Pic showing evolution of the Pallavan Order

DRAVIDIAN
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
paper presented at Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, January 1968 by T.V.Mahalingam,
Professor of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras on Tamil Art & Architecture

Compiled and submitted by Dr Uday Dokras

 "The following works of art ...are among the most remarkable contributions of the Tamil
creative genius to the world's cultural treasure and should be familiar to the whole world and
admired and beloved by all in the same way as ... the cathedrals of France and the sculptures
of Greece ...... Dravidian temple architecture, of which the chief representatives are perhaps
the temples of Tanjore, Chidambaram and Madurai....." Tamil Contribution to World
Civilisation - Czech Professor Dr. Kamil Zvelebil in Tamil Culture - Vol. V, No. 4. October,
1956
"...The plan of a temple closely resembles the plan of a human body in which the Sanctum
Sanctorum (garbha gudi) is the head and the outer gate is the lower limb. The spine
(gopuram) on the outer gate is the foot of the Lord. Even if a visitor does not enter the temple,
he can as well contemplate on the gopuram and derive the benefit of a darshan. Temple
architecture developed in two streams, Saiva style and Vaishnava style. Silpa is the
architecture and Agama is the mode of worship. Agama of the Saivas is different from that of
the Vaishnavas. The Vaishnava worship is again in two different styles, the Vaikasana and the
Pancharatra. .." Architecture of a Hindu Temple - Sthapathi

"Before sketching in outline the evolution of architecture it is necessary to acquaint ourselves

with the major types of extant structures. These basic shapes are fivefold, viz., square (caturasra),
rectangular (ayatasra), elliptical (vrittayata), circular (vritta) and octagonal (astasra). Generally
speaking the plan of the temple was conditioned by the nature of the consecrated deity. The
shrine of the reclining Ranganatha, for example, can only be rectangular. The basic shapes are
amply reflected in the superstructure of the vimas . Though square and rectangular shrines are
frequently met with, circular and octagonal shapes are very rare. However these forms are
represented in the sikhara of the vimana. The apsidal form, a derivative from Buddhist
architecture, was popular up to the 10th century in the Tondaimandalam, after which it declined
in usage.

Mention should also be made here of the temples which have more than one shrine in the vertical
order. This is to be found in a handful of Vaisnava temples as those
at Kanchipuram, Uttiramerur, Madurai, Tirukkostiyur etc. Three shrines, one above the other, are
found in these and are intended for the seated, standing and reclining forms of Visnu.

Unlike other parts of India the architectural history of the Tamil country starts only with the
beginning of the seventh century A.D., the monuments built before that period having perished.
In early Tamil literature we hear of such structures as koyil, maddam, nagaram, palli, pali. etc.,
which are apparently references to temples or religious edifices. Presumably they were built of
impermanent materials which have succumbed to the ravages of time.

The earliest extant monuments in the Tamil country are the rock-cut caves scooped out under the
Pallavas, and following them by the Pandyas, Muttaraiyars, and Atiyas. In his inscription in the
cave of Laksitayatana at Mandagappattu, South Arcot district, Mahendravarman I (610-630
A.D.) declares that he caused the construction of the temple for Siva, Visnu and Brahma without
the use of conventional building materials like brick, timber, metal and mortar; and the tenor of
the language has been taken to indicate that the king was introducing a new mode of architecture
by scooping out the cave.

Many other cave temples are definitely attributable to Mahendravarman on the authority of his
inscriptions in them. These include the excavations at Pallavaram, Mahendravadi, Mamandur,
Tiruchirapalli, Slyamangalam and Dalavanur. The Vasantesvaram at Vallam was also excavated
in Mahendravaraman's reign by a feudatory of his.

Besides these caves of definite authorship, those at Kuranganilmuttam, Vilappakkam,

Aragandanallur and the Rudravahsvara cave at Mamandur are stylistically attributable to the
period of Mahendravarman. These caves of Mahendra are simple in plan and consist of a
mandapa with one or a few shrines. The sculptural decoration of the caves is inconspicuous. The
pillars in them are equidistant and have square sections both on base and top with the portion in
between chamfered octagonally. In the square section are seen delicate carvings of lotus
medallions. The pillars and pilasters carry on top massive corbels with beams.

This 'Mahendra style' was continued by his son and successor Mamalla, the famous
Narasimhavarman I, who, however, introduced certain variations in some of his caves. In these
the entablature is almost completely finished, unlike in those of the Mahendra variety. Besides
kudu arches in the cornice, it carries salas, karnakutas and alpanasikas. The pillars in Mamalla's
caves are not only taller but also more slender than those of his father. The strutting figure of a
lion ro vyala as the base of the pillar is a notable feature. Again in Mamalla's caves one can also
find large bas-reliefs on walls in striking contrast to their plain nature in all but one of
Mahendra's caves. The Konerimandapam, Varahamandapam, Mahisamardanimandapam,
Trimurti cave, Adivaraha cave, Ramanujamand. apam, etc. - all at Mahabalipuram - are typical
examples of the Mamalla types of rock architecture.

The Pandyas, who were ruling in the extreme south of the Tamil country, appear to have soon
adopted the rock-cut technique and developed certain interesting variations in their excavations.
It is possible that the cave at Pillaiyarpatti is one of the earliest Pandya attempts in the rock
medium as evidenced by the archaic palaegraphy of the inscription in Vatteluttu characters in it.
The Siva cave shrine at Malaiyadikurichi is assignable on the basis of an inscription to the
second half of the seventh century and the Narasimha cave at Anamalai and the Subrahmanya
cave at Tirupparankunram are on the same ground datable respectively to 770 to 773 A.D.

At Tiruttangal, Piranmalai, Kudumiyamalai and Sittannavasal are to be found other caves of the
Pandyas. Though similar to Pallava caves in plan and design, the Pandya examples differ from
them in their adoption of certain Calukyan features such as the introduction of the rock-cut linga
and Nandi and sculptural representations of Ganesa and Saptamatrkas. The pillars are large and
reminiscent of those of the Mahendra variety with corbels generally with a plain level.

In this movement of scooping out live rocks for divine abodes minor dynasties like the Atiyas
and Muttaraiyars also participated, though stylistically their excavations are much akin to those
of their political master. The cave at Namakkal is evidently an Atiya enterprise while Muttaraiya
involvement may be seen at Tiruvellarai, Narttamalai, Kunrlandarkoil etc.

Under Narasimhavarma I, Pallava rock-architecture took a new turn. besides cutting into rocks
for caves, attempts were made to cut out monoliths from rocks. The rudiments of this practice are
to be found in the carved-out stupas in the caves of Western India and the vimana-form in the
Tawa cave at Udayagiri but it was at Mahabalipuram under the Pallavas that it found a full and
eloquent expression.

Architecturally they depict the external aspects of contemporary brick and timber structures.
There are as many as nine monoliths at Mahabalipuram of which the five, named after the
Pandavas and Draupadi, are a well-known assemblage of contiguous excavations, the other
examples are the Ganesa ratha, Valayankuttai ratha and the two Pidari rathas. As they represent
varying architectural designs they are of primary importance for any study of the plan and
different zones and the details of the Yima-nas.

The Dharmaraja-ratha is three-storeyed with a square viguana and an octagonal dome. Though
the Arjunaratha is similar to this it is two-storeyed. The Bhimaratha has a wagon-top roof and is
single-storeyed unlike the Ganesa ratha, another example of wagon top roof, which is double-
storeyed. The Draupadiratha is hut-shaped and is square in plan and its roof is domical.
The Sahadevaratha represents the apsidal form with its back resembling that of an elephant, a
feature high-lighted by the carving of a huge elephant by the side of the monolith.

The only non-Pallava monolith in the Tamil country is Kalugumalai which was cut-out under the
Pandyas. This has been cut out, like the Rastrakuta monoliths in the Deccan, by entrenching all
round and not by free cutting of standing rocks as in the Pallava domain.

Though the rock medium appears to have continued for some more time it was soon replaced by
structural temples. This movement, as available evidences indicate, appears to have first started
under Narasimhavarman I's grand-son Paramesvaravarman (669-691 A.D.), though it is not
unlikely that the practice was still older. A few pillars in the typical Mahendra style, one of them
with an inscription of Mahendravarman I, found in the Eltamranatha temple
at Kanchipuram seem to suggest that even at the beginning of the seventh century structural
mandapas were built. The presence of Pallava pillars at Sivanvayil, Kuram, Vayalur, Tirupporur
etc., is enough to confirm this.

The Vidyavimta Pallavesvaragriha at Kuram built by Paramesvaravarman I is an early structural

edifice. The provision of a series of vertical and horizontal slabs instead of a full bAitti is an
interesting and early feature in this temple. While this is a small temple and reflects the modest
nature of the enterprise, the temples of the next reign are large in size, elaborate in plan and rich
in architectural and sculptural decorations. With the accession of Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha
the history of Pallava architecture enters upon a new and eventful phase.

While the temples of Kailasanatha at Kanchipuram, Talagirlsvara at Panamalai and the Shore
temple at Mahabalipuram are indisputably assignable to his reign on epigraphical grounds, a
large number of other smaller temples are also stylistically akin to them. The temples of
Vaikuntanatha, Muktesvara and Matangesvara at Kanchipuram are said to be slightly later and
belong to the reign of Nandivarman Pallavamalla.

The Kailasanatha is four-storeyed and is an example of sandharaprasada containing two walls

providing an ambulatory.
The storeys are decorated with architectural designs like kutas, kostas and panjaras. The pillars in
structural temples are with rampant lions generally and with elephants, nagas and bhulas at
times. Niches are to be seen in both the rock-cut and structural temples and have a makaratorana
decoration on their top, the makaras in them having floriated tails overflowing on the sides. The
corbels are generally curved in profile with the taranga (wave moulding) ornament and a median
band. The gopuras are absent in these early temples.

In the Kailasanatha at Kanchi and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram there are faint but
unmistakable suggestions of gopuradhvaras which were to evolve into towers. Another feature of
these early structural temples is the almost prodigal sculptural embellishment of the exterior
walls. The carvings are invariably those of deities, a few of which appear to be fresh inceptions
from the Calukyan area.

The Colas who supplanted the Pallavas about the middle of the ninth century as a political force
continued the latter's artistic activities. For about five centuries a large part of the Tamil country
besides peripheral regions in contiguous areas in Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala were under their
sway which they studded with hundreds of temples. On the basis of certain accepted notions
regarding the evolution of temple architecture and on the authority of numerous inscriptions it is
now fairly possible to determine the dates of most of the Chola monuments. Though the
periodisation of South Indian art-history is even now a subject of debate it is conceded by most
scholars that the Chola temples are broadly divisible into three groups:

the first group belonging to the period from the accession of Vijayalaya to the accession of
Rajaraja I (i.e., 850-985 A.D.);

the second group assignable to the period from the accession of Rajaraja I to the accession of
Kulottunga (985-1070 A.D.); and
the third group comprising the period from the accession of Kulottunga I to the decline and fall
of the Chola empire under Rajaraja III and Rajendra III (1070-1270 A.D .).

The temples of the first group are many which in stylistic characteristics break away from the
structural temples of the Pallavas. In the Pallava temples the lowermost tier of the vimana is
extended to the vestibule in front of the shrine, while this is not found in early Chola temples, the
only exception being the Vijayalayacolisvaram at Narttamalai

[see also Takeo Kamiya - Architecture of the Indian Sub Continent] which according to recent
researches is not a Chola but a Muttaraiya edifice. The torus moulding in the basement which is
chamfered in Pallava temples continues to be so in the Chola period for sometime but soon gets a
rounded shape. The cornice in Chola temples is no longer a projecting tier as it is in Pallava
monuments but gets a flexed shape. The old lion and vyala motifs in pillars are also dispensed
with, though they linger for sometime in a few temples. Further, the corbels in pillars get an
angular profile and are bevelled, resulting in a triangular, tenon-like projection. The absence of
extravagant sculptural decoration on the exterior of the shrine walls is another distinguishing
feature.

Though typical early Chola examples are numerous, special mention must be made of those at
Kilaiyur, Srinivasanallur (Koranganatha), Kumbhakonam, Erumbur, Pullamangai, Punjai and
Kodumbalur. The introduction of sub shrines for attendant divinities (parivara-devatas) noticed
in these temples reveals elaboration and development of the temple complex.

In fact the beginnings of this practice are to be discerned even in the latter Pallava temple of
Virattanesvara at Tiruttani built under Aparajita. This temple, though Pallava in name, is Chola
in design and style and chronologically almost coeval with some of the Chola monuments
enumerated above. The parivdra shrines, usually eight in number, were meant for attendant
deities like Ganesa, Subrahmartya, Surya, Candra, Saptamatrkas, Jyestha, Candikesvara and
Nandi. The gopuras of this period continue to be inconspicuous, the vimanas, dominating the
temple complex.

Generally speaking, temples built under Aditya and Parantaka contained only three niches in the
shrine walls, one on each wall, and two niches in the walls of the ardhamandapa, again one on
each wall. While the niches in the southern and northern walls of the ardhamandapa carried
respectively carvings of Ganesha and Durga, those of the main shrine were intended for Daksin
amurti and Brahma. The niche in the rear wall offered scope for variation, the enshrined deity
being either Lingodhbhava or Visnu, Harihara or Ardhanarisvara.

But even in two very early temples - those at Srinivasanallur and Kumbhakonam - the tendency
to multiply the niches is found, the additional niches carrying what looks like portraits. This
tendency has been developed in the temples built by Sembiyan Mahadevi, mother of Uttamacola
at such places as Tirukkodikkaval, Sembiyan Mahadevi, Anangur, Aduturai, Tirunaraiyur,
Kuttalam, etc., where the additional niches carry such iconographic types as Nataraja, Bhiksatana
and Ardhanri besides Agastya.

These early Chola architectural traditions are carried to those of the later Chola period by the
temples built under the illustrious Rajaraja and his son Rajendra. Many are the extant examples
assignable to this middle phase, the most famous among them being
the Brihadisvara temple at Tanjore and Gangaikondacolapuram.

Other temples of this period are those at Tiruvaji, Malpadi,

Tiruvalajuli, Tirumalavadi, Tiruvarangulam, Dadapuram, etc. In
most of these temples the basement is ornamented with pilasters
which carry a cornice. The walls have a greater number of niches
and a semi-circular arch (tiruvacci) the centre of which is identical
with that of the kadu which appears beneath the architrave and over the niche. The introduction
of the kumbhapaajara in between the niches is another feature.

The Tanjore temple is undoubtedly the grandest achievement of the age.

It was more a monument of triumph than a strict example of temple architecture. It is in this
temple that one notices for the first time two gopuras oriented in the same direction. They are
architecturally coeval with the main vimana and are referred to in inscriptions as Rajarajan
tiruvasal and Keralantakan tiruvasal In spite of the massive size of the gopuras the vimana, rising
majestically to a height of 190 feet, continues to dominate and it is only in the subsequent period
that a change in the gradation of magnitude takes place.

The multiplication of parivara shrines and the introduction of a separate shrine for the goddess
are the two significant changes in the temple complex effected during this period. Even in the
Tanjore temple the Devi shrine is not contemporaneous with the main cella but was built later.
The earliest Devi shrine which appears to be definitely chronologically coeval with the main
shrine is the one at Gangaikondacolapuram.

The Devi shrines, known as Tirukkdmakkottams, were thus largely a feature from the reign of
Rajndra. In the temples representing the final phase of Chola architecture a discernible maturity
of style is evident.

Notable examples of them are to be found at Drsuram, Tribhuvanam, Chidambaram and

Jambukesvaram. Of the stylistic improvements made in these temples mention must be made of
the torus moulding in the basement which is rounded and has a smooth surface, though in a few
cases it is ornamented with vertical grooves or ribs. The makaratoranas become tall with narrow
reverse curves on each side; the kumbhapanjaras are also developed and carry on top over the
abacus the superstructure of a panjara. The phalaka in the pillars are thinner than those of earlier
periods and the padma below it, which is inverted and smooth in early temples, now has petals.
The pillars in the mandapas have attached pilasters on their sides, known as Aniyottikal.

Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of the temples of the late Chola phase is the increased
height of the gopuras. The five-storeyed gopuras at Tiruvenkadu, Uyyakondan-Tirumalai,
Tiruccengattangudi and Kumbhakonam must belong to this phase. Besides the gopura, pillared
mandapas were also built within the temple complex, some of them being shaped in the form of a
chariot by the addition of wheels and horses and elephants.

Generally speaking, the characteristics of the early and late Chola temples are shared by Pandya
monuments of the respective periods, though minor variations are present in them.

The next stage of development is, however, seen only in the temples built under the Vijayanagar
rulers. The Vijayanagar kings not only built many new edifices, but made many additions to the
already existing temples. Such additions are to be found in many places, the most noteworthy
among them being Kanchipuram, Tiruvannmalai, Chidambaram,
Kumbhakonam, Madurai, Srirangam, Vellore, etc.

The mandapas become large and conspicuous adjuncts during this period due to the
multiplication and elaboration of religious rituals and ceremonial observances. The
Kalynamandapa, Sopnatmandapa, Davanamandapa, Sndpanamandapa, Alakramandapa, etc., are
the usual mandapas in addition to the ardha, mukha and maha mandapas of earlier times.

Some of these mandapas are, however, not entirely unknown under the late Colas. A few of them
were built outside the temple circuit but not much away from it. These mandapas are essentially
pillared halls, open or closed, and contain either a shrine or a raised platform over a huge tortoise
either in the centre or behind. They are also notable for their pillars which are rich in sculptural
work and to which are attached riders on horse or lion or li. The fluted type of simple pillars
becomes rare and huge and monolithic ones are often seen. They have ornamental brackets
forming their capitals, below each of which is a pendant. This pendant has been in many
examples elaborated into a volute which terminates as an inverted lotus bud.

The niches in the walls are not surmounted by toranas as in Pallava and Chola temples but have a
simple panjara design over them. What is more, the niches are empty, without any image in
them. Their old functional character has been lost and they remain a simple ornamental design on
the exterior of the wall. The increase in the height of the gopuras and in the number of prakaras
is yet another feature. The gopuras are generally seven storeyed and are large and tall, especially
in the Pandya region. The most typical gopuras of this period are to be found
at Ka�chipuram, Srirangam, Chidambaram and Tiruvannamalai. These are rich with
architectural designs like salas, karnakutas and alpanasikas rather than sculptural decoration.

The Vijayanagar mode of architecture was continued by the Nayak rulers of Madurai. In the
temples renovated or rebuilt by them, as the ones at Madurai, R�mesvaram and Tirunelveli, the
corbels in the pillars show at their ends a plantain-flower-like motif. The gopuras continue to be
slender and tall, the typical example being the Vatapatrasayi gopura at Srivilliputtur which is
eleven-storeyed. The corridors in these temples, unlike those of earlier periods, are provided with
ceilings which are at times painted.

General features of a Chola temple (Dravidian style)

"The two major temple styles of ancient India, namely the Nagara and Dravida, was formalised
and crystallised during the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. The Dravidian style of construction
was initiated largely by the Pallavas in a more permanent medium during the sixth century
A.D. which reached its culmination under the Cholas.

The development of this style could be discernible from the examples

at Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram which were the major Pallava centres of art and commerce.
The Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram is an example of a complete temple complex,
consisting of a garbhagriha, antarala, mandapa enclosed by a cloistered enclosure wall with an
entrance gopura. The sikhara of a Dravidian temple is square on plan and pyramidal on elevation
unlike that of a Nagara temple which is square on plan and curvilinear on elevation. The sikhara
is divided into various tiers or storeys by the arrangement of miniature shrines of three types,
namely, the sala (rectangular), kuta (square) and panjara (apsidal). The arrangement of the pillar
elements improvise from their Pallava examples in terms of elaboration and additional elements.

The Dravidian order of temples attained its zenith under the Cholas and ultimately under
Rajaraja I, which is reflected in the Brihadisvara Temple.

The main shrine is the most dominant feature of the Chola temples, and in the Brihadisvara
temple, it reaches the highest watermark. The sikhara of the Brihadisvara temple is the tallest
among all the temples of south India. The construction of the entrance gopura also crystallises
during this period which is reflected in the first entrance gopura of the temple. "
Temples of India: Pallava (600-900 AD), Chola (900-1250 AD), Pandyas (1100-1350 AD),
Hoysala (1100-1350 AD), Vijayanagara (1350-1565 AD), Nayaks (1600 AD) - Sibashis
Nanda

" ...The south Indian style of temple architecture is very distinct from that of the rest of India.
The sikhara of a Dravida temple is a tower that ascends in ever-shrinking tiers. The base of these
sikharas can be rectangular, hexagonal, or octagonal. The tiered structure creates a strong
presence of horizontal lines which is absent on the vimana and mandapa. The height of sikharas
varied, but by the peak of the Dravida style (during the Chola dynasty), they reached almost 200
feet above the ground. It is convenient to resolve South Indian types of architecture into four
periods corresponding to the principal kingdoms that ruled in southern India down the centuries
i.e. the Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and the Vijayanagara rulers.

Pallava (600-900 AD)

The earliest examples of temples in the Dravidan style belong to the Pallava period. The temple
architecture of the Pallavas is divided into two groups: rock-cut (610-690 AD) and structural
(690-900 AD). The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples
at Mahabalipuram. These temples are further divided into excavated pillared halls or mandapas
and monolithic shrines known as rathas. The five rathas were built by Narasimhavarman I (625-
645 AD) and are named after Draupadi, Arjuna, Bhima, Dharmaraja and Sahadeva. The
Dharmarajaratha is the longest and most complete of these rathas. The famous Kailasanatha and
the Vanikunthaperumal temples at Kanchipuram are the best specimens of the structural temples
of the Pallavas. The temple complex consists of a sanctum, preceded by a mandapa and an
incipient entrance gateway. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva, and were sparsely
adorned in the interiors.

Chola (900-1250 AD)

The Chola art is a continuation of that of Pallava times. The Cholas had built several hundreds of
temples, the earlier examples of which were modest in size while the later ones were huge and
large with the Vimanas or gopuras dominating the landscape. Mention must be made of
the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tanjavur, the capital established by the Chola ruler Rajaraja-I.
The 55 metres long main structure of the temple had a 58 metres feet tall pyramidal tower or
shikhara. The temple is composed of several structures combined axially, such as a Nandi
pavilion, a pillared portico and a large assembly hall, all aligned in the centre of a spacious
walled enclosure.

The temples at Thanjavur, Chidambaram, Sri Rangam, Gangaikonda-Cholapuram, Darasuram

and Tribhuvanam amply illustrate the style of architecture that characterised the monuments in
southern India between the 11th-13th centuries. The Chola style of architecture also had a
considerable influence on the architecture of temples of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and those of the
Southeast Asian kingdoms like Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) and Chavakam (Java).
Pandyas (1100-1350 AD)

The Pandyas mostly concentrated on the Gopurams, the main entrance. A typical gopuram
consists of a building oblong in plan, rising up into a tapering tower and entered by a rectangular
doorway in the centre of its long side. The Sundara Pandya gopuram, added to the temple of
Jambukesvara around 1250 AD and the gopuram of the great temple at Kumbakoman (1350 AD)
are the best examples of the gopurams of the Pandyan times.

Hoysala (1100-1350 AD)

Temples erected during the Hoysala kings have complicated plans with numerous angled
projections. Carved surfaces are executed with remarkable precision, usually in chlorite. Temples
from the Hoysala period can be seen at Belur, Halebid and Sringeri. After the reign of the
Hoysalas, architectural traditions were interrupted by Muslim raids at the end of the 13th
century. Monumental temple building resumed later under the Vijayanagara Empire.

Vijayanagara (1350-1565 AD)

By the 16th century almost all of southern India was part of the Vijayanagara Empire. The main
contributions of the Vijayanagar period were the tall massive gopurams and the multiple
mandapas. Unlike the Chola style, where the entire temple structure was usually a unified whole,
there were numerous mandapas, pillared halls, shrines to minor deities, etc. Another major
feature is the carved pillars - with the rearing simhas (lions), yalis (lions with elephant trunks.
The Temple of Pampapati, the Hazararama temple and the Vittalaswami temple are the best
examples of the Vijayanagar architecture. The ruins of Buggala Ramalingeswara at Tadpatri also
depict the Vijayanagar architecture at its best.

Nayaks (1600 AD)

The Dravidian style of architecture assumed its final form under the Nayaks and lasted almost
until the modern times. The style developed by these rulers is described as the 'Madura style' and
is most evident in the Meenakshi temple at Madurai. The Meenakshi temple (17th century) is a
double temple, as it has two separate sanctuaries, one dedicated to Sundareshwara (Shiva) and
the other to his consort Meenakshi (Parvati).

The total number of pillars in the temple exceeds two thousand. The art of constructing
gopurams also reached its maturity during the Nayaka period. The temples at Srirangam,
Jambukesvara, Rameshwaram and Chidambaram are other notable examples of the
Nayaka architecture..." https://tamilnation.org/culture/architecture/temple.htm
Hindu Temple Tirumala Venkateswara Temple BELOW

paper presented at Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, January 1968 by T.V.Mahalingam,
Professor of Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Madras on Tamil Art & Architecture