Data Mining:
Concepts and Techniques
— Slides for Textbook —
— Chapter 3 —
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 1
Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing
Why preprocess the data?
Data cleaning
Data integration and transformation
Data reduction
Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
Summary
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 2
Why Data Preprocessing?
Data in the real world is dirty
incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain
attributes of interest, or containing only aggregate
data
noisy: containing errors or outliers
inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or
names
No quality data, no quality mining results!
Quality decisions must be based on quality data
Data warehouse needs consistent integration of
quality data
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 3
Multi-Dimensional Measure of Data Quality
A well-accepted multidimensional view:
Accuracy
Completeness
Consistency
Timeliness
Believability
Value added
Interpretability
Accessibility
Broad categories:
intrinsic, contextual, representational, and
accessibility.
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 4
Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing
Data cleaning
Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove
outliers, and resolve inconsistencies
Data integration
Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files
Data transformation
Normalization and aggregation
Data reduction
Obtains reduced representation in volume but produces the same
or similar analytical results
Data discretization
Part of data reduction but with particular importance, especially for
numerical data
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 5
Forms of data preprocessing
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 6
Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing
Why preprocess the data?
Data cleaning
Data integration and transformation
Data reduction
Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
Summary
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 7
Data Cleaning
Data cleaning tasks
Fill in missing values
Identify outliers and smooth out noisy data
Correct inconsistent data
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 8
Missing Data
Data is not always available
E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several
attributes, such as customer income in sales data
Missing data may be due to
equipment malfunction
inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted
data not entered due to misunderstanding
certain data may not be considered important at the time of
entry
not register history or changes of the data
Missing data may need to be inferred.
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 9
How to Handle Missing Data?
Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (assuming
the tasks in classification—not effective when the percentage of
missing values per attribute varies considerably.
Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible?
Use a global constant to fill in the missing value: e.g., “unknown”, a
new class?!
Use the attribute mean to fill in the missing value
Use the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class to
fill in the missing value: smarter
Use the most probable value to fill in the missing value: inference-
based such as Bayesian formula or decision tree
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 10
Noisy Data
Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable
Incorrect attribute values may due to
faulty data collection instruments
data entry problems
data transmission problems
technology limitation
inconsistency in naming convention
Other data problems which requires data cleaning
duplicate records
incomplete data
inconsistent data
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 11
How to Handle Noisy Data?
Binning method:
first sort data and partition into (equi-depth) bins
then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin
median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.
Clustering
detect and remove outliers
Combined computer and human inspection
detect suspicious values and check by human
Regression
smooth by fitting the data into regression functions
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 12
Simple Discretization Methods: Binning
Equal-width (distance) partitioning:
It divides the range into N intervals of equal size:
uniform grid
if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the
attribute, the width of intervals will be: W = (B-A)/N.
The most straightforward
But outliers may dominate presentation
Skewed data is not handled well.
Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning:
It divides the range into N intervals, each containing
approximately same number of samples
Good data scaling
Managing categorical attributes can be tricky.
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 13
Binning Methods for Data Smoothing
* Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28,
29, 34
* Partition into (equi-depth) bins:
- Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34
* Smoothing by bin means:
- Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9
- Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23
- Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29
* Smoothing by bin boundaries:
- Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15
- Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25
- Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 14
Cluster Analysis
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 15
Regression
y
Y1
Y1’ y=x+1
X1 x
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 16
Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing
Why preprocess the data?
Data cleaning
Data integration and transformation
Data reduction
Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
Summary
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 17
Data Integration
Data integration:
combines data from multiple sources into a coherent
store
Schema integration
integrate metadata from different sources
Entity identification problem: identify real world entities
from multiple data sources, e.g., A.cust-id B.cust-#
Detecting and resolving data value conflicts
for the same real world entity, attribute values from
different sources are different
possible reasons: different representations, different
scales, e.g., metric vs. British units
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 18
Handling Redundant Data
in Data Integration
Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple
databases
The same attribute may have different names in
different databases
One attribute may be a “derived” attribute in another
table, e.g., annual revenue
Redundant data may be able to be detected by
correlational analysis
Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may
help reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and
improve mining speed and quality
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 19
Data Transformation
Smoothing: remove noise from data
Aggregation: summarization, data cube construction
Generalization: concept hierarchy climbing
Normalization: scaled to fall within a small, specified range
min-max normalization
z-score normalization
normalization by decimal scaling
Attribute/feature construction
New attributes constructed from the given ones
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 20
Data Transformation:
Normalization
min-max normalization
v minA
v' (new _ maxA new _ minA) new _ minA
maxA minA
z-score normalization
v meanA
v'
stand _ devA
normalization by decimal scaling
v
v' j Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(| v ' |)<1
10
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 21
Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing
Why preprocess the data?
Data cleaning
Data integration and transformation
Data reduction
Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
Summary
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 22
Data Reduction Strategies
Warehouse may store terabytes of data: Complex data
analysis/mining may take a very long time to run on the
complete data set
Data reduction
Obtains a reduced representation of the data set that is
much smaller in volume but yet produces the same (or
almost the same) analytical results
Data reduction strategies
Data cube aggregation
Dimensionality reduction
Numerosity reduction
Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 23
Data Cube Aggregation
The lowest level of a data cube
the aggregated data for an individual entity of interest
e.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse.
Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes
Further reduce the size of data to deal with
Reference appropriate levels
Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve
the task
Queries regarding aggregated information should be
answered using data cube, when possible
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 24
Dimensionality Reduction
Feature selection (i.e., attribute subset selection):
Select a minimum set of features such that the
probability distribution of different classes given the
values for those features is as close as possible to the
original distribution given the values of all features
reduce # of patterns in the patterns, easier to
understand
Heuristic methods (due to exponential # of choices):
step-wise forward selection
step-wise backward elimination
combining forward selection and backward elimination
decision-tree induction
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 25
Example of Decision Tree Induction
Initial attribute set:
{A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6}
A4 ?
A1? A6?
Class 1 Class 2 Class 1 Class 2
> Reduced attribute set: {A1, A4, A6}
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 26
Data Compression
String compression
There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms
Typically lossless
But only limited manipulation is possible without
expansion
Audio/video compression
Typically lossy compression, with progressive
refinement
Sometimes small fragments of signal can be
reconstructed without reconstructing the whole
Time sequence is not audio
Typically short and vary slowly with time
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 28
Data Compression
Original Data Compressed
Data
lossless
ss y
lo
Original Data
Approximated
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 29
Wavelet Transforms
Haar2 Daubechie4
Discrete wavelet transform (DWT): linear signal processing
Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of
the strongest of the wavelet coefficients
Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy
compression, localized in space
Method:
Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0s, when
necessary)
Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference
Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2
Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 30
Principal Component Analysis
Given N data vectors from k-dimensions, find c <= k
orthogonal vectors that can be best used to represent
data
The original data set is reduced to one consisting of
N data vectors on c principal components (reduced
dimensions)
Each data vector is a linear combination of the c
principal component vectors
Works for numeric data only
Used when the number of dimensions is large
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 31
Principal Component Analysis
X2
Y1
Y2
X1
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 32
Numerosity Reduction
Parametric methods
Assume the data fits some model, estimate model
parameters, store only the parameters, and discard
the data (except possible outliers)
Log-linear models: obtain value at a point in m-D
space as the product on appropriate marginal
subspaces
Non-parametric methods
Do not assume models
Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 33
Regression and Log-Linear Models
Linear regression: Data are modeled to fit a straight line
Often uses the least-square method to fit the line
Multiple regression: allows a response variable Y to be
modeled as a linear function of multidimensional feature
vector
Log-linear model: approximates discrete
multidimensional probability distributions
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 34
Regress Analysis and Log-
Linear Models
Linear regression: Y = + X
Two parameters , and specify the line and are to
be estimated by using the data at hand.
using the least squares criterion to the known values
of Y1, Y2, …, X1, X2, ….
Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2.
Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the
above.
Log-linear models:
The multi-way table of joint probabilities is
approximated by a product of lower-order tables.
Probability: p(a, b, c, d) = ab acad bcd
Histograms
A popular data reduction 40
technique 35
Divide data into buckets 30
and store average (sum)
25
for each bucket
20
Can be constructed
optimally in one 15
dimension using dynamic 10
programming
5
Related to quantization
problems. 0
60000
80000
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
70000
90000
100000
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 36
Clustering
Partition data set into clusters, and one can store cluster
representation only
Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data
is “smeared”
Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multi-
dimensional index tree structures
There are many choices of clustering definitions and
clustering algorithms, further detailed in Chapter 8
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 37
Sampling
Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is
potentially sub-linear to the size of the data
Choose a representative subset of the data
Simple random sampling may have very poor
performance in the presence of skew
Develop adaptive sampling methods
Stratified sampling:
Approximate the percentage of each class (or
subpopulation of interest) in the overall database
Used in conjunction with skewed data
Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a time).
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 38
Sampling
W O R
SRS le random
i m p h ou t
( s e wi t
l
samp ment)
pl a c e
re
SRSW
R
Raw Data
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39
Sampling
Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 40
Hierarchical Reduction
Use multi-resolution structure with different degrees of
reduction
Hierarchical clustering is often performed but tends to
define partitions of data sets rather than “clusters”
Parametric methods are usually not amenable to
hierarchical representation
Hierarchical aggregation
An index tree hierarchically divides a data set into
partitions by value range of some attributes
Each partition can be considered as a bucket
Thus an index tree with aggregates stored at each
node is a hierarchical histogram
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 41
Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing
Why preprocess the data?
Data cleaning
Data integration and transformation
Data reduction
Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
Summary
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 42
Discretization
Three types of attributes:
Nominal — values from an unordered set
Ordinal — values from an ordered set
Continuous — real numbers
Discretization:
divide the range of a continuous attribute into
intervals
Some classification algorithms only accept categorical
attributes.
Reduce data size by discretization
Prepare for further analysis
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 43
Discretization and Concept hierachy
Discretization
reduce the number of values for a given continuous
attribute by dividing the range of the attribute into
intervals. Interval labels can then be used to replace
actual data values.
Concept hierarchies
reduce the data by collecting and replacing low level
concepts (such as numeric values for the attribute
age) by higher level concepts (such as young,
middle-aged, or senior).
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44
Discretization and concept hierarchy
generation for numeric data
Binning (see sections before)
Histogram analysis (see sections before)
Clustering analysis (see sections before)
Entropy-based discretization
Segmentation by natural partitioning
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 45
Entropy-Based Discretization
Given a set of samples S, if S is partitioned into two
intervals S1 and S2 using boundary T, the entropy after
partitioning is |S | |S |
E (S , T ) 1 Ent ( ) 2 Ent ( )
|S| S1 | S | S2
The boundary that minimizes the entropy function over all
possible boundaries is selected as a binary discretization.
The process is recursively applied to partitions obtained
until some stopping criterion is met, e.g.,
Ent ( S ) E (T , S )
Experiments show that it may reduce data size and
improve classification accuracy
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 46
Segmentation by natural partitioning
3-4-5 rule can be used to segment numeric data into
relatively uniform, “natural” intervals.
* If an interval covers 3, 6, 7 or 9 distinct values at the
most significant digit, partition the range into 3 equi-
width intervals
* If it covers 2, 4, or 8 distinct values at the most
significant digit, partition the range into 4 intervals
* If it covers 1, 5, or 10 distinct values at the most
significant digit, partition the range into 5 intervals
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 47
Example of 3-4-5 rule
count
Step 1: -$351 -$159 profit $1,838 $4,700
Min Low (i.e, 5%-tile) High(i.e, 95%-0 tile) Max
Step 2: msd=1,000 Low=-$1,000 High=$2,000
(-$1,000 - $2,000)
Step 3:
(-$1,000 - 0) (0 -$ 1,000) ($1,000 - $2,000)
(-$4000 -$5,000)
Step 4:
($2,000 - $5, 000)
(-$400 - 0) (0 - $1,000) ($1,000 - $2, 000)
(0 -
($1,000 -
(-$400 - $200)
$1,200) ($2,000 -
-$300) $3,000)
($200 -
($1,200 -
$400)
(-$300 - $1,400)
($3,000 -
-$200)
($400 - ($1,400 - $4,000)
(-$200 - $600) $1,600) ($4,000 -
-$100) ($600 - ($1,600 - $5,000)
$800) ($800 - ($1,800 -
$1,800)
(-$100 - $1,000) $2,000)
0)
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 48
Concept hierarchy generation for
categorical data
Specification of a partial ordering of attributes explicitly
at the schema level by users or experts
Specification of a portion of a hierarchy by explicit data
grouping
Specification of a set of attributes, but not of their
partial ordering
Specification of only a partial set of attributes
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 49
Specification of a set of attributes
Concept hierarchy can be automatically generated based
on the number of distinct values per attribute in the
given attribute set. The attribute with the most
distinct values is placed at the lowest level of the
hierarchy.
country 15 distinct values
province_or_ state 65 distinct
values
city 3567 distinct values
street 674,339 distinct values
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 50
Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing
Why preprocess the data?
Data cleaning
Data integration and transformation
Data reduction
Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
Summary
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 51
Summary
Data preparation is a big issue for both warehousing
and mining
Data preparation includes
Data cleaning and data integration
Data reduction and feature selection
Discretization
A lot a methods have been developed but still an active
area of research
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 52
Thank you !!!
December 8, 2021 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 53
