DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS Strategy of Experimentation

• “Best-guess” experiments
Introduction
- Used a lot
An experiment is a test or a series of tests in which purposeful - More successful than you might suspect, but there are
changes are made to the input variables of a system so we may observe and disadvantages…
identify the reasons for changes of the outpt response. Disadvantages:
1. Initial best guess does not produce the desired result
Experiments are used widely in the engineering world 2. Initial best guess produces acceptable results
– Process characterization & optimization
• One-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) experiments
– Evaluation of material properties
– Sometimes associated with the “scientific” or “engineering”
– Product design & development
method
– Component & system tolerance determination
– Devastated by interaction, also very inefficient
“All experiments are designed experiments, some are poorly designed, some • Statistically designed experiments
are well-designed” – Based on Fisher’s factorial concept
General model of a process or system – Factors are varied together instead of one at a time
Factorial Designs
The objectives of an experiment may include Determining:
In a factorial experiment, all possible
1. which variables are most influential on the combinations of factor levels are tested
response y The golf experiment:
2. where to set the influential x’s so that y is – Type of driver
almost always near the desired nominal – Type of ball
3. where to set the influential x’s so that – Walking vs. riding
variability in y is small – Type of beverage
4. where to set the influential x’s so that the – Time of round
effects of the uncontrollable variables z1, z2, – Weather
…, zq are minimized – Type of golf spike– Etc, etc, etc…

Benefits of DOX
• Reduce time to design/develop new products & processes
• Improve performance of existing processes
• Improve reliability and performance of products
• Achieve product & process robustness
• Evaluation of materials, design alternatives, setting component &
system tolerances, etc.
Factorial Designs with several factors Randomization
• Both the allocation of the experimental material and the order in
which the individual runs or trials of the experiment are to be
performed are randomly determined.
Blocking

• Blocking is a design technique used to improve the precision with

which comparisons among the factors of interest are made.
• Used to reduce or eliminate the variability transmitted from nuisance
factors.
• Nuisance factors: factors that may influence the experimental
response but in which we are not directly interested.
• A block is a set of relatively homogeneous experimental conditions
The Basic Principles of DOX
Planning, Conducting & Analyzing an Experiment
• Two aspects to any experimental problem:
1. The design of the experiment 1. Recognition of & statement of problem
2. Statistical analysis of the data 2. Choice of factors, levels, and ranges
• Three basic principles of experimental design 3. Selection of the response variable(s)
1. Replication 4. Choice of design
2. Randomization 5. Conducting the experiment
3. Blocking 6. Statistical analysis
7. Drawing conclusions, recommendations
Replication
• Repetition of the basic experiment. • Get statistical thinking involved early
• Replication has two important properties: • Your non-statistical knowledge is crucial to success
1. Allows to obtain an estimate of the experimental error • Pre experimental planning (steps 1-3) vital
2. If the sample mean is used to estimate the effect of a • Think and experiment sequentially
factor, replication permits to obtain a more precise estimate
of this effect
• Repeated measurements: is a direct reflection of the inherent
variability in the measurement system or gauge.
• Replication reflects sources of variability both between runs and
within runs
MATH 4 MODULE 2: PROBABILITY • Uses probability to determine the confident we can be that the
conclusion we make are correct. (confidence interval levels and
Introduction
margin of error)
People use the term probability many times each day. For example,
Statistical inference
physician says that a patient has a 50-50 chance of surviving a certain
-the theory, methods, and practice of forming judgments about the
operation. Another physician may say that she is 95% certain that a patient
parameters of a population and the reliability of statistical relationships,
has a particular disease
typically on the basis of random sampling.
How do probability and statistical inference work together Probability
-the extent to which an event is likely to occur, measured by the ratio
of the favorable cases to the whole number of cases possible.
Experiment- In probability theory, the activity that produces an event; it is
any action or process that generates data.
(Ex. Coin toss experiment, what is the probability of event heads? P(H)=1/2
Event- in probability theory, is one or more of the possible outcomes of doing
something; it is a subset of a sample space.
Why Learn Probability? (Ex. Toss a coin, getting a tail would be an event)
• Nothing in life is certain. In everything we do, we gauge the chances Sample space- the set of all possible outcomes of an experiment (certain
of successful outcomes, from business to medicine to the weather event)
• A probability provides a quantitative description of the chances or (Ex. Coin –toss experiment, S= {Head, Tail}
likelihoods associated with various outcomes Element- (members)-each outcome in a sample space
• It provides a bridge between descriptive and inferential statistics
Guidelines in Interpreting Probabilities
Probabilistic vs Statistical Reasoning
• Suppose I know exactly the proportions of car makes in California.
Then I can find the probability that the first car I see in the street is
a Ford. This is probabilistic reasoning as I know the population and
predict the sample
• Now suppose that I do not know the proportions of car makes in
California but would like to estimate them. I observe a random
sample of cars in the street and then I have an estimate of the
proportions of the population. This is statistical reasoning.
• The sample along with inferential statistics allows us to draw
conclusions about the population, with inferential statistics making
clear use of elements of probability 3 METHODS OF PROBABILITY
• elements in probability allows us to draw conclusions about 1. Personal approach (subjective)- are based on the personal belief or
characteristics of hypothetical data taken from the population, feelings of the person who makes the problem estimate (personal opinion)
based on known features of the population
- probability assigned to an event on the basis of whatever evidence is Example 2. IN HOW MANY WAYS CAN TWO DICE FALL?
available N1= 6 ; N2= 6
TOTAL NUMBER OF WAYS=?
2. Relative frequency or empirical approach- it is a figure based on repeated
Tree Diagram
experimentation and observation

Relative Frequency Approximation

𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐀 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐝
P(A) = 𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐬 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐫𝐮𝐧

Assuming that an experiment can be repeated many times and assuming that
there are one or more outcomes that can result from each repetition. Then,
the probability of a given outcome is the number of times that outcome
occurs divided by the total number of repetitions. Example 3. An office secretary tries to devise a coding scheme for certain
records using the digits 1 to 4. She wants to find the total number of codes
3.Classical approach- (priori problem, experimental) - can be used only when of different digits if only three of the four digits are used .
it is reasonable to assume that the possible outcomes of the experiment are Solution: 4 x 3 x 2 = 24 ways
equally likely. It is an accurate description of the frequency with which event
A will occur. PERMUTATION
Classical Formula It is the possible number of arrangements of different given objects
𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐀 𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫 nPr = represents the number of permutation (order of arrangements) of n
P(A) = n(A) =
𝐧𝐨.𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐧 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐜𝐞𝐞𝐝 different objects taken r at a time
𝒏!
nPr = (𝒏−𝒓)!
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING (MULTIPLICATION RULE)
Consider an experiment taking in k stages. Let n1 denote the number PERMUTATION RULE
of ways in which stage i can occur for i = 1,2,3….k. Altogether the experiment 1. The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken n at a time
can occur for ∏ i k = 1ni= n1 •n2 •n3….nk ways is
𝒏!
P = (𝒏−𝒓)!
Example: 1. In how many ways can three coins fall?
n1 = 2 ; n2 =2; n3 = 2 Example: 1. In how many ways the radiologist assign 5 patients to undergo a
total number of ways = n1 x n2 x n3 = ? screening test for pulmonary tuberculosis x-ray?
Tree Diagram
Solution: The number of ways of selecting 5 patients one at a time is
5P5 = P(n,n) = n! = n(n-1)(n-2)… (3)(2)(1) =120 ways

2. The number of permutation of n distinct objects taken r at a time

𝒏!
nPr = (𝒏−𝒓)!
Example: COMBINATION
1. How many permutations can be made from the letters in the word
On many occasions we are not interested in arranging but only in
“SUNDAY” if (a) 4 letters are used a time; (b) all letters are used; (c)
selecting r objects from given n objects. A combination is a selection of some
all letters are used but the first is a vowel?
or all of a number of different objects where the order of selection is
Solution. immaterial. The number of selections of r objects from the given n objects is
a. We want to find the number of permutations of 6 letters taken 4 at a time. denoted by nCr , and is given by:
Using the formula, we have 𝒏!
nCr = (𝒏−𝒓)! 𝒓!
P4 = 6! / (6-4)! = 6! / 2! = 6•5•4•3•2! / 2! = 360 permutations
b. Since all letters are used, Remarks
n=6 and r= 6, then 6P6 = 6! = 720 permutations.
c. The first letter in each permutation is either “U” or “A”. Therefore, we have 1. Use permutations if a problem calls for the number of arrangements of
two choices for the first letter. But after selecting the first letter, we can select objects and different orders are to be counted.
the remaining 5 without restriction, and consequently in 5! Ways. The total
2. Use combinations if a problem calls for the number of ways of selecting
number of ways of selecting the first letter as vowel and then the other 5
objects and the order of selection is not to be counted
letters without restriction is
2•5! = 2•5•4•3•2•1 = 240 ways Example 1.

3. The number of permutations of n objects of which n1 are identical In a class, there are 27 boys and 14 girls. The teacher wants to select 1 boy
n2 are identical (permutation of objects not all different) and 1 girl to represent the class for a function. In how many ways can the
𝐧! teacher make this selection?
P=
𝐧𝟏 !𝐧𝟐 !𝐧𝟑 !....𝐧𝐤
Solution :
Given 4 bulbs, three are red (R), and one blue (B). Then the number of ways
of arranging the bulbs in a string of wire is 4! / (3!)(1!) = 4 ways Here the teacher is to perform two operations:
4. The number of permutations of n distinct objects arranged in a (i) Selecting a boy from among the 27 boys and
circle (ii) (ii) Selecting a girl from among 14 girls.
P = (n-1)!
Example: In how many ways can we arrange 4 thermometers in a box The first of these can be done in 27 ways and second can be performed in 14
container? ways. By the fundamental principle of counting, the required number of ways
Solution. Fixing 1 thermometer, then the required number of possible is 27 × 14 = 378 ways.
arrangements is (4-1)! = 3•2•1 = 6 ways

5. The no. of permutation of partitioning a set of n objects into r

subsets
𝒏!
P= 𝒏𝟏 !𝒏𝟐 !𝒏𝟑 !…𝒏𝒓 !
Example:  It is desired to assign 10 people to 2 triple and 2 double rooms 
Solution:  P= 10!/3! 3! 2! 2! = 25,200 arrangements
Classical Probability Probability rule 3
Probability Rule Three (Complement Rule) - that is, the probability that an
Example: Toss a fair coin three times
event does not occur is 1 minus the probability that it does occur)
Possible outcome:{HHH, THH, HTH, HHT, HTT, THT, TTH,
P (not A) = 1- P (A)
TTT}
The complement event of A – is a separate event consists of all possible
Event A: “Getting no H” → TTT
outcomes that are not in A , (event A does not occur)
Event B: “Getting exactly one H” → HTT, THT,TTH
Venn Diagram- is a simple way to visualize events and the relationships
Event C: “Getting at least one H” → HTT, THT, TTH, THH,
between them using rectangles and circles
HTH, HHT, HHH
Probability of each outcome is 1/8 Probabilities Involving Multiple Events

BASIC PROBABILITY RULES P (A or B) = P (Event A occurs or event B occurs or both occur

Principle: If you can calculate a probability using logic and counting P (A and B) = P (both event A occurs and event B occurs)
you do not need a probability rule (although the correct rule can always In Probability, “OR” means either one or the other or both.
applied) and so P(A or B) = P (event A occurs or event B occurs or BOTH occurs)

Probability rule 1 Probability Rule Four

The distinction between events that can happen together and those
The first rule simply remind us of the basic property of probability
For every event A, 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1 that cannot is an important one.
Disjoint : Two events that cannot occur at the same time are called disjoint
Example: Blood Type
or mutually exclusive. (We will use disjoint)
Blood Type O A B AB
Probability 0.44 ? 0.10 0.04

1. A person in the U.S. is chosen at random. What is the probability of

the person having blood type A
P(A) = 1- ( P(O) + P(B) + P(AB) )  = 1- (0.58) = 0.42
It should be clear from the picture that
Probability rule 2
- In the first case, where events are not disjoint, P( A and B) ≠ 0
The sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes is 1
- In the second case, where the events ARE disjoint, P(A and B) = 0
Probability Rule Four (Addition Rule for Disjoint Events) or both). In the special case of disjoint events, events that cannot occur
If A and B are disjoint events, then P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) together, the General Addition Rule can be reduced to the Addition Rule for
* When dealing with probabilities, the word “or” will always be associated Disjoint Events (#4), which is P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B). *
with the operation of addition, hence the name of this rule, “The Addition *ONLY use when you are CONVINCED the events are disjoint (they do NOT
Rule” overlap)
5.The restricted version of the addition rule (for disjoint events) can be easily
Finding Rule Five The General Addition Rule
extended to more than two events.
P (A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P (A and B)
6. So far, we have only found P(A and B) using logic and counting in simple
Note : It is the best to use logic to find P(A and B), not another formula
examples
Principle: If you can calculate a probability using logic and counting you do
not NEED a probability rule (although the correct rule can always be
applied)
Rounding Rule of Thumb for Probability
Follow the following general guidelines in this course. If in doubt carry more
decimal places. If we specify give exactly what is requested.
*In general, you should carry probabilities to at least 4 decimal places for
intermediate steps.
*We often round our final answer to two or three decimal places.
*For extremely small probabilities, it is important to have 1 or two
significant digits (non-zero digits), such as 0.000001 or 0.000034, etc.
Many computer packages might display extremely small values using
scientific notation such as 58×10-5 or 1.58 E-5 to represent 0.0000158\

SUMMARY
Here is a summary of the rules we have presented so far.
1. Probability Rule #1 states: For any event A, 0 ≤ P(A) ≤ 1
2. Probability Rule #2 states: The sum of the probabilities of all possible
outcomes is 1
3. The Complement Rule (#3) states that P(not A) = 1 – P(A) or when
rearranged P(A) = 1 – P(not A) The latter representation of the Complement
Rule is especially useful when we need to find probabilities of events of the
sort “at least one of …”
4. The General Addition Rule (#5) states that for any two events, P(A or B) =
P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B), where, by P(A or B) we mean P(A occurs or B occurs
o[pp
DISCRETE AND CONTINOUS PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION Example 2: Two fair coings

Discrete Random Variable

Example 1: Two fair coins

Probability function

Exercises

Exercises 1

Exercises 2
Exercises 3 Variance

Standard Deviation

Expectation and Distribution Parameters

Example 1

Notes on the Expected Value of Random Variable X

Rules for Expectation

Binomial Distribution Binomial Probability Distributions

Binomial Properties

Binomial Distribution: Formulas

Interpretation of the results

Example:
Poisson Distribution

Requirement of the Poisson Distribution

Steps in Solving a Poisson Problem

Example:

Cumulative Distribution

Expectation and Distribution Parameters

Difference from Binomial Distribution

Continuous Probability Distribution

Normal Distribution
Standard Normal DIstribution

Normal Approximation to the Binomial Distribution

Exponential Distribution
ENGINEERING UTILITIES * Globally it is a similar picture. Buildings account for around 35% of
Course Introduction Part I resources, 40% of energy use, consume 12% of the world’s drinkable water
and produce almost 40% of global carbon emissions
Environmental Systems
* Producers of building materials can ensure this is done in ways so as not
* Every project needs a number of environmental systems [plumbing, to adversely affect the environment.
heating and ventilating, air-conditioning, and electrical], added to which are
* These Environmental Product Declarations or EPDs, show how products
the life-safety systems [sprinklers, alarms, detectors, and others of a
have been made in a sustainable way, minimizing energy usage and helping
mechanical nature; e.g., telephones and pneumatic tubes].
to protect the environment.
* Buildings have a big impact on the environment. Then, when in
is equal to the external load.
use, buildings are responsible for a significant proportion of all our carbon
𝑓
emissions. ... Poorly designed and constructed buildings use more energy,
𝑎
increasing the demand on energy production and contributing to global *In addition, many of the products and solutions produce go on to help
warming. minimize energy use in the buildings that have been built or renovated.
of Materials *Poorly designed and constructed buildings use more energy, increasing
* Its ability to withstand an applied load without failure or plastic the demand on energy production and contributing to global warming.
deformation. The applied loads maybe axial (tensile or compressive), or *Reducing energy use in buildings is one of the most important ways to
shear. reduce humans overall environmental impact.
* Also known as Mechanics of Materials, is focused on analyzing stresses *Construction industry has a significant impact on the environment.
and deflection in materials under load. According to some studies, construction is responsible for up to 50%
* Basically considers the relationships between the external loads applied to of climate change, 40% of energy usage globally, and 50% of landfill waste,
a material and the resulting deformation or change in material dimensions. not to mention air, water, and noise pollution and destruction of natural
habitat
*Buildings have a big impact on the environment. The construction and
renovation of buildings uses precious natural resources the measure of deformation of the material which is not a physical quantity

* Then, when in use, buildings are responsible for a significant proportion * Measured as the total
of all our carbon emissions. Environmental Designs
* Energy used in the construction and use of our homes and other * Environmental design is the process of addressing
buildings accounts for carbon dioxide emissions surrounding environmental parameters when devising plans, programs,
policies, buildings, or products. These fields include architecture,
geography, urban planning, landscape architecture, and interior design.
 * Environmental Design embodies art direction, graphic design and aware of these and similar features, but they usually have no direct bearing
illustration. on the layout of the systems.

* Environmental Design can perform many functions: create visual *Basically, mechanical systems show a schematic layout. More often
wayfinding solutions; enhance a sense of community and identity; and can than not a particular waste line in a plumbing drawing or a conduit in an
communicate other important sets of information. electrical drawing will not be built in the exact position shown. This is not to
say that the installation is wrong or that it should be changed, although
* Energy use in buildings can be reduced while maintaining the comfort of
some inspectors may view it that way. It is a matter of fitting the system
the occupants. It was postulated that optimization of energy use in buildings
together and of running the lines to facilitate not only that system but to
can be achieved through the use of operating strategies which consider the
prevent conflict with others.
dynamic characteristics of comfort, the design and construction of the
building, and the environmental control system. * If the engineers and designers who produce these drawings are
aware of one another responsibilities more so in dealing with several
Building Environmental Control Systems
consultants. The plumbing drawings are produced primarily in a single line
*In addition to architectural drawings, every project needs a number of con text-basically a centerline. A number of symbols are entered in the lines
environmental systems [plumbing, heating and ventilating, air-conditioning, for proper identification, to show the vertical risers and vents as well as the
and electrical], added to which are the life-safety systems [sprinklers, horizontal runs, the interconnections of the fixtures, and, most important of
alarms, detectors, and others of a mechanical nature; e.g., telephones and all, where the pipe sizes change.
pneumatic tubes]. The sequence in which these drawings are done has a
* The plumber must also be informed of the architectural features; he
different orientation than the architectural drawings. In these systems,
or she cannot run a pipe past a window opening. The plumber must be
drawings show the building, and the various room areas, as shells in which
concerned with the materials used in the walls as well as their thicknesses.
the various environmental system equipment and devices are located.
* The plumbing engineer must work hand in hand with the architect to
* The complete array of systems must be included and fully delineated. The
produce drawings and construction details that are workable. Along with
outline of the building and rooms are shown lightly, so they can be
the plan the plumbing drawings have schematic isometric drawings that
differentiated from the systems work. They still must be reproducible and
show the risers in the third dimension and also the location of all the
readable. In the past, the building lines were drawn on the backs of sheets
fixtures
and were known as masks, ghosts, or backups. In this way, any erasure on
the front of the sheet would not necessitate redrawing the building. * In heating, ventilating and air-conditioning work the system is a little
more complicated. Although used in some cases, a single line drawing
*Today many offices use halftone prints or photographic methods, which
[where one line represents a duct of any size] is not sufficient in all cases.
screen out the intensity of the building lines. Now, of course, the building
More often than not a double line drawing [accurately showing the width of
lines can be most easily varied in weight and intensity, via CAD settings. As a
the ducts] will be needed to show the full configuration of the ductwork,
rule no building openings [doors, windows, etc.] were shown, since the
and the relationship between the ducts and other features of the work
systems being shown are usually located in the plenum space above the
[piping, light fixtures, structural elements, vertical risers and penetrations,
ceilings and the openings below. Mechanical designers should be fully
etc.].
 * Some professionals have incorporated separate sheets designed PART-II: I NTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL THEORY
wholly for energy code provisions. Whatever the motif, the information
Description
should follow the “clear, concise, and complete” criteria of all work on the
drawings. The mechanical engineer’s approach to drawings is entirely *Working as an electrician requires many skills. the physical demands of
different in orientation, method, and impact than that of the architect. the job are one important part of the skills needed to succeed. reading and
communication skills are other aspects one must develop and improve to be
Environmental Impact of Buildings
a successful worker in the electrical field. electrical theory is a basic building
*Building and construction is responsible for up to 30% of annual global block that every potential electrician must understand from the start.
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, commonly reported in carbon equivalent
*Electricity makes no sound, doesn’t have an odour, and can’t be seen,
unit. Building and construction is responsible for up to 30% of annual global
so understanding the power you’re dealing with in theory, helps to make
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, commonly reported in carbon equivalent
you and others safe. Much has to be learned to fully understand electrical
unit.
theory, and it takes years to master.
*Sustainable buildings in most countries, buildings are the largest driver for
*This activity plan will cover the basics, and it should be understood that
both energy use and CO2 emissions.
students will need to continue to develop their math and science
*Managing their environmental impacts on their buildings results in proficiencies if they intend to become an electrician.
economic benefits and helps them meet their societal obligations. Applying
Basic Electrical Theory
sustainability management to buildings requires work under three main
headings: construction, lifetime use and decommissioning. *No single discovery has affected our lives, our culture and our survival
more than electricity. Electricity is everywhere; it lights our way, cooks our
* There are a number of standards, methodologies and tools that have
food and can even brush your teeth. For an example, imagine where the
been put in place to assist organizations in delivering excellent
medical field would be without electricity and in that sense how many lives
environmental performance with regard to their building stock.
have been saved due to electrical devices like defibrillators, pacemakers,
*Good design can reduce energy bills by 25%, the initial capital costs may etc.
not be the lowest. In order to deal with a narrow economic outlook, some
*So what is electricity and where does it come from? More importantly,
designers and owners have started using life cycle assessment as a scientific
why is carpet, socks and a doorknob a bad combination? In its simplest
evaluation of actual performance, rather than simply buying into certain p
terms, electricity is the movement of charge, which is considered by
*Sustainable buildings, which focuses on the application of sustainability convention to be, from positive to negative. No matter how the charge is
management to buildings through the stages of construction, lifetime use created, chemically (like in batteries) or physically (friction from socks and
and de-commissioning, as ICT companies build and operate facilities that carpet), the movement of the discharge is electricity.
can demand large amounts of energy and material use in all phases of the
*This activity plan will cover the basics, and it should be understood that
life cycle
students will need to continue to develop their math and science
proficiencies if they intend to become an electrician.
Environmental Impact of Buildings • Three types of electricity
- Static Electricity is nothing but the contact between equal
*Building and construction is responsible for up to 30% of annual global
amount of protons and electrons (positively and negatively
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, commonly reported in carbon equivalent
charged subatomic particles). ...
unit. Building and construction is responsible for up to 30% of annual global
- Current Electricity is a flow of electric charge across
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, commonly reported in carbon equivalent
an electrical field.
unit.
- Hydro Electricity. .
*Sustainable buildings in most countries, buildings are the largest driver for - Solar Electricity.
both energy use and CO2 emissions.
Objectives
*Managing their environmental impacts on their buildings results in • Identify and describe the scientific principles related to electricity.
economic benefits and helps them meet their societal obligations. Applying • Describe electrical terminology.
sustainability management to buildings requires work under three main • Define Ohm’s law.
headings: construction, lifetime use and decommissioning. • Explain electrical power and energy relationships.
• Perform electrical calculations.
* There are a number of standards, methodologies and tools that have
• List and describe the basic types of electrical circuits.
been put in place to assist organizations in delivering excellent
environmental performance with regard to their building stock.
The Principles of Electricity
*Good design can reduce energy bills by 25%, the initial capital costs may
*These basic principles of electricity are the basis for the electric devices
not be the lowest. In order to deal with a narrow economic outlook, some
found in your home and school — things like digital cameras, stereos,
designers and owners have started using life cycle assessment as a scientific
flashlights, calculators and portable CD players.
evaluation of actual performance, rather than simply buying into certain p
* Scientists know that there are ways of measuring electrical quantities.
*Sustainable buildings, which focuses on the application of sustainability
One of these is coulombs per second, a measure of the flow of electrons
management to buildings through the stages of construction, lifetime use
through a metal conductor or wire. A current of one coulomb per second
and de-commissioning, as ICT companies build and operate facilities that
equals one ampere.
can demand large amounts of energy and material use in all phases of the
life cycle * Even materials that conduct electricity resist the flow of electrons. The
unit of electrical resistance is an ohm. The pressure needed to make one
Basic Electrical Theory
coulomb per second (one ampere) flow through a conductor having a
• Electricity, simply put, is the flow of electric current along a conductor.
resistance of one ohm is one volt.
This electric current takes the form of free electrons that transfer from one
atom to the next. * The three basic principles can be explained using electrons, or more
• There are three primary electrical parameters: the volt, the ampere and specifically, the charge they create: Voltage is the difference in charge
the ohm. between two points. Current is the rate at which charge is flowing.
Resistance is a material's tendency to resist the flow of charge (current).
Basic Terminology Terminology
*Alternating current (AC): an electric current that reverses direction and
Direct Current (DC)
magnitude in a circuit at regular intervals..
- Current flow is unidirectional and of constant magnitude
(battery) *Closed circuit: a closed path or circuit capable of being followed by an
Alternating Current (AC) electric current.
- Magnitude & direction of current flow periodically change
*Conductor: a material or object that allows current to flow through it.
- Each sequence called a cycle
Copper and aluminum are common conductors in electrical systems.
- Frequency is cycles per second (Hz)
Electromotive Force (E or V) *Current: the amount of electrons flowing past a specified circuit point per
- Force which causes electrons to move from one location to unit time, expressed in amperes, or amps
another
*Direct current: an electric current flowing in one direction only.specified
- Known as emf, potential difference, or voltage
circuit point per unit time, expressed in amperes, or amps.
- Unit is volt (V)
- Source: *Insulator: a substance or device that does not readily conduct electricity.
- Generator
is equal to the external load.
- Battery
- Like pump that moves through “pressure” *Multimeter: an electrical test instrument that can measure several values,
Current (I) usually voltage, current, and resistance.
- Flow of electric charges – electrons (or holes) – through a
*Ohm’s law: a law in electricity that states that the current (amps expressed
conductor or circuit per increment of time
as I) in a circuit is proportional to the potential difference (voltage,
- Unit is ampere (number of charged particles passing a point
expressed as E) divided by the resistance of the circuit (ohms, expressed as
each second)
R), I=E/R or E=I x R or R=E/I.
- 1 amp – 1 coulomb /sec – 6 x 1018 electrons/sec
- Like rate of flow of water through a pipe *Open circuit: an open path preventing the flow of current.
Resistance (R)
- An electrical circuit’s opposition to the flow of current through *Parallel circuit: electrical components or circuits connected to common
it points at each end, rather than one to another in sequence. More than one
- Measures in ohms (Ω) path for current to flow.
Conductor *Resistance: the opposition of a body or substance to current passing
- All materials will conduct electricity, but at varying resistances through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into another form of
- Good conductors have little resistance (ie: silver, copper, energy commonly heat or light.
aluminum, iron)
*Series circuit: electrical circuits or components arranged so that the
current passes through each successively. One path for current flow..
* Short circuit : path of low resistance allowing a high current to flow.. - In an electrical circuit this pressure (electromotive force) is called voltage.

𝒇 - The volt (V) is the unit by which electrical pressure is measured.

𝒂
* Electrical Current (Amperage): * Voltage: electromotive force or potential difference, expressed in voltage
or volts. Electrical pressure.
- While voltage refers to the electrical pressure of a circuit, current or
amperage refers to the electrical flow of a circuit. * Watt: the SI unit of power, equivalent to 1 joule per second,
corresponding to the power in an electric circuit in which the potential
- Current or amperage is the amount of electric charges (or electrons) difference is 1 volt and the current 1 ampere. Power
flowing past a point in a circuit every second.
Power formula, P (Watts) = E x I or P = I² x R
- One ampere (amp or A) is equal to 6.28 billion billion (or 6.28 x 1018)
electrons per second Ohm’s Law & Applications
* Resistance Law: current of a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage and
inversely proportional to circuit resistance
- Opposition to flow in electrical circuits is called resistance (or impedance). I a V, I a 1/R V = IR
- Measured in Ohms by using an ohmmeter. Power
P = VI P = (1R)1 = I2R
- One ohm, or R is the amount of electrical resistance overcome by one volt
Ohm's Law
to cause one amp of current to flow.
- Ohm’s Law is the fundamental equation for electricity and governs
- Electrical current follows the path of least resistance. the vast majority of electrical work that we do. It was named after Georg
Ohm, a German physicist who published a treatise in 1827. In it, he
- Electricity can encounter resistance by the type of conductor, the size of
explained measurements of applied voltage and current by using a simple
conductor and even corrosion on the connections.
electrical circuit made with varying lengths of wire.
* Electrical Circuit - The law states that electrical current in a circuit or conductor will always
be proportionate to the voltage across the conductor or circuit, and
- a continuous conductor that provides a path for the flow of electrons away
inversely proportional to the total resistance.
from and back to the generator or source of current.
V (voltage) = I (current) x R (resistance)
- Note the “conventional flow” of this diagram. + Battery – Let’s do an example calculation; we are installing a 120V light bulb with a
resistance of 100Ω (Ohms). If we move the formula around, we find that:
* Electrical Voltage
I=/V/R So, 120V / 100Ω= 1.2A
- An electrical generator (or battery) forces electrons to move from atom to
atom.

- This push or force is like the pressure created by a pump in a water

system.
Ohm's Law - Ohm's Law explains the relationships between voltage (E), resistance (R),
and current (I). In two circuits of equal voltage, the current will be
- The most fundamental law in electricity is Ohm’s law or V=IR. The V is for
proportionately greater in the circuit of lower resistance.
voltage, which means the potential difference between two charges. In
other words, it is a measurement of the work required to move a unit - In circuits of equal resistance, the current flowing will be directly
charge between two points. When we see a value such as 10 Volts, it is a proportional to the voltage applied. Current is directly proportional to
measurement of the potential difference between two reference points. voltage, inversely proportional to resistance.I (Amperes) = E (Volts)/R
(Ohms),Also: E = IR or R = E/I
- Normally the two points will be +10V and 0V (also known as ground), but it
can also be the difference between +5V and -5V, +20V and +10V, etc. In the - One of the most common electrical measurements you’ll use is the watt, a
field, you might hear the term “common grounds” which refers to each unit of electrical power: W (Watts) = E (Volts) x I (Amperes).
device in a system using the same zero-point reference (or ground) to
- The quantity of electric charge is measured in coulombs.
ensure the same potential difference ( or voltage) is applied throughout the
system. - Even though basic electrical theory was not understood until much later,
electricity has existed in the world since the beginning of time.
- One of the most common electrical measurements you’ll use is the watt, a
unit of electrical power: - Long before anyone heard the word electricity, people had seen lightning
and experienced shocks from electric fish.They believed these fish were to
W (Watts) = E (Volts) x I (Amperes).
“protect” all of the other fish.
- The next component of Ohm’s law is current, the units of which are
- Ohm's Law explains the relationships between voltage (E), resistance (R),
Amperes; in the formula, current is represented by the very logical choice of
and current (I). In two circuits of equal voltage, the current will be
the letter I. As mentioned previously, current is the measurement of the
proportionately greater in the circuit of lower resistance.
flow of charge in a circuit. This leaves us with the letter R which represents
Resistance. Electrical resistance, measured in Ohms, is the measure of the Basic Electrical Theory: Electric Charge
amount of current repulsion in a circuit.
- Every piece of matter is made up of molecules and all molecules are made
- Ohm's Law explains the relationships between voltage (E), resistance (R), up of atoms, which are made of protons, electrons, and neutrons
and current (I). Simply, resistance resists current flow. When electrons flow
- The negative charge is carried by electrons, while the positive charge is
against the opposition offered by resistance in the circuit, friction occurs
carried by the protons, and neutrons are naturally neutral. The number of
and heat is produced.
protons in an atom does not change because they are locked in the nucleus.
- The most common application for resistance in a circuit is the light bulb.
- Electrons orbit the nucleus, and therefore can be lost or gained. The
The light bulb introduces enough resistance in a circuit to heat up the
charge of one electron will counteract the charge of one proton, and atoms
filament inside, causing light to be emitted. Resistance in a circuit can also
tend to prefer to stay at a balanced charge. When an atom has too many
be helpful when needing to alter voltage levels, current paths, etc. Resistors
electrons, it will want to release those electrons to something with a weaker
are self-contained packages of resistance that can be added to a circuit and
are commonly used to divide voltage levels.
charge. When something has an electric charge, it means that there is an - A larger wire size has less resistance and will allow more current to
imbalance of electrons, either too many or too few. flow. Electrical resistance is measured in units of Ohms. Resistance is also
affected by the material itself. Most metals are good conductors, which
- When we measure the difference in electric charge between two points, it
means they have low resistance, because their electrons can be gained and
is known as voltage. Typically, the earth is used as a common reference
lost very easily. Insulators, like plastic or wood, have electrons which are
point, so when a circuit has 120 Volts, that is the difference between the
much more tightly bound to the nucleus, which means that they are harder
source voltage and the ground’s voltage.
to move around. Also, as a material heats up, its resistance increases, and
- When we measure the difference in electric charge between two points, it the resistance decreases as it cools down.
is known as voltage. Typically, the earth is used as a common reference
- How much opposition the conductor or metal wire presents to the electric
point, so when a circuit has 120 Volts, that is the difference between the
current flow is the electrical resistance. The lower the resistance, the easier
source voltage and the ground’s voltage.
current will flow. Think of current like water flowing through a pipe, if the
Basic Electrical Theory: Electric Current pipe is small there is more resistance to water flow, if the pipe is large the
water will flow much easier.
When a conductive path is provided for excess electric charge to take,
the electric charge moves and creates an electric current. The amount of - A larger wire size has less resistance and will allow more current to
current is based on the supply voltage and the resistance in the flow. Electrical resistance is measured in units of Ohms. Resistance is also
circuit. Current is measure in units of Amperes, or Amps for short, and is affected by the material itself. Most metals are good conductors, which
equal to one Coulomb (the amount of charge that 6.242×1018 electrons means they have low resistance, because their electrons can be gained and
have) per second. The current will prefer to take the path with the lowest lost very easily. Insulators, like plastic or wood, have electrons which are
resistance. much more tightly bound to the nucleus, which means that they are harder
to move around. Also, as a material heats up, its resistance increases, and
the resistance decreases as it cools down.

Basic Electrical Theory: Electric Circuit

- An electric circuit provides a path for the current to flow to a from a point.
The electric current always flows from positive to negative, and takes the
path with the least resistance.

Basic Electrical Theory: Electrical Resistance - An example of this is often seen when someone is working without
wearing properly insulated footwear. The worker will experience
- How much opposition the conductor or metal wire presents to the electric
an electrical shock, because the body offers a path towards the ground with
current flow is the electrical resistance. The lower the resistance, the easier
very low resistance. This means the body has become part of the circuit.
current will flow. Think of current like water flowing through a pipe, if the
pipe is small there is more resistance to water flow, if the pipe is large the
water will flow much easier.
 6. A lamp is plugged into the wall outlet, which is providing 110 volts.
An ammeter attached to the lamp shows 2 amps flowing through
the circuit. How many ohms of resistance is the lamp providing?
7. If your skin has a resistance of 10,000 ohms and you touch a 9-volt
battery, what current will flow through you?
8. What current will flow through your body with a skin resistance of
10,000 ohms, if you touch 120-volt house potential?
9. When you are soaked in seawater, your resistance is lowered to
1000 ohms. Now how much current will flow through you if you
touch the 9-volt battery?
10. When you are soaked in seawater, what current will flow through
you if you touch the 120-volt house potential?
11. How much current flowing through your body is considered fatal?

*A 100 watt light bulb uses 1000mA(milliamperes) of current. It takes only

5mA to trip a ground fault circuit interrupter(GFCI).A small amount of
current running through the body for a few seconds can give the effects
shown on the table.

Ohm’s Law Problems

1. 3 volts is applied across a 6-ohm resistor. What is the current
flowing?
2. A 1.2-ohm resistor passes a current of 0.2 amps. What is the voltage
across it?
3. What is the voltage of a circuit with a resistance of 250 ohms and a
current of 0.95 amps?
4. A small electrical pump is labelled with a rating of 3 amps and a
resistance of 40 ohms. At what voltage is it designed to operate?
5. A 9-volt battery is hooked up to a light bulb with a rating of 3 ohms.
How much current passes through the light?
Relation Between Power and Energy

- Electrical energy is an important concept in science, yet it is frequently

misunderstood. So what exactly is electrical energy and what are some of
the rules applied when it is used in calculations?

- Energy can be converted between different forms.

- Distance is described in units of meters and velocity is described in units of

meters per second.
- So the difference between distance and velocity is that velocity is divided
by time.
- The units of power are watts, the units of energy are joules. A watt is one
joule divided by one second. With power and energy, power is units of
energy.
- Electrical energy is the energy derived from electric potential energy or
kinetic energy of the charged particles. In general, it is referred to as the
energy that has been converted from electric potential energy divided by
time. The same difference as distance and velocity.