The Pigeonhole Principle

Some Questions

Does there have to be two trees on Earth with the same number
of leaves?
Some Questions

Does there have to be two trees on Earth with the same number
of leaves?
How large of a set of distinct integers between 1 and 200 is
needed to assure that two numbers in the set have a common
divisor?
Some Questions

Does there have to be two trees on Earth with the same number
of leaves?
How large of a set of distinct integers between 1 and 200 is
needed to assure that two numbers in the set have a common
divisor?
How large a set of distinct integers between 1 and n to assure that
the set contains a subset of five equally spaced integers
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 ; that is a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 = a4 − a3 = a5 − a4 ?
Some Questions

Does there have to be two trees on Earth with the same number
of leaves?
How large of a set of distinct integers between 1 and 200 is
needed to assure that two numbers in the set have a common
divisor?
How large a set of distinct integers between 1 and n to assure that
the set contains a subset of five equally spaced integers
a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , a5 ; that is a2 − a1 = a3 − a2 = a4 − a3 = a5 − a4 ?
Given a positive integer k, how large a group of people is needed
to ensure that either there exists a subset of k people in the group
that know each other or a subset of k people none of whom know
each other?
The Pigeonhole Principle

Theorem
The Pigeonhole Principle
If k + 1 pigeons are placed into k pigeonholes then at least one of the
pigeonholes contains two or more pigeons.
The Pigeonhole Principle

Theorem
The Pigeonhole Principle
If k + 1 pigeons are placed into k pigeonholes then at least one of the
pigeonholes contains two or more pigeons.

A more general statement of the theorem:

Theorem
If m pigeons are to be placed into k pigeonholes, then at least one of
the pigeonholes will contain more than
 
m−1
k

pigeons.
Proof of Generalized Version

Proof.
If the largest number of pigeons in a pigeonhole is at most
 
m−1
k
Proof of Generalized Version

Proof.
If the largest number of pigeons in a pigeonhole is at most
 
m−1
k

then the total number of pigeons is at most

 
m−1
k ≤m−1<m
k
Basic Examples

Example
How many people are needed to have two people born on the same
day of the week?
Basic Examples

Example
How many people are needed to have two people born on the same
day of the week?

Example
If a person owns 5 mutual funds holding a total of 56 stocks, what can
you say about the number of stocks in the largest fund?
Basic Examples

Example
How many people are needed to have two people born on the same
day of the week?

Example
If a person owns 5 mutual funds holding a total of 56 stocks, what can
you say about the number of stocks in the largest fund?

Example
If SSU has 6000 undergrads and there is at least one from each of the
50 states, then there is at least one state with at least 120 students
from that state.
A Little Bit Tougher

Example
If you draw 5 points on the surface of an orange with a Sharpie, then
there is a way to cut the orange in half so that four of the points will
lie on the same hemisphere. (Suppose a point exactly on a cut lies in
both hemispheres.)
A Little Bit Tougher

Example
If you draw 5 points on the surface of an orange with a Sharpie, then
there is a way to cut the orange in half so that four of the points will
lie on the same hemisphere. (Suppose a point exactly on a cut lies in
both hemispheres.)

Proof.
Two points determine a great circle on a sphere, so for any two points
cut the orange in half.
A Little Bit Tougher

Example
If you draw 5 points on the surface of an orange with a Sharpie, then
there is a way to cut the orange in half so that four of the points will
lie on the same hemisphere. (Suppose a point exactly on a cut lies in
both hemispheres.)

Proof.
Two points determine a great circle on a sphere, so for any two points
cut the orange in half.
The remaining three points can be in either one of the two resulting
hemispheres.
A Little Bit Tougher

Example
If you draw 5 points on the surface of an orange with a Sharpie, then
there is a way to cut the orange in half so that four of the points will
lie on the same hemisphere. (Suppose a point exactly on a cut lies in
both hemispheres.)

Proof.
Two points determine a great circle on a sphere, so for any two points
cut the orange in half.
The remaining three points can be in either one of the two resulting
hemispheres.
By the pigeonhole principle, at least two of them belong to the same
hemisphere, bringing the total to 4 points.
A Little More To Think About

Example
Prove that at a party with at least two people, there are at least two
people who know the same number of other people.
A Little More To Think About

Example
Prove that at a party with at least two people, there are at least two
people who know the same number of other people.

What are the possible number of people that guests know?

A Little More To Think About

Example
Prove that at a party with at least two people, there are at least two
people who know the same number of other people.

What are the possible number of people that guests know?

The number of acquaintances must be an integer from [0, n − 1].
Problem?
Another Points in a Region Example

Example
Consider the region bound by a regular hexagon where each side has
length 1 unit. Show that if any seven points are chosen in this region
then two of them must be no further apart than 1 unit.
Solution

Divide the region into 6 equilateral triangles. If 7 points are chosen in

the region, we can assign each of them to a triangle that contains it.
Solution

Divide the region into 6 equilateral triangles. If 7 points are chosen in

the region, we can assign each of them to a triangle that contains it.

If a point belongs to more than one region, arbitrarily assign it to one

of the regions.
Solution

Divide the region into 6 equilateral triangles. If 7 points are chosen in

the region, we can assign each of them to a triangle that contains it.

If a point belongs to more than one region, arbitrarily assign it to one

of the regions.
So, we have 7 points in six regions. Why do two points have to be
within one unit of each other?
Another Medium Example

Example
Prove that if seven distinct numbers are selected from {1, 2, . . . 11},
then some two of these numbers sum to 12.
Another Medium Example

Example
Prove that if seven distinct numbers are selected from {1, 2, . . . 11},
then some two of these numbers sum to 12.

Proof.
Partition the numbers into 6 sets:

{1, 11}, {2, 10}, {3, 9}, {4, 8}, {5, 7}, {6}
Another Medium Example

Example
Prove that if seven distinct numbers are selected from {1, 2, . . . 11},
then some two of these numbers sum to 12.

Proof.
Partition the numbers into 6 sets:

{1, 11}, {2, 10}, {3, 9}, {4, 8}, {5, 7}, {6}

Select 6 numbers, one from each subset. The 7th must come from one
of these sets with two elements, making the second integer necessary
to attain a sum of 12.
And Another Medium Example

Example
Prove that if four points are selected from the interior of a √
unit circle,
then there are two points whose distance apart is less than 2.
And Another Medium Example

Example
Prove that if four points are selected from the interior of a √
unit circle,
then there are two points whose distance apart is less than 2.

Proof.
The radius of a unit circle is 1. If we arrange these 4 points on the
circumference of the circle at maximal distance from √ each other, we
form a square with the length of the sides being 2. But, these points
are on the circumference and not the interior, so when we move the
points√in so that they are in the interior, the distance becomes smaller
than 2.
Medium Example Solution

Proof.
So, consider three points as the vertices of an equilateral triangle such
that the points lie just inside the circumference
√ of the circle. The
distance between these points is greater than 2.
Medium Example Solution

Proof.
So, consider three points as the vertices of an equilateral triangle such
that the points lie just inside the circumference
√ of the circle. The
distance between these points is greater than 2.
Now, the central angles formed by the radii of the circle to these
points are all 120◦ . The maximal distance from any of these points
would be halfway between two of these points.
Medium Example Solution

Proof.
So, consider three points as the vertices of an equilateral triangle such
that the points lie just inside the circumference
√ of the circle. The
distance between these points is greater than 2.
Now, the central angles formed by the radii of the circle to these
points are all 120◦ . The maximal distance from any of these points
would be halfway between two of these points.
But, any point on the bisector of this 120◦ angle will be at a distance
of less than 1 from each of the two corresponding
√ points, so certainly
any point on this bisector is less than 2.
Medium Example Solution

Proof.
So, consider three points as the vertices of an equilateral triangle such
that the points lie just inside the circumference
√ of the circle. The
distance between these points is greater than 2.
Now, the central angles formed by the radii of the circle to these
points are all 120◦ . The maximal distance from any of these points
would be halfway between two of these points.
But, any point on the bisector of this 120◦ angle will be at a distance
of less than 1 from each of the two corresponding
√ points, so certainly
any point on this bisector is less than 2.
If the point is further away from one of the points than the bisector is,
the point is then
√ closer to the other point, making the distance again
be less than 2.
Would You Play This Game?

Example
Twenty disks numbered 1 through 20 are placed face down on a table.
Disks are selected one at a time and turned over until 10 disks have
been chosen. If two of the disks add up to 21, the player loses. Is it
possible to win the game?
A Number Theory Example
Example
Prove that any collection of eight distinct integers contains distinct
integers x and y such that x − y is a multiple of 7.
A Number Theory Example
Example
Prove that any collection of eight distinct integers contains distinct
integers x and y such that x − y is a multiple of 7.

Proof.
By the Division Algorithm, every integer n can be written as
n = 7q + r, where 0 ≤ r ≤ 6.
A Number Theory Example
Example
Prove that any collection of eight distinct integers contains distinct
integers x and y such that x − y is a multiple of 7.

Proof.
By the Division Algorithm, every integer n can be written as
n = 7q + r, where 0 ≤ r ≤ 6.
Since there are eight integers in the collection but only seven possible
values for the remainder r on division by 7, the Pigeonhole Principle
asserts that the collection contains integers x and y that leave the same
remainder on division by 7.
A Number Theory Example
Example
Prove that any collection of eight distinct integers contains distinct
integers x and y such that x − y is a multiple of 7.

Proof.
By the Division Algorithm, every integer n can be written as
n = 7q + r, where 0 ≤ r ≤ 6.
Since there are eight integers in the collection but only seven possible
values for the remainder r on division by 7, the Pigeonhole Principle
asserts that the collection contains integers x and y that leave the same
remainder on division by 7.
That is, there exists s with 0 ≤ s ≤ 6 such that x = 7q1 + s and
y = 7q2 + s. For this x and y we have that

x − y = 7q1 + s − (7q2 + s) = 7(q1 − q2 )

Since (q1 − q2 ) is an integer, x − y is a multiple of 7.

Subsequences

Example
Prove that any sequence of n integers must contain a subsequence
whose sum is divisible by n.
Subsequences

Example
Prove that any sequence of n integers must contain a subsequence
whose sum is divisible by n.

Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be the sequence of n integers. Consider the

following:

x1 , x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 + x3 , . . . , x1 + x2 + . . . + xn
Subsequences

Example
Prove that any sequence of n integers must contain a subsequence
whose sum is divisible by n.

Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be the sequence of n integers. Consider the

following:

x1 , x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 + x3 , . . . , x1 + x2 + . . . + xn

If any one of these n sums is divisible by n, we are done. Otherwise,

each must have a non-zero remainder when divided by n. There are at
most n − 1 different remainders: 1, 2, . . . , n − 1.
Subsequences (cont.)

Since there are n sums, by the pigeonhole principle, two of the sums
must have the same remainder when divided by n.
Subsequences (cont.)

Since there are n sums, by the pigeonhole principle, two of the sums
must have the same remainder when divided by n.
Let p and q, p < q, be integers such that for some integers c1 and c2 ,

x1 + x2 + . . . + xp = c1 n + r and x1 + x2 + . . . + xq = c2 n + r
Subsequences (cont.)

Since there are n sums, by the pigeonhole principle, two of the sums
must have the same remainder when divided by n.
Let p and q, p < q, be integers such that for some integers c1 and c2 ,

x1 + x2 + . . . + xp = c1 n + r and x1 + x2 + . . . + xq = c2 n + r

Subtracting these two sums, we get

xp+1 + . . . xq = (c2 − c1 )n

Hence, xp+1 + . . . + xq is divisible by n.

A Tougher Example

Example
A coach wants to hold 31 practices over a 21 day preseason. There
will be at least one practice per day. Is there a stretch of consecutive
days where there are exactly 10 practices?
A Tougher Example

Example
A coach wants to hold 31 practices over a 21 day preseason. There
will be at least one practice per day. Is there a stretch of consecutive
days where there are exactly 10 practices?

Proof.
Let ai be the number of practices held by the ith day. Then

a1 < a2 < . . . a21

with a1 ≥ 1 and a21 ≤ 31.

A Tougher Example

Example
A coach wants to hold 31 practices over a 21 day preseason. There
will be at least one practice per day. Is there a stretch of consecutive
days where there are exactly 10 practices?

Proof.
Let ai be the number of practices held by the ith day. Then

a1 < a2 < . . . a21

with a1 ≥ 1 and a21 ≤ 31.

Also,

a1 + 10 < a2 + 10 < . . . < a21 + 10 ≤ 31 + 10 = 41

A Tougher Example

Proof.
Consider

a1 , a2 , . . . , a21 , a1 + 10, a2 + 10, . . . , a21 + 10

A Tougher Example

Proof.
Consider

a1 , a2 , . . . , a21 , a1 + 10, a2 + 10, . . . , a21 + 10

This gives 42 distinct numbers, but all must be between 1 and 41. So,
by the pigeonhole principle, there exists i, j for i < j such that

ai + 10 = aj

i.e. there is a stretch of days such that there are exactly 10 practices.
 ..
Erdos and Szekeres (1935)

Theorem
Given a sequence of n2 + 1 distinct integers, either there is an
increasing subsequence of n + 1 terms or a decreasing subsequence
of n + 1 terms.
 ..
Erdos and Szekeres (1935)

Theorem
Given a sequence of n2 + 1 distinct integers, either there is an
increasing subsequence of n + 1 terms or a decreasing subsequence
of n + 1 terms.

n2 + 1 is a tight lower bound. Consider, for n = 3, the sequence of n2

distinct integers.

3, 2, 1, 6, 5, 4, 9, 8, 7
 ..
Proof of Erdos and Szekeres

Proof.
Let the sequence be
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn2 +1
Let ti be the number of terms in the longest increasing subsequence
beginning at xi . If any ti is at least n + 1 then the theorem is proved.
 ..
Proof of Erdos and Szekeres

Proof.
Let the sequence be
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn2 +1
Let ti be the number of terms in the longest increasing subsequence
beginning at xi . If any ti is at least n + 1 then the theorem is proved.
So, assume that each ti is between 1 and n. We therefore have n2 + 1
pigeons (the n2 + 1 ti s) to be placed into n pigeonholes (the numbers
1, 2, . . . , n).
 ..
Proof of Erdos and Szekeres

Proof.
Let the sequence be
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn2 +1
Let ti be the number of terms in the longest increasing subsequence
beginning at xi . If any ti is at least n + 1 then the theorem is proved.
So, assume that each ti is between 1 and n. We therefore have n2 + 1
pigeons (the n2 + 1 ti s) to be placed into n pigeonholes (the numbers
1, 2, . . . , n).
By the generalized pigeonhole principle, there is a pigeonhole
containing at least
 2 
(n + 1) + 1
+1=n+1
n

pigeons. That is, there are at least n + 1 ti s that are equal.

 ..
Proof of Erdos and Szekeres

Proof.
We shall show that the xi s associated with these ti s forms a decreasing
subsequence.
 ..
Proof of Erdos and Szekeres

Proof.
We shall show that the xi s associated with these ti s forms a decreasing
subsequence.
For suppose that ti = tj for i < j. We shall show that xi > xj . If xi ≤ xj
then xi < xj because of the hypothesis that the n2 + 1 integers are all
distinct.
 ..
Proof of Erdos and Szekeres

Proof.
We shall show that the xi s associated with these ti s forms a decreasing
subsequence.
For suppose that ti = tj for i < j. We shall show that xi > xj . If xi ≤ xj
then xi < xj because of the hypothesis that the n2 + 1 integers are all
distinct.
Then xi followed by the longest increasing subsequence beginning at
xj forms an increasing subsequence of length tj + 1. Thus, ti ≥ tj + 1,
which is a contradiction.
Illustration of the Proof

Lets’s consider the following sequence of 10 distinct integers.

10, 3, 2, 1, 6, 5, 4, 9, 8, 7

Here, n = 3 since 10 = 32 + 1.
Illustration of the Proof

Lets’s consider the following sequence of 10 distinct integers.

10, 3, 2, 1, 6, 5, 4, 9, 8, 7

Here, n = 3 since 10 = 32 + 1.

i xi ti subsequence i xi ti subsequence
1 10 1 10 6 5 2 5,7
2 3 3 3,6,7 7 4 2 4,7
3 2 3 2,6,7 8 9 1 9
4 1 3 1,6,7 9 8 1 8
5 6 2 6,7 10 7 1 7
Illustration of the Proof

Lets’s consider the following sequence of 10 distinct integers.

10, 3, 2, 1, 6, 5, 4, 9, 8, 7

Here, n = 3 since 10 = 32 + 1.

i xi ti subsequence i xi ti subsequence
1 10 1 10 6 5 2 5,7
2 3 3 3,6,7 7 4 2 4,7
3 2 3 2,6,7 8 9 1 9
4 1 3 1,6,7 9 8 1 8
5 6 2 6,7 10 7 1 7

There are four 1s among the ti s, and the corresponding xi s, namely

x1 , x5 , x9 , x10 from a decreasing subsequence 10,9,8,7.
Ramsey Theory

Example
Assume that among six persons, each pair of persons are either
friends or enemies. Then there are either three persons who are
mutual friends or three persons who are mutual enemies.
Ramsey Theory

Example
Assume that among six persons, each pair of persons are either
friends or enemies. Then there are either three persons who are
mutual friends or three persons who are mutual enemies.

Proof.
Let a be any person. By the pigeonhole principle, of the remaining 5
people, either 3 or more are friends of a or 3 or more are enemies of a.
Ramsey Theory

Example
Assume that among six persons, each pair of persons are either
friends or enemies. Then there are either three persons who are
mutual friends or three persons who are mutual enemies.

Proof.
Let a be any person. By the pigeonhole principle, of the remaining 5
people, either 3 or more are friends of a or 3 or more are enemies of a.
Suppose first that b, c and d are friends of a. If any 2 of these people
are friends, these 2 and a form a group of 3 mutual friends. If none of
b, c and d are friends, then b, c and d form a group of 3 mutual
enemies.
Ramsey Theory

Example
Assume that among six persons, each pair of persons are either
friends or enemies. Then there are either three persons who are
mutual friends or three persons who are mutual enemies.

Proof.
Let a be any person. By the pigeonhole principle, of the remaining 5
people, either 3 or more are friends of a or 3 or more are enemies of a.
Suppose first that b, c and d are friends of a. If any 2 of these people
are friends, these 2 and a form a group of 3 mutual friends. If none of
b, c and d are friends, then b, c and d form a group of 3 mutual
enemies.
The argument is similar if we suppose that b, c and d are enemies of a.
Visualization of the Situation

Consider the complete graph on 6 vertices. We will color the edges in

blue when the vertices represent friends and we will color them red
when the vertices represent enemies.
Visualization of the Situation

Consider the complete graph on 6 vertices. We will color the edges in

blue when the vertices represent friends and we will color them red
when the vertices represent enemies.
Visualization of the Situation

Consider the complete graph on 6 vertices. We will color the edges in

blue when the vertices represent friends and we will color them red
when the vertices represent enemies.
Ramsey Numbers

Theorem
Let p, q ≥ 2. A positive integer N has the (p, q) Ramsey property if
the following holds:
Given any set S of N elements, if we divide the 2-element subsets of S
into two classes X and Y, then either
1 there is a p-element subset of S all of whose two element subsets
are in X, or
2 there is a q-element subset of S, all of whose 2-element subsets
are in Y
Example of Ramsey Theory

Example
Show that 5 does not have the (3, 3) Ramsey property.
Example of Ramsey Theory

Example
Show that 5 does not have the (3, 3) Ramsey property.
 
5
There are 2-element subsets of the set S = {a, b, c, d, e}. We
2
can partition them as follows:

X = {(a, b), (a, c), (c, d), (d, e), (b, e)}

Y = {(b, c), (b, d), (a, d), (a, e), (c, e)}
If we were forced to put a ‘triangle’ in either set, then 5 would have
the (3, 3) Ramsey property.
Visualization of The Situation

In terms of graphs, we are looking at K5 .

Visualization of The Situation

In terms of graphs, we are looking at K5 .

Visualization of The Situation

In terms of graphs, we are looking at K5 .

Ramsey Theory

Frank Ramsey, British Mathematician

Worked primarily in logic
Studied a problem that seemed to have no order, but the
situations always had a certain amount of order
Invented Ramsey Theory
Presented results in paper in 1928 at the London Mathematical
Society
Died at 28 from complications due to a liver condition at 26
before it was published
What is Ramsey Theory?

Graph Theory Definition

The Ramsey number is the positive integer N = R(n, m) such that a
graph on N vertices must contain a complete subgraph on n vertices in
one color or a complete subgraph on m vertices in the other color.

We often think of the colors as red and blue, although it is arbitrary

which color we assign to n and which to m.
Examples

Example
What is R(2, 3)?
Examples

Example
What is R(2, 3)?

What does this mean?

Examples

Example
What is R(2, 3)?

What does this mean?

If we have a complete graph on N vertices, we are forced to have K2
in red or K3 in blue.
Examples

Example
What is R(2, 3)?

What does this mean?

If we have a complete graph on N vertices, we are forced to have K2
in red or K3 in blue.

The question is, how a big a graph do we need?

R(2, 3)

Consider first K3 .
R(2, 3)

Consider first K3 .
R(2, 3)

Consider first K3 .

So, R(2, 3) = 3.
Getting to R(2, n)

Example
What is R(2, 4)?
Getting to R(2, n)

Example
What is R(2, 4)?

By similar logic, R(2, 4) = 4.

Getting to R(2, n)

Example
What is R(2, 4)?

By similar logic, R(2, 4) = 4.

Example
What is R(2, n) for n ≥ 2?
Getting to R(2, n)

Example
What is R(2, 4)?

By similar logic, R(2, 4) = 4.

Example
What is R(2, n) for n ≥ 2?

R(2, n) = n for all integers n ≥ 2,

Getting to R(2, n)

Example
What is R(2, 4)?

By similar logic, R(2, 4) = 4.

Example
What is R(2, n) for n ≥ 2?

R(2, n) = n for all integers n ≥ 2,

Example
What is R(n, 2)?
Getting to R(2, n)

Example
What is R(2, 4)?

By similar logic, R(2, 4) = 4.

Example
What is R(2, n) for n ≥ 2?

R(2, n) = n for all integers n ≥ 2,

Example
What is R(n, 2)?

R(n, 2) = n as well. These situations are symmetric as the color

assignment is arbitrary.
Bigger Parameters

Example
What is R(3, 3)?
Bigger Parameters

Example
What is R(3, 3)?

Having already done this, R(3, 3) = 6.

Bigger Parameters

Example
What is R(3, 3)?

Having already done this, R(3, 3) = 6.

Example
What is R(3, 4)?
Bigger Parameters

Example
What is R(3, 3)?

Having already done this, R(3, 3) = 6.

Example
What is R(3, 4)?

Here, we are trying to avoid

R(3, 4)

If we use the same logic as before ...

They Get Complicated Quickly

R(3, 4) > 8.
They Get Complicated Quickly

If we tried to do a similar partition of K9 , we’d fail. So, R(3, 4) = 9.

They Get Complicated Quickly
They Get Complicated Quickly

If we tried to do a similar partition of K9 , we’d fail. So, R(3, 4) = 9.

Known Ramsey numbers
R(4, 4) = 18
R(5, 3) = 14
R(6, 3) = 18
R(7, 3) = 23
42 ≤ R(5, 5) ≤ 55
Known Ramsey numbers
R(4, 4) = 18
R(5, 3) = 14
R(6, 3) = 18
R(7, 3) = 23
42 ≤ R(5, 5) ≤ 55
Just how big are the graphs we need to conider for R(5, 5)? Suppose
we were trying to lower the upper bound by even one. We’d need to
consider the complete graph on 54 vertices. How many edges?
Known Ramsey numbers
R(4, 4) = 18
R(5, 3) = 14
R(6, 3) = 18
R(7, 3) = 23
42 ≤ R(5, 5) ≤ 55
Just how big are the graphs we need to conider for R(5, 5)? Suppose
we were trying to lower the upper bound by even one. We’d need to
consider the complete graph on 54 vertices. How many edges?

(54)(53)
= 1431
2
Known Ramsey numbers
R(4, 4) = 18
R(5, 3) = 14
R(6, 3) = 18
R(7, 3) = 23
42 ≤ R(5, 5) ≤ 55
Just how big are the graphs we need to conider for R(5, 5)? Suppose
we were trying to lower the upper bound by even one. We’d need to
consider the complete graph on 54 vertices. How many edges?

(54)(53)
= 1431
2
How many colorings?

21431
Known Ramsey numbers
R(4, 4) = 18
R(5, 3) = 14
R(6, 3) = 18
R(7, 3) = 23
42 ≤ R(5, 5) ≤ 55
Just how big are the graphs we need to conider for R(5, 5)? Suppose
we were trying to lower the upper bound by even one. We’d need to
consider the complete graph on 54 vertices. How many edges?

(54)(53)
= 1431
2
How many colorings?

21431
To put this in perspective
21431 > 10400
Known Ramsey numbers
R(4, 4) = 18
R(5, 3) = 14
R(6, 3) = 18
R(7, 3) = 23
42 ≤ R(5, 5) ≤ 55
Just how big are the graphs we need to conider for R(5, 5)? Suppose
we were trying to lower the upper bound by even one. We’d need to
consider the complete graph on 54 vertices. How many edges?

(54)(53)
= 1431
2
How many colorings?

21431
To put this in perspective
21431 > 10400
the number of particles in the known universe is ≈ 1080