
Load (gm) Load(N) Spring Length (mm) Spring Length(m) Extension (m)
0 0 160 0.16 0
50 0.49 205 0.205 0.045
100 0.98 255 0.255 0.095
200 1.96 350 0.35 0.19
300 2.94 447 0.447 0.287

Table 4: Data Sheet for the Experiment 3a (Red Spring)

Plot of Load against Extension for Red Spring

6

5
f(x) = 37.56 x

4
Load in N

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Extension in mm

Figure 2: Plot of Load (N) Vs Extension (m) for the Red Spring

From figure 1 and 2 above

N
Spring constant for the Blue Spring= 27.67
m

N
Spring constant for the Red spring =10.279
m

Experiment 3b: Red and Blue Springs in Series

The above two springs in experiment 3a were connected in series and their equivalent spring
constant was determined experimentally using regression. At the same time, using the theory
of springs in series the equivalent spring constant was calculated using the individual spring
constants obtained in experiment 3 and compared with the experimentally determined value.
In order to undertake this experiment, the following procedures were followed.

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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Procedure
The two springs were connected in series and their length measured with
no load. The springs were then secured on a fixed structure. A load of
50gm was then hanged on the free end of the spring and the new length
of the springs measured. The above procedure was repeated for several
loads and the results tabulated as shown below:Springs in Series
Load Load(N Spring Length Spring Extension
(gm) ) (mm) Length(m) (m)
0 0 345 0.345 0
50 0.49 395 0.395 0.05
100 0.98 457 0.457 0.112
200 1.96 615 0.615 0.26
300 2.94 750 0.75 0.405

Table 5: Data Sheet for the Experiment 3b (Springs in Series)

Plot of Load against Extension for springs in Series

3.5

3
f(x) = 7.44 x
2.5
Load in N

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Extension in mm

Figure 3: Plot of load (N) against extension(m) for the springs in series

N
The equivalent spring constant, Keq, was found to be 7.4373 from the experiment. The
m
theoretical value for the equivalent spring constant was calculated as;

1 1
N
Keq= 1 + 1 = 1 1 = 7.495
+ m
K 1 K 1 27.67 10.279

Exerimental−Theoretical 7.437−7.495
Error= ×100%= ×100 %= -0.774%
Theoreticl value 7.495

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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Experiment 3c: Red and Blue Springs in Parallel.

In this part, the two springs were connected in parallel and their equivalent spring
constant experimentally determined as in 3a. The equivalent spring constant for the springs
was then determined using the theory of springs in parallel using the spring constants of the
individual springs. In order to undertake this experiment, the following procedures were
followed.

Procedure
The red and the Blue Springs were connected in parallel and their length determined
without any load. The two springs were then secured on a fixed structure. A load of 100gm
was hanged on the free end of the spring and the new length of the springs measured. The
above procedure was repeated for several loads and the results tabulated as shown below.

ResultsSprings in Parallel
Load Load(N Spring Length Spring Extension
(gm) ) (mm) Length(m) (m)
0 0 155 0.155 0
100 0.981 157 0.157 0.002
200 1.962 190 0.19 0.035
400 3.924 260 0.26 0.105
500 4.905 290 0.29 0.135

Table 6: Data Sheet for the Experiment 3c (Springs in Parallel)

Plot of Load against Extension

6

5
f(x) = 37.56 x

4
Load in N

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16
Extension in mm

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Signal and Data Analysis Laboratory

Figure 4: Plot of load (N) against extension (m) for the springs in Parallel

N
The equivalent spring constant, Keq, was found to be 37.561 from the experiment. The
m
theoretical value for the equivalent spring constant was calculated as;

N N N
Keq= k1+K2= 27.67 +10.279 = 37.949
m m m

Exerimental−Theoretical 37.561−37.949
Error= ×100%= × 100 %= -1.022%
Theoreticl value 37.949

Discussion
The unit of the spring constant was calculated as N/m. The load was converted from grams to
N and the extension from mm to m. Theoretically, figure 1and 2 which shows a plot of load
against extension for the blue and red springs was supposed to be linear. However, the results
from the experiment did not give an exact linear curve. This is because of some errors, which
were conducted during the experiment. The devices used or the human error caused such
errors. However, the experiment obeyed the Hookes’ law largely. The experimental value of

N
the equivalent spring constant for the springs connected in series and parallel were 7.437
m

N
and 37.561 with errors of -0.774% and -1.022% respectively. The small errore in the series
m
and parallel connection was due to measurements errors during the experiment.

Conclusion
The experiment was successful. Learners were able to familiarize themselves with the
different types of signals, their characteristics and properties. They were also able to acquire
and analyse the response of a strain get for a step input. Lastly, students were able to
determine experimentally the spring constant for a single spring and two springs in parallel
and in series.

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References
Konold, C., & Pollatsek, A. (2002). Data analysis as the search for signals in noisy
processes. Journal for research in mathematics education, 259-289.

Shuman, D. I., Narang, S. K., Frossard, P., Ortega, A., & Vandergheynst, P. (2012). The
emerging field of signal processing on graphs: Extending high-dimensional data
analysis to networks and other irregular domains. arXiv preprint arXiv:1211.0053.

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