NHDR2007 Book ENG

Thailand Human Development Report 2007
Sufficiency Economy and

Human Development
Thailand
Human Development
Report 2007
Sufficiency Economy
and Human Development
United Nations Development Programme

Cover photos ©
David Kirkland (front cover, third row, second from left),
Bumrungrad International (back cover, second row, second from left).
All other images royalty free.
Copyright © 2007

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E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.undp.or.th
ISBN: 974-88126-3-4
Foreword
His Excellency General Surayud Chulanont (Ret.)

Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Thailand
It is my pleasure and honour to introduce the Thailand Human Development Report 2007, with the
theme of “Sufficiency Economy and Human Development”.
Bestowed by His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej on the people of the Kingdom of Thailand, the
Sufficiency Economy philosophy has now firmly taken root in Thai society. It has become the
guiding philosophy for our country’s development strategies and policies, including Thailand’s 10th
National Economic and Social Development Plan for 2007–2011. Indeed, it is the modus operandi
for my Government’s efforts to promote human development, reduce income inequalities, and
ensure sound foundations for sustainable economic growth.
Gaining momentum in Thailand after the 1997 financial crisis, the Sufficiency Economy thinking
has increased in importance over the years, right up to this year of political transition. The thinking
advocates growth with economic stability over rapid but unbridled growth. It emphasizes
sustainable development, sound macroeconomic policies, and the equitable sharing of the
benefits of economic prosperity. At the same time, it shuns excessive risk-taking, untenable
inequalities, and the wasteful use of natural resources.
At the community level, the Sufficiency Economy approach stresses the importance of
“self-immunity”, in other words, the need for communities to possess resilience against external or
internal shocks, be they economic downturns, soaring fuel prices, natural disasters, ill health in
families, or bad harvests.
At the national level, the idea of “self-immunity” is equally if not even more important. The
Sufficiency Economy thinking helps us to build macroeconomic resilience to cope with the
vagaries of the global economy and the negative effects of globalization.
The publication and dissemination of the Thailand Human Development Report 2007 is a timely
and useful contribution to the ongoing debate about how to translate the Sufficiency Economy
thinking into effective policies and concrete action plans to transform the way we tackle poverty,
manage the economy, run businesses, and govern our country – for the ultimate benefit of the
Thai people.
Just as important, this Report will help spread the message of the Sufficiency Economy beyond the
borders of Thailand. During these times when the world is facing new challenges such as global
warming and rapid globalization, the Sufficiency Economy philosophy – emphasizing moderation,
responsible consumption, and resilience to external shocks – is of great relevance not only to
Thailand but to countries and communities across the globe.
iii
The Sufficiency Economy offers an effective approach to promoting sustainability and managing
risks; a survival strategy for travelling down the fast-moving and sometimes treacherous road
of globalization, with its illusions and pitfalls. In such a world, what could be more important than
a good strategy?
General (Ret.)
(Surayud Chulanont)
Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Thailand
iv
Preface
The first global Human Development Report was published in 1990 with the single goal of putting
people at the centre of the global development debate. Every year since, these reports have
addressed global challenges from a people-centred perspective, with a very simple message:
Human development is about much more than the rise or fall of national incomes. It is about people.
It is about creating an environment in which people can develop their full potential and live long,
healthy, productive and creative lives in accord with their needs, cultures and interests.
People are the real wealth of nations. Development is thus about expanding the choices people
have to lead lives that they value. And it is about much more than economic growth, which is only
a means – if a very important one – of enlarging people’s choices.
As of today, over 400 national human development reports have been produced in 135 countries.
These reports are helping to generate lively debates around the policies and actions needed to
accelerate human development and achieve the Millennium Development Goals. Indeed, they have
come to serve as important tools for policy advocacy and dialogue, placing human development
at the forefront of national political agendas.
Thailand is no exception. The previous national human development report on Thailand,

published in 2003, focused on the theme “Community Empowerment and Human Development”.
The report celebrated the extraordinary dynamism of Thailand’s community movements,
identified the barriers to greater community empowerment, and proposed changes in policies
and institutions to achieve greater participation, social equity, environmental conservation and
other key goals.
This new Thailand Human Development Report 2007 is a logical successor to the 2003 volume, but
approaches the topic from a very different angle and can lay claim to a very special uniqueness.
It presents the development thinking of Thailand’s long-reigning monarch, His Majesty King
Bhumibol Adulyadej. While these ideas have been widely and intensively discussed within
Thailand in recent years, and are now adopted as the basis of national government policy,
this report is the first attempt to explain these ideas and their application in detail for a wider
global audience.
The King’s philosophy of “Sufficiency Economy” has great global relevance during these times of
economic uncertainties, global warming and unsustainable use of natural resources. It offers a more
balanced and sustainable path of development – a much-needed alternative to the unsustainable
road the world is currently travelling down. Advocating economic stability over unbridled growth,
it calls for prudent management of the economy, a step-by-step approach to market liberalization
and a strengthening of society’s immunity against the negative side effects of globalization.
Like human development, the Sufficiency Economy places humanity at the centre, focuses on
well-being rather than wealth, makes sustainability the very core of the thinking, understands the
need for human security and concentrates on building people’s capabilities to develop their
potential. And it adds a spiritual dimension to human development, reflecting the King’s own
character, convictions and sincerity.
v
We at UNDP, as a member of Thailand’s UN Country Team, are immensely honoured to have this
opportunity to contribute to the policy dialogue about the practical application of Sufficiency
Economy in Thailand, and through this report to disseminate its important messages across
the globe.
Joana Merlin-Scholtes
UN Resident Coordinator and
UNDP Resident Representative
Thailand
The analysis and policy recommendations of this Report do not necessarily reflect the view of the
United Nations Development Programme, its Executive Board or its Member States. The Report is
an independent publication commissioned by UNDP. It is the fruit of a collaborative effort by a
panel of eminent consultants and the Thailand Human Development Report team.
vi
Acknowledgements
UNDP Thailand wishes to convey its profound gratitude to a number of individuals and institutions
for making valuable contributions to this Report.
Advisory Panel
The production of the Report was guided by an Advisory Panel, chaired by H.E. Kasem Watanachai,
Privy Councilor, and co-chaired by H.E. Dr. Chirayu Israngkun Na Ayuthaya, Director General of the
Bureau of the Crown Property.
The members of the Advisory Panel of this report include: Dr. Amphon Kittiamphon (Secretary
General, National Economic and Social Development Board), Dr. Ammar Siamwalla, (Distinguished
Scholar, Thailand Development Research Institute), Khunying Kasama Varavarn (Secretary-General,
Office of the Basic Education Commission, Ministry of Education), Dr. Juree Vichit-Vadakarn
(Chairperson, Centre for Philanthropy and Society, National Institute of Development
Administration), Dr. Niran Jongwutthiwet (Director General, Community Development Department,
Ministry of Interior), Kittisak Sinthuvanich (Deputy Secretary General, Office of National Economic
and Social Development Board), Dr. Somkiat Tangkitvanich (Research Director for Information
Economy Science and Technology Development Programme, Thailand Development Research
Institute), Dr. Nirand Pitakwatchara (Former Senator, Ubon Ratchathani Province), Dr. Priyanut
Piboolsravut (Director of Sufficiency Economy Research Project Unit, Bureau of the Crown
Property), Dr. Veerathai Santiprabhop (Senior Executive, Siam Commercial Bank, PCL), Wuchien
Michael Than (Senior Executive Vice President, Chief HR Officer, Siam Commercial Bank, PCL),
Ian Porter (World Bank’s Country Director for Thailand), Elizabeth Fong (Regional Manager, UNDP
Regional Centre Bangkok), Joana Merlin-Scholtes (UN Resident Coordinator and UNDP Resident
Representative in Thailand), Christine Evans-Klock (Former Director, ILO Sub-regional Office for
East Asia) and Håkan Björkman (UNDP Programme Director and Deputy Resident Representative
in Thailand).
Contributors
Special thanks to Dr. Ajva Taulananda (Vice Chairman, True Corporation Public Company Limited),
Thanpuying Dr. Suthawan Sathirathai (President, Good Governance for Social Development and
the Environment Institute) and Dr. Sumet Tantivejakul (Secretary-General, Chaipattana Foundation)
who took the time to be interviewed for this report.
Penja Onchid (Senior Advisor in Policy and Plan), Techapol Thitayarasa (Plan and policy analyst 9),
Somporn Tongsukchote (Plan and policy analyst 8), Aratip Archaviboonyobol (Plan and policy
analyst 8), Artisuda Na Nakorn (Plan and policy analyst 5) and Rubporn Mimaphun (Official, Bureau
of the Crown Property).
J.K. Robert England (Former UN Resident Coordinator and UNDP Resident Representative in
Thailand), Tim Scott (Human Development Report Office, UNDP New York), Federico Soda
(Programme Development Officer, IOM) and Dhiravadh Brett Tantivaramanond (UNDP consultant).
Contributors on statistics
Special thanks to the National Statistical Office of Thailand and several government agencies
for providing key data for this report. The report also greatly benefited from invaluable input from a
“UN Statistical Peer Review Group” comprised of Bastiaan van’t Hoff (UNICEF), Ko-chi Tung (UNESCO),
Jon Kapp (UNESCO), Haishan Fu (UNESCAP) and Amie Gaye (HDRO-UNDP).
vii
UNDP Team
Håkan Björkman (team leader), Tongta Khiewpaisal, Sirisupa Kulthanan, Phansiri Winichagoon,
Ryratana Rungsitpol, Nick Keyes and Sirinporn Pongsurapipat.
Research Team
Dr. Nattapong Thongpakdee, Parichart Siwaraksa, Sunantha Natenuj, Dr. Apichai Punthasen,
Dr. Sooksan Kantabutr, Dr. Thitiporn Punthasen, Walaitat Worakul, Dr. Priyanut Piboolsravut,
Dr. Sombat Kusumalwatee, Pipat Yodprutikarn, Dr. Kobsak Pootrakul and Dr. Michita Champathes.
Coordinator
Walaitat Worakul.
Principal writer and editor

Dr. Chris Baker.
Design and layout

Keen Publishing (Thailand), Co., Ltd.
viii
Contents
Foreword iii
Preface v
Acknowledgements vii
Acronyms xiii
Overview xv
1 The State of Human Development in Thailand 2

Overall progress… 2
…stark inequalities 2
Assessing human development in Thailand 2
Health 5
Education 7
Employment 8
Income, poverty and debt 9
Housing and living environment 11
Family and community life 12
Transportation and communication 14
Participation 16
Conclusion: Progress with imbalance and growing risks 17
2 Thinking out the Sufficiency Economy 20

Thailand’s development… 21
…and the reaction 25
From Royal Projects… 26
…to royal advice 26
Self-reliant agriculture 28
Crisis and Sufficiency 29
Clarifying and codifying 29
Scope and application 31
Philosophical foundations 31
Sufficiency and human development 35
3 Sufficiency Economy in Action 38
Sufficiency in agriculture: The Inpaeng Network 38
Taking a first step 38
Stage 1: Grow what we eat and eat what we grow 39
Stage 2: Community enterprises 39
Stage 3: Networking for diversity and security 41
Organization and linkage 41
Challenges 44
Conclusion: Living with globalization 45
Sufficiency Economy and the environment 47
Royal Projects on the environment 48
Moderately working with nature 49
Sufficiency Economy and business 49
Siam Cement: Valuing the individual in a giant corporation 50
Sufficiency Economy and small- and medium-sized enterprises 52
Visioning business with the Sufficiency Economy 56
Sufficiency and the national economy 58
Building greater immunity into macroeconomic management 59
Designing sustainable policies 61
Making Sufficiency the guiding principle of development strategy 63
Sufficiency and governance in public services 65
Sufficiency Economy and education 66
Conclusion: Sufficiency Economy at work 68
4 Sufficiency Economy Going Forward 70

Sufficiency Economy and Human Development 70
Six messages for taking Sufficiency forward 71
Visionary and courageous leadership 75
Avoiding mindless growth 76
References
Background papers 78
Works cited 79
Annexes
Annex I Human Achievement Index 83
Annex II Indices data 108
Annex III Data sources 126
Boxes
Box 1.1 HAI Health Index 6
Box 1.2 HAI Education Index 7
Box 1.3 HAI Employment Index 8
Box 1.4 HAI Income Index 9
Box 1.5 Migrants: Low human development 10
Box 1.6 HAI Housing and Living Environment Index 11
Box 1.7 HAI Family and Community Life Index 12
Box 1.8 The tsunami: A devastating blow to human development 13
Box 1.9 HAI Transportation and Communication Index 14
Box 1.10 Human development and the crisis in Thailand’s far South 15
Box 1.11 HAI Participation Index 16
Box 2.1 The Royal Projects, the Developer King 27
Box 2.2 Sufficiency and Thailand’s economists 32
Box 2.3 Sufficiency and religion 33
Box 2.4 The Sufficiency Economy and humanist economics 34
Box 3.1 From cash crop to agro-forest 40
Box 3.2 Learning by doing and sharing 42
Box 3.3 Healthy traditional knowledge 43
Box 3.4 Building knowledge for sustainable futures 44
Box 3.5 Same strands, different networks 46
Box 3.6 Sufficiency resort 47
Box 3.7 Sufficiency in community development 48
Box 3.8 Tsunami and Sufficiency 50
Box 3.9 Profit and principle 54
Box 3.10 Sufficiency vending 57
Box 3.11 A model for Sufficiency Economy business tools 60
Box 3.12 The changing economics of development 63
Box 3.13 Sufficiency in government service 64
Box 3.14 Education for development 65
Box 3.15 Sufficiency curriculum 66
Box 3.16 Model schools 68
Box 4.1 The rewards of perseverance 72
Box 4.2 Sufficiency in the mind 76
Figures
Figure 1.1 Human Achievement Index 4
Figure 2.1 Per capita income and GDP growth 22
Figure 2.2 Human Development Index, 1975–2003 23
Figure 2.3 Trends in inequality (Gini coefficient), 1960–2000 23
Figure 2.4 Forest cover, percentage of total land area, 1935–1995 24
Figure 2.5 Sufficiency Economy and globalization 30
Figure 3.1 Map showing the location of the Inpaeng Network 38
Figure 3.2 Inpaeng rice network 42
Figure 3.3 Organization of the Inpaeng Network 43
Figure 3.4 Balanced strategy for long-term growth 58
Figure 3.5 Gross savings as a percentage of GDP, 1995–2004 62
Tables
Table 1.1 Millennium Development Goals in Thailand 3
Table 1.2 Human Achievement Index 5
Table 3.1 Siam Cement: Business and human resource strategies 53
Acronyms
GDP Gross Domestic Product

HAI Human Achievement Index
HDI Human Development Index
HIV/AIDS human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
HRD Human resource development
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NESDB National Economic and Social Development Board
NGO non-governmental organization
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
R&D research and development
SME small- and medium-sized enterprise
TDRI Thai Development Research Institute
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
WHO World Health Organization
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Overview
The Sufficiency Economy is an innovative approach to development designed for practical

application over a wide range of problems and situations. This approach was formulated by King
Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand as a result of his long experience in development work. Owing to
its practical nature, its robust simplicity, and its special relevance in the era of globalization, the
approach deserves to be more widely known.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej ascended to the throne of Thailand on 9 June 1946 at the age of
eighteen. From early in his reign he showed that he would become a most unusual monarch for the
modern age. He grew rice, bred fish and kept cows in the palace compound. He liked clumping
around muddy fields directing irrigation projects. He became a pioneer in devising techniques
for purifying water by aeration and rain-making through cloud-seeding. He spent as much time
as possible on tours around the country, talking to the people, launching development projects,
and checking on their results.
His reign almost exactly coincides with the ‘development era’ in Thailand. By most conventional
measures, Thailand’s development has been a great success. But from early in his reign, King
Bhumibol recognized that the pattern of Thailand’s development carried great risks. In particular,
the smallholder farmers who were the largest element in the population were in danger of being
ignored in this development, or else becoming its victims. The King did not object to national policy
which would be beyond his constitutional role. Instead, he provided practical demonstrations of an
alternative path and its results. He developed technologies, infrastructure, and production systems
which were appropriate for the small-scale farmer. He launched thousands of projects to
implement these measures for the benefit of local communities. And he founded development
centres to catalogue and disseminate the learnings.
Through this time, he also meditated on the practical learnings from these projects, filtered through
a spiritual approach to life. From the 1970s onwards, he spoke about these meditations – first mainly
to groups of students at university graduation ceremonies, later to a national audience on
television. His thoughts were partly in the form of general principles of living – the importance of
learning, ethics, perseverance, tolerance – and partly practical observations on development at the
local level and the national level.
Ultimately, the King’s ideas were dubbed the Sufficiency Economy, which can be summarized in
the following way. The Sufficiency Economy is an approach to life and conduct which is applicable
at every level from the individual through the family and community to the management and
development of the nation. It promotes a middle path, especially in developing the economy to
keep up with the world in the era of globalization. Sufficiency has three key principles: moderation;
wisdom or insight; and the need for built-in resilience against the risks which arise from internal or
external change. In addition, those applying these principles must value knowledge, integrity, and
honesty, and conduct their lives with perseverance, toleration, wisdom, and insight.
Sufficiency in this sense should not be confused with self-sufficiency, turning inward, rejecting
globalization, or retreating towards the mirage of a simpler world. Rather, this approach offers a
way to cope with the unavoidable realities of the market and globalization in the contemporary
world. The Sufficiency approach stresses that individuals need a certain measure of self-reliance to
deal best with the market, and countries need a certain measure of self-reliance to deal with
globalization. Sufficiency has the dual meaning of ‘not too little’ and ‘not too much.’ The principle of
moderation or the middle way is a guide for finding the right balance between internal resources
and external pressures, between the needs of society at the grassroots, and the imperatives of the
global economy.
xv
The Thailand National Human Development Report 2007 focuses on these ideas. The approach of
human development puts people and their well-being at the centre of development and
provides an alternative to the traditional, more narrowly focused economic growth paradigm.
Human development is about people, and about expanding their choices and capabilities to live
long, healthy, knowledgeable, and creative lives. The thinking on the Sufficiency Economy clearly
belongs in the realm of human development. It focuses on humanity, makes sustainability key,
favours well-being over wealth, and insists on the importance of learning. However, there are
additional reasons why this theme has been selected for this report.
First, the thinking on the Sufficiency Economy has developed as a very practical effort to achieve
the goals of human development, and has won support because of its simple realism. As such, it
represents a fund of learning developed from the bottom-up which has real practical applicability
in other places which face similar challenges in this globalized world.
Second, it goes beyond much development thinking by linking the search for people-centred,
sustainable development with the cultivation of human values. In short, it is not so much about
technique as about right thinking. As such, it helps to add a new depth to the idea of human
development.
On 26 May 2006, the UN Secretary General Kofi Annan presented a Human Development Lifetime
Achievement Award to King Bhumibol. He said,
His Majesty’s ‘Sufficiency Economy’ philosophy … is of great relevance to communities

everywhere during these times of rapid globalization. The philosophy’s ‘middle way’ approach
strongly reinforces the United Nations’ own advocacy of a people-centred and sustainable
path toward human development. His Majesty’s development agenda and visionary thinking
are an inspiration to his subjects, and to people everywhere.
At present there is no comprehensive analysis in English of how the King’s ideas evolved, what they
mean, how they are used, and what is their potential scope. In recognition of the 60th anniversary
of King Bhumibol Adulyadej’s reign, and in the belief that his thinking is a significant contribution
to human development, this year’s Human Development Report for Thailand is devoted to the
Sufficiency Economy.
Plan of the Report
Chapter 1: The State of Human Development in Thailand

Usually in these reports, the review of Human Development indicators is consigned to the back of
the book. In this case the review has been moved to the front to provide a context for the
emergence of the principle of the Sufficiency Economy. These indicators show that Thailand’s
human development continues to progress, and Thailand is well on track to fulfilling all or most of
the Millennium Development Goals. Yet, there remain some problems. Household income is highly
skewed. Pockets of persistent poverty remain. The provision of public goods differs greatly in
quality and quantity in different areas of the country. At the same time, there are growing signs of
the consequences of the steep deterioration in the natural environment over the past generation,
and of the strains placed on family and community by labour migration.
xvi
Chapter 2: Thinking out the Sufficiency Economy
This chapter traces the emergence of the idea of the Sufficiency Economy against the background
of Thailand’s social and economic change. Over half a century, the country was transformed by
sustained economic growth. Incomes on average multiplied seven times. But this success came
with some severe costs: high socio-economic inequality; rapid destruction of the natural
environment; high pressures on family and community; and a growing sense that people had lost
control over their own lives and futures.
Over this time, King Bhumibol launched some three thousand Royal Projects, mostly designed to
give more self-reliance and broader opportunities to the small farmer who was often the victim of
unbalanced development. From the 1970s onwards, the King put his learning from these projects
into the public domain. His key idea was that people needed more self-reliance in order to cope
with rapid change in a globalized world. He outlined an approach to life and decision-making which
would build that foundation of self-reliance and the capacity for self-development.
With the onset of the 1997 economic crisis, the King proposed that the same principles could be
applied to the national economy struggling to manage the forces of globalization. In the wake of
the crisis, the King’s thinking was given the title of the Sufficiency Economy, and the principles were
systematized for application at any level from the individual through the community and
enterprise to the management of the national economy.
Chapter 3: Sufficiency Economy in Action

This chapter reviews examples of the practical application of the Sufficiency Economy in Thailand
in various sectors and activities. The area of agriculture and community development was the
birthplace of the theory, and is still the area where the application is most advanced. A case study
from Thailand’s northeast region details how communities took the decision to withdraw from
cash-oriented mono-cropping which landed them in debt, and to pursue the strategy of self-
reliance. From there they were able to develop local productive capacity and marketing networks
by stages until two decades later the network has over 100,000 members and much denser
linkages with the outside world. Along the way, the communities have invested in their own social
capital including institutions to codify and disseminate their own learnings. The network is now a
prominent showcase for the Sufficiency approach.
Natural resources are a key foundation for self-reliance. Sufficiency thinking has evolved several
techniques for non-intrusive, sustainable approaches to conserving the natural environment.
Several firms, both large and small, have adopted the Sufficiency approach as a guide to
management and planning. This approach encourages them to focus on sustainable profit, to
adhere to an ethical approach to business, to pay special attention to their employees, to respect
nature, to have careful risk management, and to grow where possible from internal resources. Firms
which have adopted this approach have enjoyed success over the long term. Research shows
that the Sufficiency approach is compatible with codes of business conduct such as corporate
governance and corporate social responsibility, while also adding a process and commitment
for taking management and planning decisions in conformity with such codes. The Sufficiency
approach is being translated into planning tools for broader use.
xvii
Economists have shown that the Sufficiency approach can be applied in macro-management, policy
design, and development planning. In the aftermath of the 1997 crisis, the Sufficiency emphasis on
the need for resilience helped to plot a new range of tools for managing risk and instability in the
macro-economy. The development of Thailand’s tenth five-year plan has been based on the
Sufficiency Economy. The plan puts people firmly at the centre of development, and aims for an
ambitious review of all the nation’s resources in order to deliver more balanced, sustainable,
and equitable growth.
The long-term impact of the Sufficiency approach depends on how deeply the idea is embedded
in the national culture. In this respect, the role of education is key. Teaching the values and methods
of the Sufficiency approach has been incorporated into Thailand’s school curriculum. Teaching is
largely through learning by doing. Experiments are under way to incorporate Sufficiency more into
the management of schools as well.
Chapter 4: Sufficiency Economy Going Forward

Both the Sufficiency Economy and human development put people at the centre of development,
and aim to expand people’s opportunities to live better lives. The Sufficiency approach adds to
human development in two ways: first, by providing a process for analysing situations, identifying
objectives, setting plans, and making decisions; and second, by placing greater emphasis on
mental and spiritual development.
Six key messages emerge from this Report.

1. The Sufficiency Economy is central to alleviating poverty and reducing the economic
vulnerability of the poor.
2. The Sufficiency Economy is a means towards community empowerment and the
strengthening of communities as foundations of the local economy.
3. The Sufficiency Economy takes corporate responsibility to a new level by raising the strength
of commitment to practices conducive to long-term profitability in a competitive
environment.
4. Sufficiency principles are vital for improving standards of governance in public
administration.
5. The Sufficiency Economy can guide macroeconomic policy making to immunize a country
against shocks and to plan strategies for more equitable and sustainable growth.
6. Sufficiency thinking demands a transformation of human values, a “revolution in the mindset”,
necessary for the advancement of human development.
This revolution in the mindset requires visionary and courageous leadership at all levels. King
Bhumibol has served as scientist, philosopher, advocate, and exemplar of the Sufficiency Economy
in Thailand. He offers an example of outstanding leadership that might be unique, but is still an
inspiration from which the world can learn.
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1
The State of Human Development
in Thailand
1
The State of Human
The State of Human Development in Thailand
Development in Thailand
Human development is about people, and Strides are being made toward gender equality.
about expanding their choices to live full, The lives of slum dwellers have improved, and
creative lives, in good health and security, and some progress has been achieved in tackling
with freedom and dignity. That means creating urban pollution.
an environment in which people can develop
their full potential, and providing them with the
tools to enhance their own human capabilities …stark inequalities
– to accumulate knowledge, to gain access to
resources, and to participate in the community. But this progress has not benefited everyone
Without these capabilities, many choices are equally. Thailand’s cities have grown faster than
simply not available, and many opportunities in its countryside. Poverty is still widespread in
life remain inaccessible. the rural Northeast, North and far South of the
country. Household savings have declined, while
Economic growth is not an end in itself, but a the incidence and level of debt have increased.
means to achieve human development. And Despite a high level of school enrolment, the
growth will only do so if it creates jobs, reduces quality of education and inadequate training for
poverty, respects the environment, and workers hinders Thailand’s ability to reap the
generates the necessary resources for essential benefits of globalization and threatens its future
social services. human development.
This chapter offers a broad assessment of the Access to health services is skewed. Maternal
state of human development in Thailand, using mortality remains very high in the Muslim-
indicators and available statistics to map out majority area in the far South. Child
progress, disparities and persistent challenges. malnutrition persists among hilltribe people in
It paints a picture of dynamic overall progress remote northern areas. Safety at work is
coexisting with stark inequities and persistent uncertain in industrial zones. Overuse of
development challenges. The assessment not pesticides is a threat to many in rural areas.
only helps in understanding the context in Pollution and natural disasters are on the
which the Sufficiency Economy movement increase. The HIV/AIDS epidemic is on the
emerged, but makes a powerful case for the move again among at-risk groups in the South
need to achieve more balanced and equitable and in industrial areas.
development in the future.
Assessing human development

Overall progress… in Thailand
Thailand is a middle-income country that
A human development outlook assesses
has seen remarkable progress in human
development from a people-centred point of
development in the last 20 years. It will achieve
view. This approach follows a human’s lifecycle,
most if not all of the United Nations’ Millennium
starting with the first essential thing that
Development Goals (MDGs) well in advance of
everyone must have on the first day of life –
2015 (see Table 1.1). Poverty has fallen from
health – followed by the next important step for
38 percent in 1990 to 11 percent in 2004. The
every child – education. After schooling, one gets
proportion of underweight children has
a job to secure enough income, to have a decent
dropped by nearly half. Most children are in
housing and living environment, to enjoy a family
school, and the average years spent in
and community life, to establish contacts and
education is increasing. Malaria is no longer a
communications with others, and, last but not
problem in most of the country. Annual new HIV
least, to participate as a member of society.
infections have been reduced by more than 80
percent since 1991, the peak of the epidemic.
2 Thailand Human Development Report 2007

1
Table 1.1 Millennium Development Goals in Thailand

MDG Target Scorecard
1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people living Already achieved
in extreme poverty
2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who Already achieved
suffer from hunger
3. Ensure that by 2015, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete Highly likely
a full course of primary schooling
4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, Already achieved

preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015
5. Reduce by two thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five Not applicable1
mortality rate
6. Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal Not applicable2
mortality ratio
7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS Already achieved, but
with warning signs of
resurgence
8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria, Already achieved for
tuberculosis, and other major diseases malaria; potentially for
tuberculosis
9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country Potentially

policies and programmes and reverse the losses of
environmental resources
10. Halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access Already achieved
to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
11. By 2020 to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of Likely

slum dwellers
Source: UNDP, Thailand Millennium Development Goals Report 2004, 2004.
This chapter uses the Human Achievement ■ family and community life,
Index (HAI) developed by UNDP in 2003 as a
■ transport and communication, and
tool to assess the state of human development
across Thailand. The HAI is a composite index, ■ participation.
using 40 indicators that cover eight aspects of
human development: The HAI provides a summary measure of human
development, and allows comparison across the
■ health,
76 provinces of Thailand.
■ education,
It places Phuket as having the highest human
■ employment,
development level and Mae Hong Son, a remote,
■ income, mountainous province in the North, as the most
deprived. (For a full account of the HAI, please
■ housing and living environment,
refer to Annex I.)
1
Under-five mortality already approaching OECD levels, too low to reduce by two thirds.
2
Maternal mortality already approaching OECD levels, too low to reduce by three quarters.

1
Figure 1.1 Human Achievement Index
Rank
1 Phuket
2 Bangkok
65 3 Pathum Thani
4 Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
76 5 Nonthaburi
27
6 Songkhla
63 26 7 Sing Buri
8 Nakhon Pathom
28 9 Rayong
14 18 57 10 Samut Prakan
11 Samut Songkhram
33 12 Phetchaburi
69 13 Chon Buri
62 34 44 64 14 Lamphun
67
15 Chumphon
75 49 16 Phang-nga
47 52 53 17 Prachin Buri
73 18 Phrae
59 68 19 Trat
70 32 20 Satun
56 48 51
55 21 Saraburi
22 Ang Thong
60 23 Nakhon Nayok
39 40 58 24 Samut Sakhon
7 42 66 74 72 25 Trang
41 22
26 Nan
43 21
27 Phayao
4 23 28 Lampang
3 17 29 Chachoengsao
8 5 2
50 30 Chanthaburi
37 24 10 29 31 Prachuap Khiri Khan
11 13 32 Maha Sarakham
33 Uttaradit
12 9 30 34 Loei
35 Surat Thani
19 36 Yala
31 37 Ratchaburi
38 Phatthalung
39 Chai Nat
40 Lop Buri
41 Suphan Buri
42 Nakhon Ratchasima
43 Kanchanaburi
15 44 Udon Thani
45 Krabi
46 Nakhon Si Thammarat
54 Human Achievement Index 47 Khon Kaen
48 Yasothon
■ Very high (0.611 to 0.699) 49 Phitsanulok
50 Sa Kaeo
■ High (0.595 to 0.611) 51 Amnat Charoen
52 Kalasin
35 ■ Medium (0.573 to 0.595) 53 Mukdahan
16
46 ■ Low (0.556 to 0.573) 54 Ranong
55 Nakhon Sawan
45
1 ■ Very low (0.500 to 0.556) 56 Roi Et
57 Nong Khai
58 Ubon Ratchathani
25 38 59 Phichit
60 Uthai Thani
61 Pattani
20 6 62 Sukhothai
61
63 Chiang Mai
64 Sakon Nakhon
36 71 65 Chiang Rai
66 Buri Ram
67 Nong Bua Lam Phu
68 Phetchabun
69 Nakhon Phanom
70 Chaiyaphum
71 Narathiwat
72 Si Sa Ket
73 Kamphaeng Phet
74 Surin
75 Tak
76 Mae Hong Son

1
Table 1.2 Human Achievement Index

Top Ten Provinces Bottom Ten Provinces
1. Phuket (South) 67. Nong Bua Lam Phu (Northeast)
2. Bangkok 68. Phetchabun (North)
3. Pathum Thani (Bangkok Vicinity) 69. Nakhon Phanom (Northeast)
4. Ayutthaya (Centre) 70. Chaiyaphum (Northeast)
5. Nonthaburi (Bangkok Vicinity) 71. Narathiwat (South)
6. Songkhla (South) 72. Si Sa Ket (Northeast)
7. Sing Buri (Centre) 73. Kamphaeng Phet (North)
8. Nakhon Pathom (Bangkok Vicinity) 74. Surin (Northeast)
9. Rayong (East) 75. Tak (North)
10. Samut Prakan (Bangkok Vicinity) 76. Mae Hong Son (North)
Overall, the HAI highlights the pattern of ■ Malnutrition and poor maternal and child
disparity that has persisted over decades. health still affect some areas. Eight percent
People in Bangkok, Bangkok Vicinity and of under-five children are malnourished. For
other regional growth areas enjoy higher every 1,000 births, 24 die in infancy and
levels of human development than people another 28 before the age of five. The
in more isolated provinces. The North and maternal mortality rate was 13.7 per 100,000
the Northeast, as well as a few provinces live births in 2003. Maternal mortality was
in the deep South, are placed at much worst in the remote mountainous North
lower levels. (37 in Chiang Mai, 36.5 in Tak) and the far
South (41.8 in Pattani, 30.8 in Narathiwat).
What follows is a broad sweep across these
■ There are an estimated 1.1 million people
eight dimensions of human achievement,
with disabilities who have difficulty
highlighting progress, disparities and
accessing education, employment, income
challenges for each.
and other benefits. 3 Males outnumber
females, and the incidence among the rural
Health population is double that among the
urban population. People in the Northeast,
In general, Thai people enjoy relatively good
the South and the North have higher
health. Life expectancy has risen steadily to
percentages of disability at 2.4, 1.9 and 1.8
reach 68 years for men and 75 for women.
percent respectively, compared with 0.7 and
Most people now have access to health care,
1 percent among those in Bangkok and
especially since the government implemented
Bangkok Vicinity.
a scheme of low-cost universal services four
years ago, which in November 2006 became ■ The number of elderly persons is rapidly
free of charge. increasing. In 2000, 9.5 percent of the
population was 60 years or older, and the
But three kinds of problems still remain. First, proportion will reach 11.7 percent in 2011.
disadvantaged groups remain vulnerable, either At present, 70 percent of people aged 60–69
because of poverty or special conditions such are suffering from chronic diseases.
as old age or disability. Second, several new and
■ In 2005, 11.7 percent of males and 21.7
not-so-new health threats come with social
percent of females reported some degree of
change and globalization. These include bird flu,
physical illness. The rate was highest in the
obesity, alcohol usage and the continuing grip
North and the Northeast, and lowest in
of HIV/AIDS. Third, the distribution of health
Bangkok and Bangkok Vicinity.
services is uneven.
3
There is difficulty over the definition of disability. Using a different definition, a survey conducted by the Health Systems Research
Institute and the Thai Health Research Institute in 1991–1992 estimated disability among the Thai population at 8.1 percent.

1
■ People are facing new kinds of health consumers, 9.5 percent admitted to drinking
problems. Child obesity affects 8 percent every day. In 2001, Thais consumed 8.47 litres
of those aged 6–14. Between 2003 and of alcohol per person per year. Spirits are
2005, 22 people were affected by bird flu, more popular than beer and wine, and the
14 died, and over 63 million poultry were World Health Organization (WHO) reports
destroyed. In 2001, psychiatric illness that Thais have the dubious honour of
affected 519.6 per 100,000 population, and being the fifth largest consumers of spirits
anxiety affected 776 per 100,000. in the world.
■ In 2003, traffic accidents accounted for ■ Smoking results in chronic illnesses that
56.9 deaths per 100,000 population. take away many healthy years of a person’s
life. The number of smokers dropped slightly
■ Over 600,000 people are living with
from 25.5 percent in 2001 to 23 percent in
HIV/AIDS. The epidemic has for many years
2004. Smoking is more prevalent among the
been the number one killer in Thailand.
rural population at 25.5 percent.
Although yearly new infections keep falling,
and more and more people are gaining ■ Distribution of the health infrastructure
access to life-prolonging treatment, the is highly imbalanced. Health personnel
epidemic is evolving and there is risk of a continue to be concentrated in Bangkok
major comeback. HIV infections among and urban areas. Bangkok has one doctor
some vulnerable groups are on the rise. The per every 879 persons, compared to one
situation is acute in Ranong (a fishery doctor per every 7,466 persons in the
centre), Phuket (a tourism hub in the South), Northeast and 4,534 persons in the North.
and large, industrialized urban areas where In Bangkok, the population per hospital
migration (mainly internal) is high such as bed ratio is 1 to 224, compared to 1 to 747
Rayong, Ayutthaya, Chachoengsao, in the Northeast and 1 to 503 in the North.
Lamphun, and Samut Prakan. Those in the rural areas should be credited
for being able to hold up the standard of
■ More people have unhealthy lifestyles,
service under these circumstances.
especially poor diet, smoking and drinking.
In 2004, out of 16 million alcohol
Box 1.1 HAI Health Index

The HAI Health Index is constructed from data on underweight births, disability and/or chronic
illness, physical illness, AIDS incidence, mental illness, unhealthy behaviour, and physicians per
population.
Bangkok, Bangkok Vicinity, the East, the South and the Centre are better off than the rest of the
country. Although health infrastructure is worst in the Northeast, signs of health problems are
strongest in the North.
Top Five Provinces Bottom Five Provinces
1. Yala (South) 72. Kamphaeng Phet (North)
2. Pathum Thani (Bangkok Vicinity) 73. Chaiyaphum (Northeast)
3. Pattani (South) 74. Khon Kaen (Northeast)
4. Phang-nga (South) 75. Lamphun (North)
5. Satun (South) 76. Chiang Rai (North)

1
Education Performance varies significantly by

household income and by location.
Thanks to the nine-year compulsory education
law and other factors, more children enrol in ■ Although enrolment in secondary education
school, and more stay longer. In 2005, people has increased over the past decade, the
had an average of 8.5 years of schooling, an impact has not yet reached the workforce.
increase from 7.6 in 2002. Those with education above primary level
accounted for 39.4 percent of the workforce
But there remain questions about differential in 2005, below the target of 50 percent.
access, the quality of education, the education Lack of skills and low labour productivity
level of the workforce, and the mismatch are important obstacles to enhancing
between education and the labour market. Thailand’s competitiveness. Even more
importantly, workers themselves are
■ While almost all students from households
disadvantaged. With appropriate education
in the top income quintile now complete
and training, they would have better jobs,
nine years of education, only 80 percent in
better pay and better lives.
the bottom quintile do.
■ The top fifth of the population by income
■ Students perform poorly in school especially
receives over half of all public spending on
in mathematics and science. Thai secondary
higher education. Higher education has
students perform as well on average as
expanded at the expense of vocational
students in countries of a similar economic
education, which is the type most needed
level, but have very few in the top proficiency
by industry.
levels, and rather larger numbers below
a minimal acceptable standard: 40–50
percent in the case of mathematics.
Box 1.2 HAI Education Index

The HAI Education Index is constructed from data on mean years of schooling, upper secondary
and vocational enrolment, lower secondary test scores, and lower secondary students per
classroom.
Access to education, and its equality, is still variable across the country. Bangkok outperforms
the rest of the country, followed by Bangkok Vicinity, the Centre, the East and the South.
Northeastern provinces lag behind.
1. Bangkok 72. Sa Kaeo (East)
2. Sing Buri (Centre) 73. Nong Bua Lam Phu (Northeast)
3. Nan (North) 74. Chaiyaphum (Northeast)
4. Phuket (South) 75. Narathiwat (South)
5. Chonburi (East) 76. Phetchabun (North)

1
Employment be carefully designed to ensure fairness and
sustainability.
Most people have work. With the continued
economic recovery, unemployment dropped ■ An important challenge is occupational
to 1.3 percent and underemployment to safety. The number of work-related injuries
1.7 percent of the workforce in 2005. in the formal sector is daunting. In 2004,
Female participation in the workforce 215,534 workers were victims of work-
dropped slightly but still remains high. While related injuries, including 861 deaths, 23
unemployment was relatively higher in Bangkok permanent disabilities, and 3,775 cases of
and the Centre, underemployment was high body part loss. Samut Prakan and Samut
in selected provinces of the South. Sakhon in the industrial ring around
Bangkok held the worst records.Those in the
The provision of social security has expanded. informal sector – farm, construction and
At present, 8.5 million workers in the formal home-based workers – are likely to face a
sector enjoy benefits that cover injuries and more serious situation due to lack of
illness, maternity, disability, death, child support, knowledge, training, and legal protection.
old-age pension and unemployment benefits.
■ A major threat is agricultural pesticides.
In 2004, Thailand imported 86,905 tonnes
But there remain issues about social security
of pesticide, almost double the previous
provision for the large numbers in the informal
year. Agricultural workers are the most
sector, and about the high rate of work-related
severely impacted. In 2002, the Department
injuries.
of Disease Control reported illness from
■ Around 22–23 million people working in the agricultural pesticide at 4.11 per 100,000
informal sector have no social security population, and the Department of Health
protection except access to the universal found that 29.4 percent of a sample of
health care scheme. The Government is 115,105 farmers had dangerous levels of
committed to extending social security to toxins from exposure to agricultural
this large group, but the scheme needs to pesticides.
Box 1.3 HAI Employment Index

The HAI Employment Index is constructed from data on unemployment, underemployment, social
security coverage and occupational injuries.
The situation of employment and social security is better in Bangkok, Bangkok Vicinity and
the East compared with the rest of the country. Phang-nga is worst-off due to high
underemployment and high occupational injuries related to the tsunami in late 2004. Samut
Prakan and Samut Sakhon rank very well owing to exceptionally high employment, low
underemployment and high social security coverage, despite their poor record in occupational
injuries.
1. Samut Prakan (Bangkok Vicinity) 72. Nakhon Si Thammarat (South)
2. Ayutthaya (Centre) 73. Sing Buri (Centre)
3. Samut Sakhon (Bangkok Vicinity) 74. Chai Nat (Centre)
4. Pathum Thani (Bangkok Vicinity) 75. Kamphaeng Phet (North)
5. Bangkok 76. Phang-nga (South)

1
Income, poverty and debt ■ An average household spends 88.5 percent

of its income on consumption, with very little
Household incomes have risen in line with the
left for investment and savings. Personal
economic recovery, and reached an average of
savings dropped from 13.4 percent of
14,963 Baht per month in 2004. However, a
income in 1999 to 6.3 percent in 2003.
significant number still live in absolute poverty,
while debt has increased alarmingly, and the ■ From 1996 to 2004, the proportion of
overall distribution of income remains uneven. indebted households increased from half
to two-thirds. The highest proportion was
■ In 2004, 7 million people or 11.3 percent of
found in the Northeast where 78.7 percent
the population lived in absolute poverty,
of households were indebted.
having income less than 1,242 Baht per
person per month.4 Eighty-seven percent of ■ The average amount of household debt has
the poor are farmers and farm workers in the ballooned – from around 68,000 Baht in
rural areas. 2000 to 104,571 Baht in 2004. In Bangkok, the
Centre, and the East, the majority of debt is
■ Poverty levels differ greatly by region. The
for housing, land mortgage or business
proportion in poverty is less than 2 percent
loans, while in the Northeast it is for
in Bangkok, and just above 5 percent in the
consumption.
Centre, but it is 16 percent in the North, and
over 17 percent in the Northeast. In ■ Income inequality remains high. The top
Narathiwat and Pattani, two predominantly fifth of the population enjoys 55.2 percent
Muslim provinces in the far South, the of the total income, while the bottom fifth
proportions are 18 and 23 percent has just 4.3 percent.
respectively.
Box 1.4 HAI Income Index

The HAI Income Index is constructed from data on household income, poverty incidence and
household debt.
The Income Index is one of the most skewed. Bangkok and Bangkok Vicinity outpace the other
regions. Runners up are the East, the West, the Centre and the South. The Northeast takes the
bottom rank, slightly below the North.
1. Bangkok 72. Buri Ram (Northeast)
2. Nonthaburi (Bangkok Vicinity) 73. Nakhon Phanom (Northeast)
3. Samut Sakhon (Bangkok Vicinity) 74. Mae Hong Son (North)
4. Samut Prakan (Bangkok Vicinity) 75. Nong Bua Lam Phu (Northeast)
5. Phuket (South) 76. Surin (Northeast)
4
Due to change in the methodology, poverty incidence increased from 6.2 million or 10 percent of the population in 2003.

1
Box 1.5 Migrants: Low human development

Since the mid-1970s, Thailand has hosted hundreds of thousands of persons displaced by
conflict, political instability and social turmoil in the region. Some 140,000 displaced persons still
live in camps along Thailand’s western border with Myanmar. In recent years, the largest flow has
been people coming mostly from Lao PDR, Cambodia and Myanmar for work. Due to Thailand’s
rapid economic growth and shortfalls in its national labour force, these migrants are an integral
part of Thailand’s labour market.
In 2004, the Ministry of Interior registered 1,280,920 migrants from Lao PDR, Cambodia and
Myanmar. In 2006, some 700,098 of these registered for work permits with the Ministry of Labour
for a fee of 3,800 Baht per person including health insurance cover.
According to estimates, there may be another 1.5 million migrants who are not counted in any
official government figures.
As these migrants are not included in official statistics, very little is known about their health,
education level, income and living condition, other than the research and observations by
development agencies who work with migrants. According to this information, migrants earn
lower wages, suffer worse living conditions, and have poorer health than the rest of the
population. Most migrants have only basic or no education, and many migrant children do not
attend school.
Those who registered with the Ministry of Interior in 2004 and subsequently obtained work
permits are legally entitled to access social and health services and are, in principle, covered by
the same labour legislation as Thai nationals. But in practice, many migrants cannot make use of
these services. Development agencies are working with both the government and migrants to
improve access.
All migrants are vulnerable to abuse and exploitation because they are not integrated into
Thai society and often do not speak Thai. The 1.5 million unregistered migrants are the most
vulnerable as they lack any personal security and can be arrested and deported at any time.
Migrant women and children are especially at risk. The 2004 registration recorded 93,000
migrant children under the age of 15. Including the unregistered families would more than
double this figure. Although these children are entitled to attend school, many cannot. Children
newly born to migrants in Thailand are not issued proper registration documents, creating a
generation of stateless children.
While Thailand recognizes the need for migrants and the importance of ensuring their human
security and well being, existing policies are not consistently applied and often do not achieve
their objectives. The lack of accurate data about the location, living and working conditions of
migrants is also a serious constraint to achieving effective migration policies that will benefit
everyone.
Source: International Organization for Migration

1
Housing and living ■ Water quality has deteriorated. The

environment problem is most acute in the Centre where
only a small part of community, agricultural
Three-fourths of Thai households live in their and industrial discharge is properly
own house on their own land. The percentage is treated. Water quality is also critical in
higher in the rural than urban areas. Ninety-nine the inner part of the Gulf of Thailand with
percent of households have safe sanitation, consequences for the livelihoods of coastal
drinking water, and electricity in the dwelling. fishing communities.
A high proportion also has basic household
appliances such as refrigerators, and electric or ■ Waste management has not been able to
gas stoves. keep pace with rapid development. In 2003,
there were 1.8 million tonnes of hazardous
However there are growing problems which are waste. Only 44 percent of industrial
related to environmental deterioration. Natural hazardous waste was treated, and only 19.4
disasters are on the increase, and more people percent of municipal waste was recycled.
are affected by pollution. ■ Pollution is another threat. The number of
■ Natural disasters have increased in complaints logged at the Pollution Control
frequency and severity. In 2004, 70 provinces Department was 848 in 2005, compared with
were threatened by drought while 50 435 in 2000. Two-thirds were from Bangkok
encountered floods. The most disastrous and the Bangkok Vicinity and most
blow was dealt by the tsunami of December concerned foul smell, dust and smoke, and
2004 which affected the six southern waste water.
provinces.
Box 1.6 HAI Housing and Living Environment Index

The HAI Housing and Living Environment Index is constructed from data on housing security,
possession of basic appliances, e.g. refrigerator and electric or gas stove, exposure to flood and/or
drought, and pollution.
The Centre is the best performer, followed by the West, East and South. The North, the Northeast
and Bangkok Vicinity trail behind.
1. Ang Thong (Centre) 72. Samut Sakhon (Bangkok Vicinity)
2. Sing Buri (Centre) 73. Surin (Northeast)
3. Lampang (North) 74. Tak (North)
4. Lamphun (North) 75. Ranong (South)
5. Phetchaburi (West) 76. Mae Hong Son (North)

1
Family and community life ■ 24.3 percent of all households were
headed by the elderly. A large number of

Family and community are the basic building
them are vulnerable to poverty, and children
blocks of Thai society. Family relationships in
in these households are likely to miss
general remain strong, and communities have
learning and education opportunities
strong traditions of cooperation. But today these
enjoyed by other children.
institutions face increasing strains.
■ 18.5 percent of children aged 15–17 were
At present, most elderly persons are still looked active in the labour force in 2005, a drop from
after within the family. In 2002, out of 6 million 21.6 percent in 2001. These children work
elderly, only 6.3 percent lived alone. But to support their family, in most cases at the
this pattern will change as the proportion of expense of their further education.
elderly increases.
■ In the southernmost provinces, people
suffer from intense insecurity and
More immediate are the problems created by
disruption of normal livelihoods due to the
migration. Many families are scattered because
recent escalation of conflict.
of migration in search of work. The number of
single-headed households is on the rise. ■ Violent crimes and drug problems have a
Communities continue to be concerned over significant effect not only on community
drug abuse and crime. safety, but also family life. In recent years,
drug and drug suppression became a major
■ In 2004, female-headed households
issue in many communities, with mixed
accounted for 29.8 percent of all households
results. In 2005, violent crimes were highest
in the country. In some cases, this reflects
in the South at 37 per 100,000 population
women’s economic and social freedom, but
and lowest in the Northeast at 5 per 100,000
in most cases it is a result of family
population. Drug-related arrests were
breakdown. It places a heavy burden on
highest in Bangkok, Bangkok Vicinity and
many women who are alone in trying to
the East at 534, 302 and 321 per 100,000
make ends meet and raise children.
population respectively.
Box 1.7 HAI Family and Community Life Index

The HAI Family and Community Life Index is constructed from data on orphans/abandoned
children/children affected by AIDS, working children, single-headed households, elderly living alone,
violent crimes, and drug-related arrests.
Family and community life is best in the Northeast, followed by Bangkok Vicinity. Other regions
are approximately at the same level.
1. Nong Bua Lam Phu (Northeast) 72. Ang Thong (Centre)
2. Pathum Thani (Bangkok Vicinity) 73. Phatthalung (South)
3. Khon Kaen (Northeast) 74. Chon Buri (East)
4. Loei (Northeast) 75. Chiang Rai (North)
5. Udon Thani (Northeast) 76. Narathiwat (South)

1

Box 1.8 The tsunami: A devastating blow to human development
The Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004 delivered a hard blow to human development.
In Thailand, over 8,200 people were killed, including nearly 2,500 foreign nationals from 37
countries. Over 400 fishing villages along the Andaman coast of southern Thailand were
seriously affected, nearly 50 of them completely destroyed. Well over 100,000 people in the
fishing and tourism sectors lost their means of livelihood. About 8,000 boats and nearly 5,000
houses were destroyed or badly damaged. Tourism in the six tsunami-affected provinces
dropped by more than 50 percent in the first half of 2005. The overall cost of the relief and
rehabilitation topped USD 1 billion and the disaster may have reduced overall GDP growth in
2005 by 0.5 to 1.5 percent.
The tsunami also had a serious impact on the natural environment, with marine and coastal
national parks severely damaged, coral reefs destroyed by debris, and agricultural land affected
by salt water intrusion. This environmental damage has had serious long-term impacts on the
tourism industry and people’s livelihoods.
From a human development perspective, the tsunami taught Thailand some tough lessons.
■ Needs of vulnerable communities and groups. Poorer communities, especially Muslim and
Sea Gypsy fishing communities, were disproportionably hard hit by the tsunami and are
still having difficulties recovering from the disaster. Likewise thousands of migrant workers
were displaced and lost their jobs, without adequate support from authorities.
■ Local governance. Stronger community voice and participation in local governance and in
the planning and implementation of rehabilitation programmes, inadequate at the start,
turned out to be of critical importance to achieving a recovery that will be sustainable over
the long term.
■ Land rights. The tsunami greatly exacerbated existing problems over land rights, with
disputes erupting between local communities, private developers, national park authorities
and local governments. More than 100 villages reported land rights problems, and Sea
Gypsy communities who live on “prime real estate” along the shoreline were especially
affected. This problem turned out to be a major obstacle to the recovery.
■ Oil prices. Though unrelated to the tsunami itself, the recent doubling of the cost of petrol
has further undermined the viability of small-scale fishing activities in the tsunami-affected
areas.
■ Long-term trauma. Last but not least, post-disaster trauma is making it hard for some
people to get back on their feet and local support services are proving inadequate.

1
Transportation and quality educational and entertainment
communication programmes constitute only a small part of

the programme content. News programmes
The provision of transport and communication are accused of being politically biased
infrastructure is generally good in the country. and soap operas of perpetuating gender
The road network is very extensive. Over stereotypes and condoning violence
93 percent of households have television. The against women.
use of mobile phones, computers and the
Internet has spread. ■ Mobile phone and other ICT devices have
rapidly penetrated Thai society. In 2005,
However, the wide provision of these facilities 36.7 percent of the population 6 years or
also results in risks and dangers. older used a mobile phone, 24.5 percent
used a computer and 12 percent used
■ Road safety is a growing issue as traffic the Internet. But access to these new
accidents are now among the top three technologies is very skewed. More than 25
causes of death. In 2003, 56.9 per 100,000 percent of people in Bangkok have access
population died in accidents, with traffic to the Internet, compared to 12 percent
accidents as the largest subcategory. in the North, 10 percent in the South and
■ Television is the most popular means to 8 percent in the Northeast.
receive news and important information. But
Box 1.9 HAI Transportation and Communication Index

The HAI Transportation and Communication Index is constructed from data on road access, road
condition, vehicle registration, road length, land traffic accidents, TV, mobile phone and Internet.
A huge gap exists in the provision of transportation and communication. Bangkok is ahead of
the rest of the country by a wide margin, followed by Bangkok Vicinity. The other regions are
approximately at the same level, with the Northeast lagging a little behind.
1. Bangkok 72. Chaiyaphum (Northeast)
2. Phuket (South) 73. Tak (North)
3. Nonthaburi (Bangkok Vicinity) 74. Surin (Northeast)
4. Sing Buri (Centre) 75. Si Sa Ket (Northeast)
5. Rayong (East) 76. Mae Hong Son (North)

1

Box 1.10 Human development and the crisis in Thailand’s far South
Since early 2004, Thailand’s far South has been beset by violence. Individual killings, arson, or
bombings occur on an almost daily basis. Larger incidents erupt every few weeks. The death toll
now exceeds 1,500 people.
The three southernmost provinces of Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat have long been among the
poorest provinces in Thailand. Over recent years, they have been slipping backwards against the
national average. In 1990, the proportion below the poverty line in these three provinces was
roughly on par with provinces in the Northeast, once considered the poorest region. By 2000, the
proportion in the far south was a third more than in the Northeast. Some believe this decline in
the South is a result of government neglect, and that this is one reason underlying the violence.
Human development is suffering. Since the previous HAI Index, compiled in 2003, all three
provinces have lowered rankings – Pattani from 53rd to 61st,Yala from 15th to 36th, and Narathiwat
from 51st to 71st. The provision of health, housing and transport is better than might be
expected. But in terms of education, employment, family life and community participation,
these provinces are slipping further behind.
With the current violence, the local economy is crumbling and delivery of government services
is decaying further. Schools are literally under attack from sporadic arson and assassination of
teachers. Many schools have closed, either temporarily or permanently.
A recent UNICEF study highlighted trends of major concern in these three provinces:
■ In recent years, the decline in poverty incidence has slowed, and even reversed in some
areas. Poverty in Narathiwat is 18 percent and in Pattani 23 percent, more than double the
national average.
■ Many families have lost their major earner, and 11 percent of women are widows (though
not all due to the violence).
■ Infant mortality rate in the southern border provinces nearly doubled from 5.95 to 11.16
per 1,000 live births during 1996–2002.
■ The maternal mortality rate is around three times the national average (29.8 per live births
in Yala, 48.5 per live births in Pattani and 30.5 in Narathiwat, compared with the 12.9
national average in 2001) – a fact that may be correlated to insecure water supply and
poor sanitation.
■ Birth weight is 16 percent below the national average, and cases of stunted growth more
prevalent.
■ HIV/AIDS has made a late but threatening appearance, probably through drug use in
fishing communities, and its extent may be masked by cultural sensitivity and government
inaction.
■ Local pondok schools compensate somewhat for the problems in the mainstream
schooling system. Yet the numbers completing secondary schooling are low in comparison
to the national average, and this will translate into poorer prospects for employment.
■ Migration away from the violent areas is adding to the problem of social dislocation and
fragmentation of families.
Restoring peace in this region is a burning priority. Investing in human development will make
that peace sustainable.

1
Participation Northeast, the South and the North (89, 84, 81
per 100,000 population respectively in 2005),

Political participation has increased remarkably,
and lowest in Bangkok (8 per 100,000
especially with the decentralization of
population). The same pattern is observed in
administration and the increase in the number
the level of participation in local groups and
of elective bodies. Voting at general elections is
community services.
technically compulsory but the penalties are
not stringent, so the high and rising turnouts
One major fault in this picture concerns the
at the polls in 2001 (70 percent) and 2005 (72.5
representation of women.
percent) are a real measure of political interest.
There is no significant difference in the level of ■ At the 2005 polls, 10.6 percent of elected MPs
voter turnout across the country, though the were women. This is the highest proportion
Northeast is slightly lower than other regions. ever in Thailand, but still pitifully low.
■ The problem begins with political parties.
In addition to voting, political awareness,
Only 10.8 percent of constituency
political participation and the exercise of
candidates were women. On the party list, a
rights have taken several forms. People have
national vote by party, the proportion of
explored new grounds and gained experience
women was higher (28.6 percent) but their
in political rallies, mass petitions, and
position on these ranked lists was generally
constitutional debates. They have scored some
low so that only 6 of the 100 elected were
successes in taking rights-based and other
women.
important issues to the Administrative Court
and the Constitutional Court. ■ Women are also under-represented in local
government. In 2004, women accounted for
Underpinning the active political participation 4.8 percent of the members on provincial
is the strengthening of community councils, 6.6 percent on municipalities, and
organizations. The number of community 6.7 percent on sub-district administrative
groups per population was highest in the organizations.5
Box 1.11 HAI Participation Index

The HAI Participation Index is constructed from data on voter turnout, community groups,
participation in local groups, and participation in social services.
The Northeast is the leader, followed by the North, and the South. Participation is lowest in
Bangkok and Bangkok Vicinity.
1. Amnat Charoen (Northeast) 72. Chon Buri (East)
2. Maha Sarakham (Northeast) 73. Pathum Thani (Bangkok Vicinity)
3. Lamphun (North) 74. Bangkok
4. Phang-nga (South) 75. Nonthaburi (Bangkok Vicinity)
5. Chumphon (South) 76. Samut Sakhon (Bangkok Vicinity)
5
See UNDP, Women’s Right to a Political Voice in Thailand, 2006.

1
Conclusion: Progress with

imbalance and growing risks
In general, the progress on human development Other problems are being created as by-
in Thailand is good. But on closer examination, products of growth. Families and communities
there are serious questions about the evenness, are under strain, particularly as a result of
balance and sustainability of this trend. migration. The deterioration of the environment
creates problems of livelihood, pollution, and
The inequality in access to public goods such natural disasters. Road accidents, safety at
as education, health, and social services is work, dangerous use of agricultural pesticides,
relatively high for a country at this level of HIV/AIDS, and the threat of new epidemic
development. In particular, the contrast diseases all pose increasing threats to the
between urban and rural areas, and the formal opportunity to live long and healthy lives.
and informal sectors is great. Gender is also a
factor. Women play a large role in the economy, The uneven balance and emerging new threats
but are still largely excluded from political are products of Thailand’s long-term trend of
roles, and as a result still lack important growth and development. It is against this
rights and their interests remain neglected. same background that King Bhumibol evolved
Geography matters. Certain regions are still his thinking on the Sufficiency Economy.
slipping behind the overall trend.

2
Thinking out the Sufficiency Economy
2 Thinking out
the Sufficiency Economy

On 4 December 1997, King Bhumibol Adulyadej The press recounted the key sections of the
made his usual birthday address to a nationwide speech at much greater length than normal.
television audience. The contents were anything Extracts were constantly rerun as inter-
but usual. programme fillers on television and radio.
Quotations appeared on billboards outside
Recently, so many projects have been government offices. The whole speech was
implemented, so many factories have been quickly printed and distributed. Key phrases
built, that it was thought Thailand would immediately entered popular debate across
become a little tiger, and then a big tiger. the country, from the campus to the village.
People were crazy about becoming a tiger…
The Ministry of the Interior adopted the
Being a tiger is not important. The important principle of sufficiency, launched into a major
thing for us is to have a sufficient economy. programme to educate its own personnel on its
A sufficient economy means to have enough meaning, and earmarked a large slice of its
to support ourselves… budget for programmes on the theme. The
Royal Thai Army embraced the sufficiency
It doesn’t have to be complete, not even half, principle and began planting rice plots for
perhaps just a quarter, then we can survive… military consumption. Political parties in both
the ruling coalition and the opposition
Those who like modern economics may not espoused the king’s ideas, as did several
appreciate this. But we have to take a careful leading monks and many prominent social
step backwards. commentators. In 1999, the National Economic
(Dusit Palace, 4 December 1997) and Social Development Board (NESDB)
adopted the King’s idea as the guiding
This speech was remarkable in many ways. principle for the next five-year development
Monarchs these days rarely comment on their plan, and the country’s leading economic think
country’s economic direction. Here the King tank, the Thai Development Research Institute
seemed to advise retreat from a strategy that (TDRI), selected it as the theme for its prestigious
had been hailed as a great success. For 40 years, annual conference.
Thailand’s economy had grown at an average of
7.6 percent a year, one of the fastest in the world. Although the King’s ideas always command
Four years earlier, in 1993, the World Bank had respect, this reaction went beyond the usual.
portrayed Thailand as a leading player in the A major reason was obviously the economic
second wave of the “East Asian Miracle.“ An crisis that had struck in July 1997, five months
American development economist with long before the speech. Since then foreign capital
experience in Thailand, R. Muscat, had already had fled the country, the currency had
christened the country as the “Fifth Tiger.“ Here plummeted, massive numbers of companies
the King seemed to dismiss these ambitions as had become technically bankrupt, consumer
hubris. spending had dropped by a fifth, over two
million had lost their jobs, and the economy
Still, the speech could be taken as just one was shrinking at a rate far faster than it had
person’s words going against the grain, were it ever grown.
not for the reaction.

The King’s speech touched a chord with all who Thailand’s development…
were disadvantaged, dismayed and disoriented 2
by this unprecedented shock. Yet the crisis alone Half a century ago, Thailand was still

cannot explain the speech’s appeal. After the predominantly rural and underdeveloped,
economy recovered three years later and again even in comparison to its Asian neighbours. Per
began to deliver growth rates envied by most capita income was a little over US$ 200 a year.
of the world, the interest in the King’s ideas Exports were almost all primary products of rice,
continued to spread. More government tin and teak. The urban economy was minuscule.
agencies, community organizations, educational
institutions, rural networks, and businesses Development began in the Cold War era with
found inspiration and practical applications in help and encouragement from the United
the King’s ideas. As the 1997 crisis approaches States. In the first stage, which began in the late
its tenth anniversary, this trend continues. 1950s and lasted until the 1980s, growth was
powered by exports of agricultural products.
The King’s speech in 1997 gave his ideas on a Investments in infrastructure of ports and roads
Sufficiency Economy a much broader audience connected formerly remote areas of the
than ever before. But the thinking behind the country to the world market. Development
speech had begun much earlier. His ideas planners and entrepreneurs combined to bring
developed in response to problems created in in new crops, new techniques and new
the course of Thailand’s rapid development. technologies for processing and transport. Vast
areas of land were cleared for new cultivation.
The King was not alone in wrestling with these Provincial towns sprouted processing factories,
issues. In Thailand, a host of thinkers in villages, storage yards and transport companies.
schools, non-government organizations (NGOs),
research institutes, religious centres, The second stage, which began in the 1970s,
government departments and universities inserted Thailand into global chains of industrial
offered ideas on how to adjust the trend of production. Laws, taxes and policies were
development to place more emphasis on changed to promote export-oriented
sustainability and human benefits. And, of industrialization and attract more foreign
course, Thailand was only one part of a investment. New infrastructure including
developing world confronting issues that were airports, ports, power generation, roads and
increasingly similar under the unifying waste control were built to service industry.
tendencies of globalization. This era saw Foreign investment from the United States
many new theories, techniques and swelled in the 1970s, and then was surpassed
development approaches proposed for by much larger flows from East Asia from the
worldwide application. mid 1980s onwards. Manufacturing exports
overtook agricultural exports in 1985. In the
What gave King Bhumibol’s thinking its special early 1990s, a new Japanese factory opened in
character was its practicality and its viewpoint. Thailand every three days, and around one
He looked at development from the angle of million people were converted from agriculture
the ordinary people, and considered the to an urban job every year.
structures of market, national economy and
world economy as more remote and ultimately The development plans that helped spark this
secondary in evaluating the success or failure. process prioritized growth, and in their own
terms they were spectacularly successful. From
This chapter traces the evolution of the King’s 1957 to the 1997 crisis, Thailand’s real Gross
thinking for a period of over 40 years of Domestic Product (GDP) growth averaged 7.6
practical experiments.Then it looks at how these percent a year, and never once dropped below
ideas have been codified to facilitate application 4 percent. Per capita income multiplied over
by more people in more situations. Finally it seven times (see Figure 2.1).
shows how the thinking fits into a broader
intellectual context.

Figure 2.1 Per capita income and Gross Domestic Product growth
2 Per capita income per year (1995–2005)
60
’000 Baht at 1998 prices
40
20
0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Year
GDP growth per year (1955–2005)*

15%
GDP growth per year (%)
10%
5%
-5%
-10%
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year
* 2006 GDP growth figure second quarter.
Source: NESDB GDP Tables
The planners relied on growth to trickle down In 1975, Thailand’s score, measured by UNDP’s
through society, and here again their Human Development Index (HDI), was relatively
strategy seemed vindicated. The proportion good compared to other countries at a similar
in poverty dropped from 57 percent in 1962 income level, and over the next two decades
to 11 percent in 2004. Life expectancy the score continued to move upwards (see
lengthened. Health care improved. More Figure 2.2). There were many reasons to hail
people gained some education. Thailand’s development in this era as a success.

Figure 2.2 Human Development Index, 1975-2003
0.8 2
Malaysia

0.7
Human Development Index
Philippines
Thailand
0.6
China
0.5
Indonesia
0.4
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2003
Year
Source: UNDP Human Development Report 2006
But there were qualifications. Here we will Inequality. Theory and observation suggest
highlight four, though the list could easily be that in developing countries incomes will
extended. The first three are well-known. They initially become more unequal, but later this
are growing inequality, negative environmental trend will reverse. Yet, over a span of 40 years,
impact and breakdowns in the family and inequality in Thailand has relentlessly gotten
community. The fourth – a growing malaise over worse (see Figure 2.3). Minor improvements in
loss of control over life and future – needs more the last few years have not been adequate to
explanation as it is less well-understood, but still signify a change in trend. Even compared to
important to the evolution of the Sufficiency Thailand’s neighbouring countries with rather
Economy thinking. similar economies, the contrast is very striking.
Figure 2.3 Trends in inequality (Gini Coefficient), 1960-2000
Malaysia Thailand
0.5
Gini Coefficient
Philippines
0.4
Indonesia
0.3
1960 1964 1968 1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000
Year
Source: Australian National University

There are many causes. Government spending figure is under debate. It is unclear whether the
2 has been very unevenly distributed. Education increase is due to technical changes in reading
policy has prioritized tertiary above secondary, and interpreting data from satellite images
and education subsidies have helped the rich rather than from any actual gain in forest cover.
more than the poor.
Equally important has been the rising pressure
But the major reason for growing inequality on water resources, as escalating urban use has
is the differing fate of the urban and rural led to competition over a fixed supply. Now
economies. Over the long term, agricultural any year of low rainfall creates a battle
prices have fallen drastically. A farmer wanting between rural and urban consumers of water,
to buy a motorcycle with sacks of rice would while any year of high rainfall brings floods and
need four times as many in 2000 compared to deadly landslides caused by the decline in
40 years earlier. forest cover.
Since the government began to focus These are only the most visible and immediate
development on industry, investment in causes of Thailand’s environmental decline.
support of agriculture has declined. The There are also problems over waste disposal,
structure of power and the crisis over the urban pollution, declining marine stocks, and
environment have denied people access to many other matters.
land, water and forest resources that are
fundamental to their livelihood. For many Social toll. The basic building blocks of local
farmers, export-oriented cash crops became society have taken a terrible beating. Old
steadily less profitable and market volatility customs of shared labour and other forms of
easily tipped them into debt. local exchange disappeared within a couple
of decades of the intensifying of market
Environmental decline. Thailand went from agriculture. As the income from agriculture
being one of the most resource-abundant declined and the demand for urban labour
areas of the planet to being resource- increased, more and more rural families
constrained over the space of one generation. survived by sending their youth to the city (or
The causes were the pace and rapacity of overseas) from where they could remit some
growth, and the almost total failure to impose supplementary income. Families are scattered
any controls. The starkest symbol of this process by migration. Village populations are hollowed
is forest cover. Between 1947 and 2000, out, with mainly young and old, and few of
two thirds of Thailand’s forests disappeared. working age. Many children are brought up
There is data from 2000 suggesting that seeing their parents only for occasional visits.
Thailand had 33 percent forest cover. But this
Figure 2.4 Forest cover, percentage of total land area, 1935-1995

100%
Forests, % of total land area
80%
60%
40%
20%
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
Source: Royal Forestry Department

Loss of control. The technologies and …and the reaction
techniques for Thailand’s development came 2
from outside in, and from top down. This was Rising concern over the destructive, divisive,

new. Although Thailand’s rice export economy unsustainable and disempowering by-products
had expanded greatly over the previous century, of growth fuelled debate from the late 1960s
the increase was achieved by more intensive onwards. In parts of the country, this discontent
and extensive use of local technology. But from prompted support for a communist insurgency
the 1950s onwards, expansion depended more for almost 20 years. Other reactions sought
and more on demand, technology, capital and solutions that were more peaceful and more
techniques that came from elsewhere. After new local, but just as revolutionary in their own way.
transport networks connected the villages The thinking came from farmers, local wise
through Bangkok to the outside world, goods men, monks, development workers, officials,
and information flowed along this route more teachers, academics and philosophers.
easily than it flowed between the villages and
their neighbours, or between Thailand and its Several major themes ran through this discourse
neighbours. With the coming of the electronic of discontent, including:
age, communication was even more skewed in
this pattern. ■ rebuild a sense of community, real or
imagined, in order to have greater strength
People became involved in production systems to face up to global forces;
over which they had little control because they ■ retreat somewhat towards self-reliance in
were receivers of the knowledge on which these order to withstand shocks;
systems were based. This placed them at risk.
They were often tempted into new investments ■ draw on Buddhism with its stress on
in the hope of higher gain, but ill-equipped to moderation and spiritual well-being as an
manage the shifts of price and demand that antidote to the emphasis on maximizing
were a regular feature of the world market. growth and consumption;
■ build horizontal networks to pool thinking
Rural debt rose relentlessly through the and share techniques.
development era. A major part of the King’s 1997
speech on the Sufficiency Economy consisted These themes spawned a wealth of new ideas
of tales about ambitious projects which had including rice banks, cattle banks, micro-saving
crashed, and individuals who had fallen schemes, community forest projects and self-
hopelessly into debt because of incautious reliant mixed farms. Growing numbers of NGOs
investments. These stories served as a parable helped to articulate and transmit these ideas
for the country’s vulnerability to the 1997 crisis across new national networks. Books, articles
owing to the size of foreign debt. But they also and sermons organized the new thinking in
conveyed a simpler, more human lesson about more systematic forms.
what was happening to many ordinary people.
By the 1990s, there was a strengthening
Besides the material vulnerability to risk and lobby to translate this thinking into a major
fluctuation, there was also a growing mental shift in national development policy. This
anxiety of becoming victim of economic and lobby had some influence on the seventh
social forces beyond local control. In the past, five-year plan which debuted in 1992, but
the major threats to the local economy were even more on the eighth five-year plan in 1997.
things like variations in rainfall and the havoc The prologue to this plan ended its overview
caused by wild animals. Villagers had their own of the past 35 years with a succinct and
systems of insurance and defence to deal with damning conclusion: economy, good; society,
such matters and, whether effective or not, they problematic; development, unsustainable.
were the product of local wisdom. But in the new
era, world prices replaced rainfall as the source The eighth five-year plan promised to take “a
of insecurity, and market forces supplanted first step towards … achieving the long-term
wild animals as the predators. In 1997, the vision of an ideal Thai society” by “shifting
countryside was caught up in an international from growth orientation to people-centred
crisis that was caused by financial flows development.” The main focus was on
determined in distant markets and government development of human resources through
decisions in the capital. education, health care and social welfare;
equitable sharing through regionalization,
A sense of powerlessness to organize life, participation and community rights; and
production, family, future and community rehabilitation of the environment through
became a major source of anxiety and better management and greater local
discontent. participation.

But within months of the plan’s launch, the 1997 strengthen the individual family farm, and
2 crisis had struck and the government’s thereby the community, by reducing the
emphasis shifted from long-term visions to family’s reliance on fickle rainfall, a limited range
short-term survival. of crops and subservience to a volatile market.
From Royal Projects… …to royal advice

From very early in the development era, King From the beginning of this interest in rural
Bhumibol seems to have sensed that small development, the King broadcast his thinking
farmers, who constituted the majority of and learnings in the speeches he gave at
Thailand’s population, would be neglected university graduation ceremonies. He pointed
by the adopted strategy of development, out the importance of agriculture to the national
and would end up as its victims. economy.
The King began experimental agricultural Thailand’s economy mostly depends on

projects in the grounds of the Chitlada Palace agriculture. Thus you must always bear this
in Bangkok. These included fisheries, new crop fact in mind, and help our country’s farmers
varieties, and dairy schemes. The emphasis to prosper and progress quickly.
was on finding technologies and techniques (Kasetsart University, 18 April 1960)
which were appropriate for Thailand’s typical
smallholder. He began to question the over-emphasis on
economic growth, and to suggest ways to bring
In the early 1950s, the King was driving across a the human aspect of development to the
coastal mudflat when his jeep got stuck, and had foreground.
to be pulled out by local villagers. He conceived
the idea that a simple dam could turn this tidal One thing being strongly promoted at
marsh into a lake useful to the local villagers for present is increase in production, in the belief
fish-raising, irrigation, and drinking water. The that production is the source of income.
Khao Tao project was completed in 1953 and Everybody should be able to see without
counts as the first of the Royal Projects related difficulty that production is related to
to agriculture (see Box 2.1). demand, distribution, business organization,
as well as the extraction of income and profit
Over the following years, royal tours around the to be used for consumption. Thus the correct
country increased the number of Royal Projects approach to increasing production is not
in all regions. Many of these were small-scale through application of agricultural techniques
irrigation projects designed to overcome the to increase the value of production for its own
shortage of water and unreliability of the sake. Rather agricultural and other techniques
rainfall. Others focused on the introduction of should be applied to help the producer to
new crops or cultivation techniques that suited receive returns for the labour, thinking, and
the local ecology and were appropriate for the capital he has used in full measure, so he can
small farmer; environmental conservation use those returns to raise his standard of
through low-technology or natural means; living to a more secure level.
rain-making; reforestation; health care for
(Kasetsart University, 18 July 1974)
remote communities; and various local
infrastructure schemes. In addition, Queen
He argued for a more circumspect approach
Sirikit took special interest in projects of craft
to development in which ordinary people
production to supplement household income.
could participate and progress with less risk of
disaster.
By around 1980, these Royal Projects had
reached a significant scale. The government
Development of the country must proceed in
seconded several officials with technical
stages. First of all, there must be a foundation
expertise, especially in irrigation, to cope with
with the majority of the people having enough
the workload. Six centres were built in different
to live on by using methods and equipment
regions of the country to continue
which are economical but technically correct
experimental work and to disseminate the
as well. When such a secure foundation is
learnings that had accumulated.
adequately ready and operational, then it can
be gradually expanded and developed to raise
The Royal Projects were immensely varied.
prosperity and the economic standard to a
But one key focus of many of them was to
higher level by stages.

It is especially important to first build a Economic and social conditions in many
foundation in which people have an countries have changed; that is a great deal 2
occupation and the ability to make a living, of effort is harnessed to construct advanced

as those who have an occupation and a technology and great efficiency in the
reliable living can then progress upwards to production process leading to the rapid
higher levels of prosperity. The promotion of increase in products to the level of luxury.
progress must proceed in stages with care, At the same time unemployment increased
economy, and foresight to prevent mistakes because machinery has taken away jobs from
and disasters… if one focuses only on rapid humans. This caused economic downturn as
economic expansion without making sure the unemployed became poorer and the
that such a plan is appropriate for our people producers of goods went bankrupt because
and the condition of our country, it will they were not able to sell their products. Thus
inevitably result in various imbalances and theoretical and practical adjustment to
eventually end up as failure or crisis as found industrial development ought to be promoted
in other countries. to create a balance in other sectors in order
(Khon Kaen University, 20 December 1973; to survive.
Dusit Palace, 4 December 1974) (King Mongkut Institute of Technology,
18 October 1975)
He wondered about the growing enthusiasm
for industrialization on a world scale.
Box 2.1 The Royal Projects, the Developer King

From the early years of his reign, the King involved himself in projects addressing disaster relief,
education and health. He launched projects to combat tuberculosis, cholera, polio, iodine
deficiency and leprosy, and supported several schemes for formal and informal education.
Over time, more of his interest focused on agriculture and rural development. He travelled
constantly around the country to launch projects. In his words, “In working out a programme
to help people, it is necessary to know the people that you intend to help.”
The Royal Projects now number over 3,000 scattered the length and breadth of the country.
The Royal Project Foundation, begun in 1969, has concentrated on replacing opium with
cultivation of strawberries, apples, grapes, and many other fruits and vegetables. The Chai Pattana
Foundation, begun in 1988, raises public donations for over 3,000 projects which range from
scientific research to sinking wells. The King has patented several mechanical aerators to clean
polluted water, and developed artificial rain-making techniques which are now also used in
neighbouring countries.
Recently, experienced representatives of the Royal Projects have been invited to Timor-Leste to
promote sustainable development and to Afghanistan to help replace opium with other crops.
Perhaps the nation’s most familiar image of their monarch is of a man with a camera around
his neck and a map in his hand, striding along the ridge of a muddy field, explaining possible
technical improvements to attentive officials. The Developer King.

Self-reliant agriculture surplus beyond household consumption, and
2 this surplus could be exchanged on the local
market. Moreover, the model farm was only the
From 1986, the Thai economy boomed, being first of a three-stage approach.
spurred on by the opening of the economy to
wider global impulses. In his speeches of this era, The second stage aimed at creating self-reliance
the King often gently expressed his misgivings at the community level by increasing the
about unmonitored growth. Just as this production and availability of local goods and
rise neared its peak, he surprised many by services through mobilizing the surplus
announcing a scheme that seemed to resources of households within a community.
contradict Thailand’s formula for miraculous This might be done through cooperative forms
growth. of production, community savings groups,
community health centres and community
In 1994, the King unveiled a model of a forms of a social safety net. The idea was to
self-reliant family farm. He had begun increase the local provision of goods and
experimenting with the model on a small plot services by introducing some division of labour
in Saraburi province a few years earlier, just as to achieve economies of scale and scope, while
the boom began. The model was based on a 2.4 still relying principally on the community’s own
hectare holding which was the median for capacity and resources. Exchange with the
smallholders in much of the country.6 This was outside would increase, but local exchange
divided into four zones: 30 percent for digging should be preferred because it economizes on
a pond to store 19,000 cubic metres of water for transport and other transaction costs.
cultivation in the dry season and to raise fish; 30
percent for rice cultivation sufficient for year- At the third stage, the community could engage
round home consumption; 30 percent for other with the economy beyond the village to sell its
crops and fruit; and 10 percent for housing, excess products; to gain new technology and
animal husbandry and other activities. Soil resources for projects, such as founding its own
fertilization, weed control and pest control used rice mill; to tap the services of banks and other
natural methods. The production system economic institutions; and to negotiate with
maximized synergies between livestock and business corporations for mutual advantage.
crops, and made the household self-reliant. The
King stressed that this was a basic model which Although the King presented this theory as just
could be easily modified to different regions these three stages, the implication was for a
where soil, water and cropping conditions staged progression towards an ever broader and
varied. more complex economy. As he later said,
At one level this model was simply a rational Progress is not just about planting enough rice
response to what had happened to Thai to eat.There must be enough to create schools,
agriculture over the past generation. It avoided even works of art, so that Thailand prospers
the chemical-dependent monoculture that was in every way, with no hunger or poverty, food
often no longer profitable and placed the farmer for body and soul, and many other things.
at the mercy of market uncertainties. It (Dusit Palace, December 2003)
overcame the growing difficulties with water
supplies. It provided a secure living. It recognized The important message of the theory was the
that the market did not work efficiently for King’s conclusions about how to achieve real
small farmers because of high transaction costs development with real benefits for ordinary
including transport and vulnerability to people. Progress had to be achieved in stages.
exploitation. But the King admitted that this Before moving to another stage, there first had
model “was not easy to implement, because to be a firm foundation of self-reliance or else
the one who uses it must have perseverance there was a strong chance of failure and loss
and endurance.” of independence. The driving force for
development had to come from within, based
At first sight, this model farm might appear as on accumulation of knowledge. In summary:
a rejection of the market, but this was far from Self-reliance. Moderation. Resilience. Inner
the case. Self-reliance did not mean isolation. dynamic. Knowledge.
The model farm was expected to create a
6
In Thailand, the thinking represented by the model farm was dubbed thitsadi mai, the New Theory. Here this name is not used
for fear of giving the impression that the New Theory is different from the Sufficiency Economy, whereas actually it is one
application of it.

Crisis and Sufficiency Dynamism has to come from inside. Thailand
would need to edge backwards a bit to get 2
growth back on track.

When the economic crisis struck Thailand in
1997, many people interpreted it as punishment In these speeches, the key word was “sufficiency,”
for the country living beyond its means. In and in 1998 the King gave the approach the title
pursuit of ever more rapid growth, Thailand had of the “Sufficiency Economy” in English.
gone deeply into debt, had invested in many
projects that were clearly inappropriate, and The term was too easily confused with self-
had allowed speculative markets in stocks and sufficiency in the sense of total self-reliance and
property to run riot. rejection of the market. The King corrected this
misapprehension:
The speeches given by the King in the two years
following the crisis extended the thinking on the … self-sufficiency is not a Sufficiency Economy,
agricultural theory to a much wider canvas. but a Stone Age Economy … There must be
But the guiding principles remained the same. some gradual development, some exchange
Work in stages. Build a base of self-reliance and cooperation between districts, provinces,
before moving ahead. Be economical. Learn and countries, something beyond sufficiency.
continuously. So a Sufficiency Economy for one quarter is
enough.
A self-sufficient economy doesn’t mean that (Dusit Palace, 4 December 1999)
each family must produce its own food, weave
and sew its own clothes. This is going too far, The approach was also interpreted as a total
but I mean that each village or district must rejection of globalization. But the King himself
have relative self-sufficiency. Things that are corrected this misunderstanding:
produced in surplus can be sold, but should be
sold in the same region, not too far so that the As we are in the globalization era, we also have
transportation cost is minimized. to conform to the world.
(Dusit Palace, 4 December 1997) (Dusit Palace, 4 December 1997)
I may add that full sufficiency is impossible. If
a family or even a village wants to employ a
full sufficiency economy, it would be like
Clarifying and codifying
returning to the Stone Age…
After the King’s words on this subject had gained
This sufficiency means to have enough to an enthusiastic reception during 1999–2000, a
live on. Sufficiency means to lead a working group studied all the King’s statements
reasonably comfortable life, without excess, on the subject, and drew up a definition which
or overindulgence in luxury, but enough. Some the King himself approved.
things may seem to be extravagant, but if it
brings happiness, it is permissible as long as The Sufficiency Economy is an approach to
it is within the means of the individual … life and conduct which is applicable at every
level from the individual through the family
Some people translate ‘sufficiency’ from the and community to the management and
English as: to stand on one’s own feet … This development of the nation.
means standing on our own two legs planted
on the ground, so we can remain without It promotes a middle path, especially in
falling over, and without asking others to lend developing the economy to keep up with
us their legs to stand on… the world in the era of globalization.
If everyone has enough to live on, everything Sufficiency has three components:
will be all right. Furthermore, if the whole moderation; wisdom or insight; and the need
country can subsist, the better it would be. for built-in resilience against the risks which
arise from internal or external change. In
(Dusit Palace, 4 December 1998) addition, the application of theories in
planning and implementation requires great
The principles which the King was expounding care and good judgement at every stage.
were the same as those found in the staged
model of rural development – only now applied At the same time, all members of the nation –
to the national economy. A foundation of self- especially officials, intellectuals, and business
reliance is the best immunity against external people – need to develop their commitment
shocks. Development has to proceed in stages.

to the importance of knowledge, integrity, Self-immunity or ¿Ÿ¡§ ‘ ¡ÿâ °—π„πµ—« [phumikhum
2 and honesty, and to conduct their lives with kan nai tua] means having built-in resilience,
perseverance, toleration, wisdom, and insight, and the ability to withstand shocks, to adjust
so that the country has the strength and to external change, and to cope with events
balance to respond to the rapid and that are unpredictable or uncontrollable. It
widespread changes in economy, society, implies a foundation of self-reliance, as well as
environment, and culture in the outside world. self-discipline.
Another working group then condensed the Besides these three components, two other
approach down to three components, which it conditions are needed to make the principle of
defined as: moderation; reasonableness; and the Sufficiency Economy work: knowledge and
need to have a self-immunity system. integrity.
Moderation or æÕª√–¡“≥ [pho praman] Knowledge or §«“¡√Ÿâ [khwam ru] means

is closely linked to the idea of sufficiency. In something close to wisdom in English as it
Thai as in English, the word for sufficiency encompasses accumulating information with
(pho phiang) has two meanings: enough in the the insight to understand its meaning and the
sense of not too little, and enough in the sense care or prudence needed to put it to use.
of not too much. It conveys the idea of a middle
way between want and extravagance, between Integrity or §ÿ ≥ ∏√√¡ [khunatham] means
backwardness and impossible dreams. It virtue, ethical behaviour, honesty and straight-
implies both self-reliance and frugality. forwardness, but also tolerance, perseverance,
a readiness to work hard and a refusal to
Reasonableness or ¡’ ‡ Àµÿ º ≈ [mi het phon] exploit others.
means both evaluating the reasons for any
action, and understanding its full consequences These elements clearly overlap and interlock.
– not only on oneself, but on others, the society, Reasonableness indicates moderation.
and the environment; and not only in the Moderation builds self-immunity. Self-immunity
short term, but the long also. This idea of is a requisite for reasonableness. They are not
reasonableness thus includes accumulated separate items but a trio. Graphically they
knowledge and experience, along with the can be shown as overlapping spheres (see
analytic capability, self-awareness, foresight, Figure 2.5).
compassion and empathy.
Figure 2.5 Sufficiency Economy and globalization
Moderation
Reasonableness Self-immunity
Knowledge Ethics
Harmony Security Sustainability
Material impact Cultural impact Social impact Environmental impact
Globalization and its impact

“The sufficiency economy philosophy will be followed as a shared value by the Thai people, 2
guiding the transformation to a new national management system based on efficiency, quality

of life, and sustainability objectives.” Thailand’s Ninth Plan, 1997
Simplified, this codification of the King’s ideas Philosophical foundations

boils down to five basic maxims:
■ know what you’re doing There is another level in the Sufficiency
Economy thinking that challenges the
■ be honest and persevere framework of conventional economics. This
■ take a middle path, avoiding extremes aspect is closely related to Buddhist ways of
thinking, but is not exclusive to any religion or
■ be sensible and insightful in taking decisions culture as the logic is built around simple
■ build protection against shocks concepts of man and the world.
In Buddhism, the world is a place of suffering.

Scope and application By being born in this world, humans encounter
suffering. But the message of Buddha is that
each person has the ability to overcome this
As such, the King’s thinking is not really an
suffering by developing the mental ability to
“economy” or an “economic theory” but a guide
understand it, and eventually to rise above it.
to conducting life and taking decisions that
People have to do this themselves. There is no
can be applied to an individual, household,
outside help that offers a short cut. Happiness
community, project, business, nation or the
is the conquest of suffering by the human mind.
whole world.
Conventional economics is built around the
At the most basic level, the approach is a guide
idea of people’s self-interest; that people try
to individual, everyday conduct. At a broader
to maximize their own benefits, including
level, it serves as a national mission
consumption; and that the market sorts out the
statement.The approach implies that
resulting conflicts in an even-handed way.
economics (or any other social science) cannot
be separated from more fundamental issues of
From a Buddhist perspective, this makes
epistemology and ethics – how we know things
no sense. There is no evidence that maximizing
and how we act.
consumption beyond a certain point results in
an increase in happiness. Indeed wealth tends
It is also not a theory that needs to supplant
to bring anxiety. The competition to acquire
competitive theories, but is a way of thinking
ever more leads to conflict, as well as wasting
that can be incorporated into any number of
finite resources. There is also no evidence
disciplines and theoretical approaches.
that the market is even-handed in settling
competition, so the result tends to include
Thai economists quickly grasped that
inequality, exploitation and unhappiness.
embracing the Sufficiency Economy does not
require them to abandon the theories and
In the Buddhist view, attempts to achieve
techniques they used as their professional
selfishly motivated ends only cultivate
tools (see Box 2.2).
selfishness, and efforts to fulfil desire only
foster desire. But selfishness is not inevitable
In terms of the economy, the Sufficiency
or incurable because every person has the
Economy emphasizes the importance of
capacity to change. Humans may indeed start
shielding the country and its people against
out as self-interested, but they have the ability
shocks. Just as the agricultural theory that
to overcome that. Rather than imagining
stresses that communities need a base of
economics as a competition, it makes
strength and self-reliance to be able to deal with
more sense to find ways to overcome the
the world beyond the community, so a country
selfishness which leads to competition – such
needs a strong internal foundation to survive
as by teaching people that there are other
and prosper in a volatile world-wide economy.
people in the world, and that it is better to treat
them with empathy, compassion, fairness and
The Sufficiency Economy is not a rejection of
generosity. With this approach, people care
globalization, but rather of means of
about other people, and the economy works
succeeding in globalization.
more harmoniously too.

2 Box 2.2 Sufficiency and Thailand’s economists
In late 1999, many of Thailand’s top economists gathered to discuss the King’s thinking. They
agreed that the Sufficiency Economy was not incompatible with mainstream economics
because it accepted trade and globalization, and because it embraced an idea of optimization.
In many different ways, they found that the King’s approach was useful both in understanding
what had drawn Thailand into the 1997 crisis, and in formulating more appropriate policies
for the future.
They concluded that the country had clearly ignored moderation by indulging in
over-consumption, which reduced the volume of savings and increased the reliance on
foreign debt.
Corporations had ignored the need for immunity by carelessly favouring debt financing over
equity and failing to insure themselves against volatility. Governments had failed to display
reasonableness by creating incentives favouring large-scale, capital-intensive ventures
that matched badly with Thailand’s resource endowment. Policy-makers had failed to build a
foundation of self-reliance by drawing too heavily on foreign capital and technology rather
than investing in research and development (R&D) within Thailand. The lack of publicly available
information on economic issues meant there was no general knowledge to stem the slide into
the crisis.
Looking ahead, the economists concluded that the need for immunity meant developing
warning systems to anticipate volatility in the international market, introducing better risk
management in corporations, strengthening financial institutions through good governance, and
using a flexible exchange rate and inflation targeted for discipline in macro-management.
A better foundation of sufficiency and self-reliance would require measures to raise the savings
rate, and more investment in R&D. More information needed to be made public to provide the
knowledge to plan and make decisions. Moderation would require a better incentive system
designed to create an optimal level of competition, and give more space to small and medium
enterprises rather than big companies.
The economists seemed especially pleased to find that the King’s ideas were a useful approach
to the issue of resource allocation at the heart of the economic discipline. On the one hand,
economics taught that a more complex division of labour delivered higher efficiency, and
efficiency was the basis for success in a competitive world. On the other hand, real-world
experience showed that countries needed a degree of self-reliance because they could not
predict the shocks of the globalized era.
The King’s ideas provided a framework for thinking about the balance between efficiency and
growth on the one hand, and security and stability on the other.
Although this line of thinking is explicit in As the King said,

Buddhism, it is closely paralleled in other
religions’ ideas of morality, charity, love, giving Sufficiency is moderation. If one is moderate
and sharing (see Box 2.3). in one’s desires, one will have less craving.
If one has less craving, one will take less
Understanding this background in Buddhist advantage of others. If all nations hold this
thought gives another layer of depth to the concept … without being extreme or
key concepts of the Sufficiency Economy – insatiable in one’s desires, the world will be a
moderation, reasonableness and self-immunity. happier place. Being moderate does not
mean to be too strictly frugal; luxurious
Buddhist teaching advises people to avoid items are permissible, but one should not
extremes. Eating too much can damage the take advantage of others in the fulfilment
body, and so can eating too little. The optimal of one’s desires. Moderation, in other words,
point is somewhere in-between. This is the living within one’s means, should dictate
middle way, or moderation. Learning how to all actions. Act in moderation, speak in
seek and find this point is a form of wisdom. moderation; that is, be moderate in all
activities.
(Dusit Palace, 4 December 1998)

The “reasonableness” in the Sufficiency Economy I want everyone to bear in mind the law of
is unlike the “rationality” of people who may cause and effect. A result arises because of a 2
pursue their self-interests to maximize their cause, an action. Whether that result is good

benefits. The word in Thai (mi het phon) captures or bad depends on whether the action was
the interrelationship between the means and good or bad. So to achieve any aim, you first
the ends, motive and result. Reasonableness is have to study what is the appropriate means,
the ability to identify a goal that is moderate and then proceed according to the law of
and optimal rather than extreme, as well as the causation with honesty and determination.
ability to appreciate how the pursuit of that goal Then everyone’s work will have a good
will impact on others. Pursuing self-interest is outcome, and taken together will result in the
not reasonable because it can result in conflict desired progress and security of our country.
rather than happiness. Reason needs to be used (Chulalongkorn University, 9 July 1970)
with insight and compassion; then the result is
wisdom rather than selfish “rationality.” As the
King said,
Box 2.3 Sufficiency and religion

As the Sufficiency Economy approach has appeared in a mainly Buddhist society, it is no surprise
that it draws on Buddhist thinking, and uses some Buddhist terminology, especially the middle
path.
But it is not in an exclusive product of Buddhism. In Thailand, some of the most enthusiastic
supporters of the approach include Muslims, and one prominent exponent of similar ideas is a
Catholic priest.
Many religions teach that greed and selfishness are wrong, and celebrate the virtues of giving,
sharing and compassion. Christianity promotes charity. Islam teaches every true adherent
the duty of giving alms. Many religions also reward asceticism. The monastic ideal remains an
important element in Christianity. The month of fasting in Islam serves as a regular reminder of
the value of self-denial. Hinduism encourages everyone to practice abstinence at some level
ranging from a short fast to complete withdrawal from the world.
These celebrations of asceticism are reminders of the dangers of greed and the exploitation of
others. In many different religions, the teachings are critical of consumerism, encouraging the
ideals of asceticism and giving. Also in various different religious settings, ideals of asceticism or
self-restraint are the foundations of movements towards greater self-reliance in both material
and spiritual ways.
On the outskirts of Bangkok, there is a Muslim settlement that has become a prominent example
of a sufficiency community – not at the basic stage, but at a more advanced level. The community
has moved rapidly away from self-reliant agriculture over the past generation, as land has
become scarce, and the community members have been drawn into the urban economy of
Bangkok. But the community has consciously immunized itself against the potential damage
from such rapid change. The community contributions demanded by Islamic belief have been
invested in social capital to cope with this new situation. These projects include schools, savings
funds and provision for the needy. For the community members, Islam and the Sufficiency
Economy give them the same advice:
“Islam enjoins us to give – not just alms, but also teaching and advice … In the Sufficiency Economy,
having ‘just enough’ also means giving. The royal thinking is founded in the Muslim philosophy
of life. To espouse this Sufficiency Economy we don’t need any instruction. It’s close to our real
way of life anyway.”
Father Niphot Thianwihan, a Catholic priest, has been an activist and theorist of community-based
development in Thailand for over a quarter-century. He argues that “consciousness-raising in
development is the search for the real consciousness of the community in order to stand up to
outsiders.” He urges communities to draw on “religious capital” of any type – Buddhist, Christian,
Muslim, animist – as a resource in this struggle.

The happiness and prosperity that people The need for self-immunity or protection against
2 seek can be achieved, but by actions that are shocks also reflects the Buddhist understanding
ethical in intention and execution, not by that the world is unstable and subject to
chance or by fighting and grabbing from constant change. The way to deal with this
others. True prosperity is something creative situation is to avoid unnecessary risks, and to
because it gives benefit to others and to people develop a firm base of self-reliance in order to
in general as well. be able to withstand shocks.
(Chulalongkorn University, 10 July 1975)
Box 2.4 The Sufficiency Economy and humanist economics

Ever since the framework of modern economics was conceived, there have been dissidents who
argue for ways to put humanity and true happiness above the economic emphasis on the
pursuit of wants, the mechanisms of the market and the overriding priority of growth. In various
ways, many of these thinkers have argued that what we would today call “development” must
have both material and spiritual dimensions.
One wave of dissidents emerged against the background of industrialization, during the transfer
of people from the land to factories, and the replacement of labour by machinery. Simonde
de Sismondi (1773–1842) feared industrialization had placed human labour on a par with the
operation of machinery, and raised the issue that humans could be discarded once machinery
progressed. Sismondi wrote,
“Sufficiency for living is necessary for life and for moral and ethical development in all aspects
including the development of human intellect and wisdom. These are things that human beings
cannot be without.”
Another wave of humanist thinkers emerged during the era of colonialism. Mahatma Gandhi
(1869–1948), the spiritual leader of India’s independence movement, placed great emphasis on
self-reliance and simple living as a strategy both for countering colonial domination, and for
developing the spirit. He advocated spinning as a meditative means towards mental
development as well as a method for opposing colonial domination of the market. In his
thinking, the movement against the British, and the quest for inner peace and victory, were
inextricably intertwined.
In the early phase of the modern era of globalization, with growing fears over the dehumanizing
effects of economic scale, and the impact of man on the planet, E. F. Schumacher (1911–1977)
drew inspiration from both Gandhi and Buddhism. In 1973 he famously claimed “small is beautiful”
and argued in favour of “appropriate technology” that enabled people to develop without losing
their human qualities.
More recently, a new “economics of happiness” has arisen against the background of the spiritual
malaise of the modern world. In 1974, Richard Easterlin pointed out that economic growth does
not contribute to any increase in happiness once basic needs are fulfilled, and that indeed the
pursuit of growth and higher income seems to promote anxiety and envy, especially in societies
which are highly unequal. King Jigme Singe Wangchuck of Bhutan decided the pursuit of Gross
National Happiness was more important than Gross National Product.
More recently, Richard Layard concluded that “happiness depends on your inner life as much as
on your outer circumstances.” Like Schumacher, Layard looked to Buddhism for inspiration on
an alternative path, and took away the insights that people are adaptable; that they need to
cultivate trust, compassion, and positive thinking to overcome envy; and that society needs to
concentrate more on “education of the spirit.”
Jeffrey Sachs welcomed this new emphasis on happiness, but also recalled that the US
Declaration of Independence guaranteed a right to the pursuit of happiness, not a right to
happiness itself. In other words, the definition of happiness is in the domain of the individual.
The role of the state is to increase the opportunities for individuals to pursue the happiness
they seek.

From this perspective, practising the principles Sufficiency and human
of the Sufficiency Economy is itself a form of
development 2
learning, a way of developing the mind. At the

individual level, each person progresses in
The Sufficiency Economy is a natural ally of
stages, building a firm base of self-reliance at
human development.
each stage, and concentrating on developing
inner capability. Similarly, in any application of
Like Human Development, the Sufficiency
the Sufficiency Economy, such as the agricultural
Economy places humanity at the centre, focuses
example from 1994, the project develops in
on well-being rather than wealth, makes
stages, building self-reliance and the ability to
sustainability the very core of the thinking,
withstand shocks at each step, and moving
understands the need for human security, and
ahead at the pace dictated by the community’s
concentrates on building people’s capabilities
inner dynamic. The achievement of personal
to develop their potential.
betterment and social goals are not separate
but all part of the same process. Material and
But the Sufficiency Economy is not the same as
mental progress go hand in hand.
human development. It offers two additional
elements.
Although the Sufficiency Economy and similar
humanist approaches (see Box 2.4) reject some
First, the Sufficiency Economy places greater
principles of conventional economics, they do
emphasis on mental and spiritual development.
so in a way that can co-exist within a framework
Indeed, it contends that mental development
of capitalist economic principles, and offer
is integral to all kinds of development, rather
teachings that provide a moderating influence.
than being a separate sphere.
The Sufficiency Economy is based on both
Second, it offers a guide for making decisions –
practice and principle. On the one hand, the key
applicable for the agency, department
maxims have arisen from the King’s real-world
or government engaged in the use of
experience in development projects. They are a
development resources, and for the individual.
practical summary of what works, based on
It suggests how to take decisions that will
decades of experimentation, observation and
achieve sustainability, health, longevity, learning,
evaluation.
empowerment, well-being and happiness.
At the same time, the key ideas of the Sufficiency
In the next chapter, we will look at ways the
Economy are firmly rooted in ideas about
Sufficiency Economy thinking has been taken
the nature of the world and the situation of
up in Thailand in different settings, from the
humanity. It is this combination of real-world
village to the boardroom, from the school to the
applicability and philosophical underpinning
planning agency.
that gives the approach its strength.

3
Sufficiency Economy in Action
Sufficiency Economy
3
in Action
In this chapter we shall look at several examples Despite that initial decision to prioritize their
of the Sufficiency Economy thinking in practice own consumption needs, the members of the
– in agriculture, environment, education, network now have more complex links with the
business and the management of the national economy beyond the village. They also have less
economy. These projects are at varying stages. debt and less anxiety. The network was named
Some began many years ago. Some were started by a local scholar as Inpaeng, meaning created
after the King emphasized the Sufficiency by the god Indra, because the forests of the
Economy approach during the economic crisis. surrounding area seem as rich and beautiful as
Some are still at the stage of researching and heaven.
experimenting with ways that the thinking can
be applied.Yet all, in different ways, demonstrate
Taking a first step
how the principles of moderation, insight,
resilience, knowledge and integrity can be A chain of low hills runs through Thailand’s far
applied with good results. northeast region.
Several of the older projects began before There is little land suitable for farming, and the
the thinking of the Sufficiency Economy was soil tends to be acid and sandy. In the boom of
formalized. They were started by people export cropping from the 1950s onwards, the
working in the same situation and cultural communities in this area took to planting
context that helped to shape the King’s cassava which was mainly exported to
thinking. It is not surprising that their direction Europe for animal feed. They also relied on the
was similar. In many cases, they were influenced surrounding forests to supply them with food,
by the King’s advice in his birthday speeches and herbs and many other things to supplement the
other pronouncements. More recently they have local economy. The crop yields were low and the
been encouraged by the clearer exposition of communities remained poor. Provinces in this
the Sufficiency Economy approach. area were among those with the highest
incidence of poverty in the country.
Agriculture and community development was
the cradle for the King’s development of the Figure 3.1 Map showing the location of
theory, so that is where we will begin. the Inpaeng Network
Sufficiency in agriculture: The

Inpaeng Network
In 1987, a small group of community leaders and
local scholars met together in Ban Bua, a village
in the hilly region of the far northeast of
Thailand, to discuss a major problem: the more
they invested in cash-cropping, the deeper they
slipped into debt. They took a momentous
decision – to stop concentrating on cash-
cropping and to prioritize growing their own
rice for consumption. From that small beginning
grew a network that now includes four
provinces, around 900 villages and over 100,000
members. The network’s activities include
agriculture, community enterprises, health care,
environmental conservation and education.

Over time, the communities’ problems increased. part of the profit to set up a small nursery to
Cassava prices dropped in the world market. The produce young rattan plants for other farmers
quality of the soil declined through constant who were interested in joining the project. They
mono-cropping. Chemical pollution became an planted backyard gardens of organic vegetables.
added problem as more and more expensive Before long the rattan groves yielded many
chemical fertilizers and pesticides were used in of the products they had earlier gleaned from
efforts to sustain the yields. The once rich and the forest. This model spread through the 3
beautiful forest began to decline because of original community of Ban Bua and out into

logging and because the villagers looked to neighbouring villages.
the forest more and more as a supplementary
income source. The financial profit from Gradually they perfected mixed farms to suit
growing cassava gradually dissolved and debts different segments of the local landscape. In the
began to mount. flatter areas, households divided up their plots
into rice, fruit trees, ponds to raise fish and frogs,
At the same time, the village became better vegetable plots and mushroom nurseries. From
connected to the outside world through roads, experience they learned that the ideal farm grew
buses, radio and television. New consumer at least ten kinds of vegetables, five kinds of
needs added another cause of debt. Some fruit trees, a few wood trees, and some basic
households were tempted by short-term medicinal herbs. It also had at least one fish pond
solutions for debt, such as gambling or drug- and kept ten chickens or ducks for protein
dealing. Others sent off their sons and supply. In the sloping areas, households took
daughters to work in Bangkok and other cities an agro-forestry approach with plots divided
as factory labourers, construction workers, house under fruit trees, timber trees and various kinds
maids, taxi drivers or vendors. Often they left of plants and herbs, just as in natural forests.
behind the children to be brought up by Most of these trees and plants were native and
neighbours or grandparents. Remittances from grew well in the area.
the cities kept the village economy afloat, but
at a cost of families being scattered. Within a few years, the villagers cultivated or
collected a wide variety of food produce. They
Life in this region has always been tough, and had enough for home consumption, for
this has bred a strong tradition of community exchanging among themselves, and for selling
cooperation. The meeting in Ban Bua in 1987 to neighbouring communities, generally at
reflected that tradition. prices below the market rate. They called this
the time of “Grow what we eat and eat what
we grow”. Their practice matched the first stage
Stage 1: Grow what we eat and eat what
of the Sufficiency Economy for agriculture.
we grow
The community of Ban Bua analysed its Some villagers from the Inpaeng network
situation. Most farmers had to harvest at the visited the nearby Phuphan Royal Development
same time, resulting in over supply and lower Study Centre. Still later, some of the farms
prices. They had to sell quickly before the that had adopted the King’s ideas became
crop deteriorated and so had little room for demonstration plots for the King’s theories.
bargaining with middlemen. They could not eat Different strands lead towards a common
their own produce so ended up needing cash thread.
to buy food in the market.
Stage 2: Community enterprises
They decided that growing cassava no longer
made sense – in cash terms, in environmental As the success of the pioneers became better
terms and in social terms. They all decided to known, the Inpaeng network began to expand.
stop. Instead they would grow food crops that Often other villagers came to visit the pioneer
they could eat themselves and sell in markets areas in order to learn the new techniques. Later
nearby. the network leaders began to visit neighbouring
areas to explain what they were doing and
To supplement the sticky rice, which was the invite other communities to join. As the network
staple of their diet, they sought other local food became larger, it served as a market for a
crops that would not need chemicals for growth growing range of products made by community
or protection. Most households consumed enterprises.
rattan shoots that they were buying from
elsewhere. They decided to plant old cassava In their regular discussions, the villagers
fields with rattan. An NGO called the Village identified other plants or trees that had the
Foundation gave them 5,000 baht (US$ 125) to potential to become sources of food and
buy seed. The first year’s crop earned more than additional income. They went into the forest and
30,000 baht, six times the investment. They used made a catalogue of native trees classified

Box 3.1 From cash crop to agro-forest
Serm Udomna was one of the founders of the Inpaeng network. He had started growing cassava
3 in 1979 on a loan of 5,000 baht, and by 1986, his debt had grown to 30,000 baht. He decided,
“We should grow what we can eat and use for our own consumption first. Then we may sell the
surplus to our neighbours or process it to add value.”

He gradually replaced cash crops with rice, vegetables and fruit trees. On his sloping land, he
grew some trees from seed, and brought many other varieties from the nearby Phuphan forest
to reproduce the forest’s bio-diversity. This idea gained him a reputation. “Serm moved the
Phuphan forest to his home.”
He soon found he had everything he needed including food, medicinal herbs, timber and
firewood for his own family and neighbours.
“I grow everything I want to eat and use in this forest. I don’t need chemical fertilizer. In the
natural forest there are no chemicals but the trees still grow very well. Trees with deeper roots
get their food from deeper down. As they grow, their leaves fall, rot, and become nutrients for
smaller trees and plants with shallower roots.”
He had a daily income from the produce of his forest, rice field, fish ponds and poultry. After a few
years, he stopped growing cash crops completely, and was able to pay back most of his old debts.
Now he has about 260 kinds of trees in his forest and plans to increase to 300 kinds in the next
two years. He also raises a few cows which he regards as a savings bank. When he needs extra
money such as fees for his children’s higher education, he sells his cows.
“My life today is much better. My own garden gives me safe food and medicinal plants which
keep me healthy and free of sickness. I believe that prevention is the best solution to health care.
As they say, you are what you eat.”
Other people came to learn from him. His forest became a model widely copied through the
Inpaeng network. He bought some more degraded land with plans to turn it into an agro-forest
where children of the area could learn the practice.
“It’s not an easy job. I know I’ll have to work harder. People who don’t understand will laugh at me.
But I have a strong will to do it. I was born a farmer and I’ve lived most of my life in this forest area.
Besides learning the modern knowledge which they study from schools, I’d like the children to
learn how to live in harmony with nature.”
according to their utility as food, medicine, Traditional skills in metalwork and wood
firewood or construction materials. They carving were revived to manufacture
brought back seeds to breed in their nurseries, agricultural tools. Weaving and natural dyeing
and distributed young plants for community resurfaced. Timber from trees on individual
members to grow in their backyards and farms, instead of timber from trees from the
integrated farms. forest, was used to construct or repair houses
and public buildings. Community nurseries
Several groups were established to process the were established to supply seeds of fruit trees,
fruits, leaves and roots of these trees into food wood trees and vegetables. Many households
products and medicines. For example, grew flowers and soil coverage plants.
households pooled their surplus of tamarind
and makmao, a local herb, to make into juice and These new production activities greatly
wine for sale within the network communities. helped community members to cut down on
Local medical knowledge was applied to consumption expenditure. In some villages,
produce herbal medicines for basic health care. community shops were established as outlets
Plants and other local materials were used to for this produce. Items were sold within the
make organic fertilizer, insecticide, shampoo, network at prices below market rates.
detergent, fish sauce, iodized salt, herbal tea,
sausage, vegetable crackers, cooking powder, In this second stage, the range of ideas and
and other goods to reduce consumption products circulating through the network
expenditures. greatly increased. This phase corresponded to

care, education, funeral expenses, care of the
“Walk step by step, eat bite by bite.” elderly and care of children.
Northeastern Thai saying.
To best utilize their existing resources, the
communities began to systematically collect
3
information on the natural resources, local

the second stage of the Sufficiency Economy knowledge, social capital, financial capital, and
approach to agriculture, which aims for other assets in the villages participating in the
sufficiency at the community or network level network. This information was used to develop
based on cooperative activities across the community master plans.
participating communities. At the same time,
The network also began to campaign for
some of the products began to be sold in
conserving the environment. Households were
markets further afield both within and beyond
encouraged to make their own organic fertilizer
the northeastern region.
from waste materials, and to grow timber trees
rather than cutting from the forests. Some
Stage 3: Networking for villages developed systems for recycling waste.
diversity and security
As the network expanded, inter-village Organization and linkage
organization was needed to help structure
With its growing scale, the network needed a
production along the pattern of value chains.
formal organization (see Box 3.3). The network
In the production of makmao wine, a few
also established connections with similar
farmer groups prepared young plants in their
organizations in other regions including the
nurseries, and sold them on to grower groups
Yamana Network in the South, Tipchang
who raised them in community forests. They
Network in the North, and the Panapon
then sold the fruit onward to workshops
Network in the Central region. They exchanged
making juice and wine. These in turn supplied
knowledge through study visits and training
the end product to groups with marketing skill
courses.
who supplied community shops and other
outlets. Pork processing, rice milling, organic
Government agencies, NGOs and international
fertilizer production, silk weaving and dress
organizations visited Inpaeng to learn about the
making all followed a similar pattern.
network and to share experiences. With help
from academic institutions, the network formed
Over time, these products found markets
Inpaeng Learning and Demonstration Centres,
beyond the network communities. For example,
which organize training courses for insiders
the wine received regular orders from hotels
and outsiders on agriculture, environment,
and restaurants in Bangkok. Hand-woven
community enterprises, social development,
natural-dye cotton and silk material from one
community funds and health care. Training
village won a five-star rating from a government
programmes emphasize learning-by-doing at
promotional scheme and was exported to
demonstration sites.
Japan.
These linkages gave the network access to
The network also began to expand its activities
outside sources of knowledge as well as
beyond agriculture, production and trade.
technical and financial support. The Ministry of
Various villages in the network developed
Agriculture provided funds for the network to
different ways of managing their money, for
promote expansion of Sufficiency Economy
example, establishing credit union groups,
agriculture. The Department of Industrial
savings groups, life insurance, rice banks or cattle
Promotion provided technical training and
banks. By the end of 2005, almost every sub-
coaching on enterprise development and
district under the network had established a
management. A local technical college helped
savings group to provide members with low-
wineries to meet technical standards. Network
interest loans for production activities. Most of
leaders gained experience in negotiating with
these groups insisted that every member come
outside partners for projects of mutual benefit.
to the monthly meeting to share information
among themselves regarding their lives,
families, problems and common concerns.These
groups thus help to solidify the community as
well as providing financial support. In addition,
the interest income from savings groups was
used for various welfare funds covering health

Box 3.2 Learning by doing and sharing
In 1986, Tong Chaipanha visited the Royal Development Study Centre in Phuphan to learn about
3 the King’s model farm. His land was on a slope and not all suited for rice. With the help of a loan of
38,000 baht, he divided up his 5 hectares into eight areas for rice, fruit, fish ponds, vegetables,
tree nursery, mushroom nursery, chicken runs, cattle grazing, and house site.
He grew rice mainly for home consumption. His orchard yielded lychees, grapes, longans and
mangoes for his family’s consumption and sale in the local market. In his four fish ponds he
cultivated Nile tilapia, common carp, catfish and barb, which supplied his family with protein, and
made some income from sale to neighbours. He used natural herbs for pest and weed control.
He found his income steadily grew, while his expenses – especially on chemicals – were being
eliminated. The soil on the plot improved, and there were other benefits too: “Many kinds of
insects and birds which I had not seen for years now come back to this area because it is free of
chemicals which are harmful to them.”
Fifteen years after Tong had converted his farm, it became a demonstration site for interested
farmers from every region in Thailand, including communities within the Inpaeng network.
He provides training free of charge because he believes in the spirit of mutual support and
generosity. But most visitors buy some fresh products from his farm anyway.
Figure 3.2 Inpaeng rice network
Community
rice mill
Community External
savings group markets
Seed improvement Rice farmer Community

group groups shops
Fish farming in Pig raising

rice fields group
Organic fertilizer
producers

Box 3.3 Healthy traditional knowledge
In the past, most Inpaeng villages were remote from urban centres, so the villagers developed
their own system of health care. While now they have better access to clinics and hospitals, the 3
traditional system still provides economical and effective everyday care. Realizing the value of

this resource, members of the network decided to document the knowledge.
In 1991, a young man named Khampoon Kudwongkaew was sent to study herbal medicine
with a famous teacher in a nearby province. He studied for two years, passed examinations for
government accreditation in pharmacy, and gained working experience in a public hospital. Then
he returned and set up a training centre in cooperation with another experienced traditional
healer and a Japanese doctor. Their training combined traditional knowledge with modern
medicine. By 2005, around 300 people from 57 districts had been trained to produce herbal
medicines and apply traditional methods. The centre produced over 20 kinds of medicines that
met FDA standards and sold them outside the network as well.
Figure 3.3 Organization of the Inpaeng Network
Steering Committee
25 members
■ policy
■ coordination
■ support for units
Inpaeng Learning
Centre Committee Inpaeng district councils
20 members 1 member per subdistrict
■ manage Learning Centre ■ manage activities
and demonstration sites ■ participate in Steering
■ conduct training for Committee
members and outsiders
The Steering Committee is elected every

two years, and meets monthly. The
chairmanship rotates among leaders of Household Household Household
different activities in the network. activities activities activities
The main purpose of the Steering
Committee is to set policy.
The district councils are elected by
members from the sub-districts, and also
meet monthly to discuss problems and
initiatives for the various activity groups.
Activity groups Activity groups Activity groups
and enterprises and enterprises and enterprises

In the late 1990s, the Network was supported The development of intra-village industries
by the government’s environmental fund and connections to other networks and
to implement a community-based forest organizations corresponds to the third stage of
management project that resulted in a large the Sufficiency Economy theory of agriculture,
3 increase in forest cover in the Phuphan range. in which communities are encouraged to
In 2006, the Inpaeng Network was selected expand to interact with outside markets and
by the government to implement a project institutions.

called The Greening of Phuphan Forest to
commemorate the 60th Anniversary of the
Challenges
King’s accession to the throne. The objective of
the project was to promote community-based Although the Inpaeng Network is now heralded
forestry management to rehabilitate the as a success, this was never inevitable and
Phuphan forest so it provides sufficient natural entailed a great deal of hard work and sacrifice.
resources for the people of the area.
Box 3.4 Building knowledge for sustainable futures

One issue which greatly concerned members of the Inpaeng network was the future of their
children. Many young people completed their compulsory primary education and then migrated
to the city to earn income, but were limited to poorly paid work as unskilled labourers in factories
or construction sites. The issue was brought up in the network committee meetings.
For the short term, they tried to create income-generating opportunities in the locality so young
people would not need to migrate to cities. For the longer term, they wanted to equip the
children with the right knowledge and outlook.
A pilot project called “Children of Inpaeng” was set up in Ban Bua village. The guiding idea was
to enable children to learn and understand about their communities and their cultural roots
as well as about the outside world. The children learned to compare information, make sound
judgments and work together as a group. They also developed necessary life skills such as critical
thinking, decision making, leadership and teamwork.
Learning was predominantly action-based, including visits to the poor in their communities, walks
through the forest to understand the ecology, practice in building houses, and instruction on
breeding animals and plants. The children organized into small groups to set up plant nurseries,
sold the seedlings to adults for raising in their agro-forests, and shared the income to pay for
education, clothing and assistance to poor households. They also learned to grow vegetables
and brought the produce to sell in the district market. Through these activities they came to
understand marketing and book keeping. They visited the elders of the community to learn folk
stories, traditional singing and local dances.
Parents eagerly supported the scheme.“We see improvements in our children. They are eager to
learn and to ask questions. They have more self-confidence and self-discipline because they learn
to do things together as a team.”
The pilot was so successful that it was expanded to other villages. Summer camps were set up so
children from the various villages could meet and share experiences. Some school groups were
so successful with income-generating activities that they were able to buy bicycles, provide funds
for poor students, and set up their own savings groups.
In 1995, a group of Japanese students came to visit Inpaeng, and since then similar groups
have returned each year. They live with Inpaeng families and participate in the activities of the
network. In return, the Inpaeng children learn about Japan and the world outside.
A teacher noted,“Under the new curriculum, classrooms can be anywhere and learning can take
various forms. What we see the Inpaeng children doing is impressive. They learn from real-life
activities through the learning-by-doing process. This is more fun for children and their learning
is more profound.”

During the initial phase (1987–1991), most Relations with external partners strengthened.
villagers were uncertain. They could see that Many government agencies and academic
their market-oriented mono-cropping was institutions provided support. AusAID became
going nowhere, but many felt a return to involved. UNDP selected Inpaeng for projects
sufficiency agriculture was a step backwards. on poverty alleviation through sustainable
3
Most of all, they were uncertain how they would agriculture and on community-based forestry

pay off their debts. management.
Traditional leaders played a vital role in The situation in the current phase (2002
instilling confidence. They invited academics onwards) has continued to become more
and NGO workers to facilitate dialogues among complex. The issue now facing the network is
the villagers about the problems they faced, and how to maintain its principle of the middle path
the changes they had to make.These discussions amidst the rapid changes of the globalized era.
helped villagers to realize that they still had
plentiful resources to provide food and a healthy The solution has been to develop a younger
living, but they needed a different approach. generation of leaders in the network’s
After a few leaders had demonstrated success management. Many have tertiary education and
in turning their cash-crop fields into integrated are well-tuned to the outside world, at the same
farms and agro-forest, more villagers had the time as being closely tied to the community
confidence to follow. through their involvement in the Children of
Inpaeng programme from a young age. They
In the second phase when the network add a new dimension to the network’s vision
gathered momentum (1992–1996), villagers and capability.
became critical of government policies to
promote market-oriented farming without A second problem is directly related to the
effective mechanisms to support small farmers. network’s success. Inpaeng leaders are regularly
This created some conflict between the network invited to participate in national, regional and
and government agencies at the local level. local forums. Some have become advisors to the
However, the situation changed in the mid- cabinet and the planning board. More and more
1990s when government policy switched people want to visit Inpaeng and learn from its
towards community empowerment and success. The flipside of this reputation is that
promotion of the King’s ideas. The government the Inpaeng communities have less time to
began to make funding and technical advice concentrate on their own development.
available to projects that demonstrated change
from within. The communities found a new The challenge of the present is how to go on
source of knowledge to help them deal with acquiring knowledge that enables the network
changes in the outside world. to develop further, at the same time as
communicating the network’s acquired stock of
The time of growing success (1997–2001) knowledge to others so that they too benefit
brought its own problems. Other farmers, from this learning.
government officials, international
organizations and foreign visitors wanted to
Conclusion: Living with globalization
learn from the experience of Inpaeng. The
problem facing the network was how to The communities of the Inpaeng Network are
organize the wealth of knowledge they had in far from being isolated from the outside world
order to communicate it effectively with others. and the pressures of globalization. Almost
Most knowledge was still very much tacit every household has a TV, and over half have a
knowledge possessed by local experts, living in mobile phone. More and more children go to
scattered locations. secondary schools in town and are exposed to
the consumerist fashion of the age. The decision
The network finally sought help from outside to retreat from mono-cash-cropping almost a
partners such as academic institutions, generation ago was not a withdrawal from the
government agencies and international world. Through their connections to markets,
organizations to turn this tacit knowledge into government agencies, universities, other
explicit forms that could be shared with a wider networks and even Japanese schools, they are
range of people. They produced pamphlets, much more broadly and deeply involved in the
VCDs and cartoon booklets on wine processing, outside world than before that first decision.
organic fertilizer production, rice milling,
natural dyeing of silk and cotton, integrated But they are also much more in control of their
farming, and on key lessons from the Inpaeng lives, and their futures.
network’s experience.

Box 3.5 Same strands, different networks
Inpaeng is not alone. Many other networks have sprung up in rural Thailand over the last
3 quarter-century. Two other examples show that the circumstances may be very different, but
the same principles work.
The south of Thailand has little land suitable for growing rice, so many farmers are inevitably
involved in market production. The Yamana Network took root among rubber farmers. In 1984,
Prayong Ronnarong proposed a “Rubber Master Plan, Farmers’ Version” to the government, and
won funds to construct eleven community-based rubber processing factories that enabled
farmers to gain a bigger share of added value.
The group then looked around for projects that could increase employment, lower expenditure,
and raise incomes. They decided to launch a noodle flour factory, and brought six rice-farmer
groups into the network. The rice farmers benefited from having a secure market for medium-
quality rice which was difficult to sell. The factory was able to produce ten tons of flour a day.
Subsequently the network also linked up with three associations of fruit farmers. The network
founded a study centre that concentrated on accumulating and disseminating knowledge about
organic farming, freshwater fisheries, chicken raising, mushroom cultivation, pig raising, animal
food processing, rice processing and traditional medicine. It raised funding from the government
for a community rice-mill that supplied rice to the fruit and rubber growers.
The Panapon Network was founded in the central region in 2000. The network serves as a
channel to cooperate on the production of high-quality rice seeds, and the exchange of other
knowledge. But the network also promotes a sufficiency-oriented scheme which goes beyond
farming.
The scheme promotes economy, environmental conservation and self-reliance through
technologies such as integrated pest management, reduced use of imported inputs and forest
conservation. But it also promotes the same ends by encouraging members to stay in good health
through proper diet based on their own production, to abstain from alcohol and gambling, and
to cooperate through pooled labour. The network has tapped help from government agencies,
foundations and private corporations, and runs a community radio station as a main means of
communication to members and outsiders.
The success of the Inpaeng Network is based on markets and institutions within Thailand and
the elements and conditions of the Sufficiency beyond.
Economy. The first seed of the Inpaeng Network
began from the need for greater self-reliance to In their own definition, the Sufficiency Economy
cope with global forces beyond communities’ means eight points:
control. The participants used local knowledge
■ having a secure living with enough food
and insight to expand the local economy. They
have moved ahead in stages, always building on ■ having enough to give to relatives and
their inner resources, carefully appraising their friends
options, and always choosing the middle way
■ having enough to contribute for charities
marked by moderation. A straightforward,
and needy people
ethical attitude was the necessary foundation for
mutually beneficial forms of cooperation. The ■ having clean and safe food to eat and be
network built resilience against shocks by healthy
investing in social capital, accumulating
■ living in harmony with nature and other
knowledge, and cultivating a future generation
people
of leadership. After all, this prudence is a
product of the harsh environment, codified in ■ accumulating knowledge and wisdom
the folk poems and proverbs of the region, such
■ developing community-based enterprises
as “Before heading further, always look back and
make sure every step you have taken and will ■ having community-based welfare schemes
be taking are clear to you.” Linkages anchored and safety nets
firmly in the communities gradually expanded
within the Network and then outward to They have come a long way by moving
gradually in pace with their own capability.

They have not only expanded their production Sufficiency Economy and the
from household to community and then
environment
linkages to the outside world. In parallel they
have also expanded their social capital
through savings funds, welfare funds, and
The rapid depletion of Thailand’s prolific 3
natural resources over the past half century is
environmental conservation. Most of all, they

a prime example of lack of moderation and
have consciously accumulated knowledge at
insight. Evidence of the pace at which the
every step of the way. The communities now
environment of the planet as a whole is moving
include experts in integrated farming, agro-
into a critical stage of depletion reveals the
forestry, wood carving, fish raising, bee keeping,
same “insufficiency” on a world-wide scale.
frog keeping, rattan weaving, silkworm culture,
silk and cotton weaving, natural dyeing, fruit
In Thailand, the declining forest cover, clean
gardening, fruit juice processing, herbal
water sources, marine life and other resources
medicine and traditional healing.
are the focus of growing conflict. The recent
fiercer weather conditions created by global
Their prudence and self-reliance has protected
environmental decline in combination with
them in turbulent times. The Inpaeng
local ecological destruction have had fatal
communities were little affected by the
results. Thailand has lost lives to mudslides
economic crisis of 1997 because they depended
caused by heavy rainfall on denuded hills, and
hardly at all on the remittances which
several other countries in Southeast Asia have
disappeared when migrant workers lost their
suffered the same disaster for the same reason.
jobs en masse.
The environment is clearly an area of concern
Their slogan is “Let the knowledge lead and the
for the Sufficiency Economy approach. A good
money follow.” Perhaps the most far-sighted
foundation of natural resources is fundamental
achievement of the network is the Children of
to self-reliance. But what does the Sufficiency
Inpaeng scheme which now produces a new
Economy approach tell us about caring for the
generation of leaders with strong local roots,
environment?
academic skills, and astute awareness of the
outside world.
Box 3.6 Sufficiency resort

The benefits of the Sufficiency approach to agriculture are not confined to village communities,
as the example of Chumphon Cabana shows.
In the crisis of 1997, this resort on the east coast of the peninsula suffered financial difficulties like
so many other businesses. In the desperate attempt to stay afloat, the owner took inspiration
from the Sufficiency approach. As a start, she began to plant rice, vegetables, flowers and fruit
trees on land within the resort project. To improve the sandy land without the cost of chemicals,
she experimented with making organic fertilizer from hotel waste and other materials. She planted
a local variety of rice and installed a rice mill. The husk was used in making the fertilizer and for
animal feed.
As the resort’s land was not enough to supply all its needs, she got the cooperation of
surrounding villages to supply the deficit, and also helped train them in making fertilizer and
other practices of organic farming. The employees of the resort were especially encouraged to
participate. Next she invented a just-in-time system of supply by posting the following day’s
requirements of various articles on the local school’s notice board. Local production expanded
beyond food to include various cleaning materials made from local materials. As production
increased, these articles were also supplied to other resorts in the area.
The resort benefited from low production costs and reliable supplies. Surrounding farmers had a
secure market and good prices because there were no middlemen. Soon the resort gained a
reputation with the result that other resort owners, farmers, NGOs, and government officials came
to learn – which gave the employees a sense of pride.
As the owner concluded, “I think this is a kind of development which makes everybody happy.”

Box 3.7 Sufficiency in community development
In 2005, the Ministry of Interior resolved to eliminate poverty within three years by promoting
3 the principles of the Sufficiency Economy. In the ministry’s scheme, the promotion of the
Sufficiency Economy was divided into six elements:
■ schemes to reduce expenses through more home production, use of local new materials,
energy savings, elimination of costly local entertainments and promotion of local markets
■ schemes to increase income by encouraging community enterprises, producer groups
and local tourism
■ schemes for local saving
■ promotion of local leadership and use of community plans
■ activities to preserve and protect the environment
■ schemes to promote social capital including local welfare schemes, community rice mill, and
other cooperative schemes
As a start, a model village was identified in each of the country’s provinces. In many of these,
households had followed a by now well-known formula:
We shall plant everything we eat
we shall eat everything we plant
we shall use everything we make
we shall make everything we use
More striking, however, was the number and variety of new enterprises and communal projects
that villages had undertaken to reduce expenses, increase incomes and extend the
community’s social capital. These ranged from projects to promote local tourism, through revival
of traditional practices of weaving and other local manufacture, to cooperative schemes for
producing organic fertilizer and innovative forms of local fish culture.The variety of these schemes
reflected the variety of local society and ecology. The number reflected the local energies
released by the Sufficiency strategy’s advice to build on local resources and knowledge. Sanga
Khahawong from Krabi province summed up:
“The Sufficiency Economy is about finding knowledge and putting it to use, overcoming
problems, correcting mistakes and learning by doing so that the end product is a truly better
and happier life. Anything done must be done with commitment, without fear about making
mistakes, because you can always try again. Learning by doing is the way to a happy life.”
Royal Projects on the In Bangkok, which is located on a flat deltaic

environment plain, the historic canals easily become stagnant
as well as polluted by various means. The King
The King has launched several schemes with a suggested opening water-gates during high
primary objective of environmental care and tides so river water flows into side-canals and
improvement. dilutes the stagnant water, then flushes out
when the tide falls. The King called this “good
He devised and patented a simple paddle water chasing bad.”
aerator for improving the quality of water,
particularly in holding ponds behind dams. He Also in Bangkok, he proposed using a marshy
also promoted the use of plants which help to lake (Makkasan) to serve as the city’s “kidneys”
clean water naturally. in the same way as parks serve as “lungs.” Water
from surrounding areas is drained into this lake
To combat soil erosion, the King has where it is then treated using mechanical
demonstrated the use of vetiver grass, a sturdy, aerators and naturally purifying plants.
easy-to-cultivate plant with a dense root system.
Planting this type of grass along hill contours, The King developed ways to reduce soil acidity
on steep slopes, or in gullies serves to prevent by natural means. First the soil is alternately
erosion by wind and rain. soaked and dried to bring the acidity to

the surface, then the acidity is removed by The King has experimented with these ideas to
applying lime, or washing it away. He named this make them replicable, and sometimes added
“tricking the soil.” some technology to make them more effective.
To conserve forests, the King advised farmers to These and various other projects share some key
3
grow three kinds of trees – for fruit, for fuel, and characteristics. They are simple. They depend

for timber. He called this “three forests, four heavily on methods and materials that are
benefits,” with the additional benefit of available in nature. They are designed to
increasing humidity and soil retention. be low-impact and non-intrusive. They
acknowledge the complex inter-connections
The King advised that the best way to recover within nature. They avoid creating new
forests was to let them regenerate naturally. problems in other parts of the eco-system.
Reforestation by planting often has negative They are self-sustaining. Most of all, they are
side-effects such as soil erosion, while in the economical and easy to implement.
sub-tropical environment, natural regeneration
is quite fast. The King also suggested the Similar approaches have been adapted by
process could be accelerated by planting a village communities practising the principles
small number of tree types that have prolific of the Sufficiency Economy. The Inpaeng
wind-blown seeds on hill tops from where they communities consciously avoid cutting down
will eventually seed the lower slopes by natural more forest, invest in reforestation, and use
means. natural methods for soil fertilization, pest
control and waste water treatment. In Trang,
The King has campaigned for the use of check some villagers who began practising Sufficiency
dams on rivers. These weirs, adapted from principles in their own coastal location have
traditional practice, do not completely impede since linked up with villagers on the hills
the river, but create a pond which moisturizes behind to make comprehensive plans for the
the surrounding farmland, provides some environment of a whole river basin.
water for irrigation, and offers a site for fish
culture. Recently, the Thailand Research Fund has
commissioned research to gather the learnings
One of the King’s most visionary schemes of from several local environmental projects
environmental engineering has been a based on Sufficiency principles as a part of a
project to relieve flooding in the capital of scheme to develop indicators for evaluating
Bangkok. Traditionally the city floods when the the progress of development in all provinces.
accumulated run-off from monsoon rains
falling to the north of the city descend down the The Sufficiency Economy thus offers certain
rivers and are backed up by high sea tides in the guidelines for approaching environmental
estuaries. The King’s project took advantage of problems within the framework of moderation,
low-lying land to the east and west of the city. insight and resilience.
The high flow in the rivers is diverted into these
■ seek solutions offered by nature
areas for temporary storage and then gradually
released once the threat has passed. The ■ seek solutions in traditional practice
technique is dubbed “monkey cheeks” by
■ consider the impact on other parts of the
analogy to a monkey inflating and deflating its
eco-system
chubby cheeks.
■ favour solutions which are self-sustaining
Moderately working with nature ■ favour solutions which are economical
As the King noted, he developed his ideas for
several of these projects by observing villages
on his tours. Sufficiency Economy and business
The villagers know all about the three forests The Sufficiency Economy approach is proven in
– for fruit, fuel and timber. The farmers on the the realm of agriculture and community
hills know it, and those on the plains know it. development. But what about in business? As
They have practised this for many generations, an economy develops, agriculture’s role
and done it well too. They are the experts. diminishes. In Thailand today, agriculture is the
They know what to do and where to do it, principal occupation of 40-45 percent of
which trees to preserve. But sometimes the households, and contributes only around 11
knowledge has been forgotten. percent of GDP. If the Sufficiency approach is to
be more than a minority interest, it must find its
place in the growing urban economy.

Box 3.8 Tsunami and Sufficiency
In December 2004, the village of Santa-u on Lanta island off Thailand’s southwest coast was
3 devastated by the tsunami. Houses were swept away. Fishing boats were smashed. And tourists
stopped coming.
The community’s response was guided by the Sufficiency idea. Draw on internal resources,
especially local knowledge. Build self-reliance. Revive local economies by seeking solutions
available in the natural environment. The result went far beyond restoration of livelihoods to a
revival of the surrounding environment and culture.
The community set up its own dockyard to repair boats, worked cooperatively to repair houses,
and pooled savings to fund income-generating activities. One thing led to another. Before long
they found they had revived old handicrafts such as batik to make money, recalled traditional
entertainments to entice back the tourists, and re-landscaped the village for greater pride.
Surrounding villages soon joined in, and the scope of cooperative projects expanded. One
village planned a community museum to house old photographs and antique artefacts. Another
helped their neighbours to return to traditional farming, so there was no need for chemicals.
People shared with each other the best recipe for shrimp paste and the best technique of
replanting sea grass. A community co-operative was set up to market agricultural and marine
products to hotel and resort owners.
To solve a shortage of water, the Lanta communities built check-dams, drilled artesian wells
and constructed gravity-fed schemes. To prevent soil erosion, they planted vetiver grass on the
mountain slope. To help protect themselves from future tsunamis, they reforested the coastal
area with mangrove and pine trees.
The Lanta communities discovered that the Sufficiency Economy has meaning that goes beyond
the economy. Community revival under the Sufficiency approach extended to local culture, the
natural environment, and the islanders’ personal contentment and spiritual gratification.
As a set of universal principles, the Sufficiency Siam Cement: Valuing the

Economy ought to be useable in business as individual in a giant corporation
in other areas of life. But what exactly are
the approach’s implications for business Siam Cement is one of Thailand’s oldest and
management? And what are the benefits and largest companies. In the 1997 crisis, the
limitations? company suffered heavily from the
consequences of rapid and ill-timed expansion.
Several firms have already long-adopted But its fast recovery was aided by its strong
practices which are consistent with the corporate culture that conformed to Sufficiency
Sufficiency Economy approach. The sections Economy principles.
following look at the experience of one large
firm, and three small- and medium-sized Siam Cement’s business philosophy and
enterprises (SMEs). These stories show that the emphasis on its people were developed long
Sufficiency Economy approach can be an aid to before the Sufficiency Economy approach was
business. They also show that the approach’s formalized. However, the Crown Property is a
major contributions come in the area of major shareholder, and the company’s board
cultivating a long-term perspective, focusing has included several members who work on
attention on people, appreciating all the Royal Projects. The basic principles of the
stakeholders, and prioritizing the management Sufficiency Economy thinking found their way
of risk. into the corporate culture through people
who worked alongside the King in various
What, then, can be done to make the approach endeavours.
more widespread in the business world? The
final section summarizes work-in-progress on In 1983, the company made public its
translating the Sufficiency Economy approach philosophy of doing business using four
into business tools. principles:

■ Adherence to fairness Valuing people in a crisis
■ Belief in the value of the individual Siam Cement’s high reputation made it an
■ Concern for social responsibility attractive partner for incoming foreign capital.
From the 1970s onwards, the group diversified 3
■ Dedication to excellence into many new areas, often in joint ventures. In

addition, in the mid 1990s, the group embarked
To address the first point, the company in 1987 on an aggressive expansion of its cement
formally adopted a code of ethics that it shared capacity to meet the demands of the
with its employees, vendors, contractors and construction boom. To finance these ventures,
other stakeholders. The code was substantially the group contracted debts of US$ 6.6 billion,
refined and took its current form in 1998: mostly in foreign currency. These policies made
■ Fairness to all who have business Siam Cement highly vulnerable when the Thai
relationships with the Siam Cement Group baht was floated and then depreciated from July
1997 onwards. Huge debt servicing costs,
■ Making business gains in a proper manner coupled with a plunge in demand for its
■ No political alliances products, delivered a loss of US$ 1.2 billion in
1998, and US$ 4.8 billion in 1999.
■ No discriminatory treatment
The company’s strategy had clearly overstepped
To promote social responsibility, the company the bounds of prudence, and failed to provide
sponsors a large range of projects including any immunity against shock. In the aftermath,
ones targeting environmental preservation, management took drastic steps to correct this.
promotion of traditional Thai arts, and human Cement, paper and petrochemicals were
welfare. designated as the group’s core businesses.
Interests in other sectors were either sold off or
Siam Cement’s dedication to excellence is scaled back. A new emphasis was placed on
shown through its high standards of education, exports and on risk management. In 2000, the
technology and quality control, which ensure its group delivered a small profit, and by the
products command premium status in their following year was firmly on the road to
markets. recovery.
But, of the four elements of its philosophy, the This drastic restructuring was generally guided
best known and most distinctive is its “belief in by Sufficiency principles, particularly an
the value of the individual.” imperative to build greater resilience into the
corporation’s structure. Here we will concentrate
Siam Cement pays great attention to its people. on one specific aspect: human resource policies.
It recruits young talent at the beginning of their
careers, with a strong preference for engineers A key element of Siam Cement’s strategy in the
or the graduates of top US business schools. It clutch of the crisis was to remain true to its
shuns the practice of hiring staff in mid-career, basic business philosophy, particularly its belief
and always promotes from within. This obliges in the value of the individual, and its adherence
the company to invest heavily in training, while to fairness. Although the group divested
it also gives the employees a high level of peripheral businesses, in the core sectors it
loyalty and pride in their firm. maintained a policy of no lay-offs, even in the
face of such startling losses. And the budget for
Training is a regular part of a career at Siam human resource development was not slashed,
Cement – from entry-level business training but increased by half a billion baht.
to a higher-tier management development
programmes, with faculty imported from the The rationale for these policies was that the
Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania. company’s business was bound to change as a
Besides business and technical skills, the result of such a deep crisis, and thus the
company cultivates a particular corporate style. company’s main asset – its people – needed to
The ideal Siam Cement employee is khon be prepared to ensure the restructuring and
di khon kaeng, a good and smart person, reorientation was a success. Some Siam Cement
meaning technically competent, ethical and top managers admit this decision was a gamble,
sensible. He or she is supposed to be “low but they believe it paid off.
profile, high productivity.”

The fundamental insight behind this decision This section looks at some Thai SMEs. All had
was that the company would need a more modest beginnings, but acquired scale by
multi-skilled workforce in order to cope with growing gradually over the long term, and
rapid change. The extra investment in training avoiding disasters. In each case, the business
3 was designed to make the company more leader adopted a strategy that was consistent
flexible by multiplying the skills and thus the with the Sufficiency Economy – always
potential job roles of its employees. The conducting business ethically, learning
company continued this human resource continuously, growing moderately and building
restructuring policy for five years, and then protection against shocks.
adjusted its strategy again to meet the
opportunities of the post-crisis era. Hand crafting an international market
Siam Cement’s corporate culture can be Sa is paper handmade from the fibre of mulberry
interpreted as an implementation of the trees. There are many producers of similar
principles of the Sufficiency Economy, and thus handmade papers in Thailand and elsewhere in
is an example of some ways in which these the Asian region. Competition is intense. Raw
principles can be used in business. The key materials are in declining supply. Success in this
elements are: business is a function of keeping material costs
low, developing the skills of the workforce, and
■ codifying business philosophy, and making evolving creative new products.
it known to employees, business partners
and other stakeholders Over 40 years ago Fongkam Lapinta migrated
■ placing strong emphasis on fairness and from her hill village to a settlement outside
social responsibility Chiang Mai that had a tradition of making sa
paper, though the business was in decline
■ making belief in the value of the individual because of falling demand. At first, she was not
the guiding principle of the human resource well-liked in the new location because of her
policy origins and poverty.
■ adhering to the company’s core principles,
even in the face of a huge crisis She started making sa paper on a small scale
with attention focused on low cost. She acquired
■ building immunity through the quality of raw materials from surrounding communities.
the workforce She relied on labour from her family. She sold
the products in the local market in Chiang Mai.
Sufficiency Economy and small- and
medium-sized enterprises When the business began to expand,
neighbours came to work with her, first from the
Much more characteristic of Thailand and other immediate village, and later from farther afield.
developing countries are companies that are Some worked in her workshop. Others were
more modest in size and newer in foundation. trained in the workshop and then produced
Such small and medium enterprises (SMEs) have from home.
to fight to survive. The failure rate is very high,
for many reasons. Very often the management As the business took off, banks came to offer her
depends greatly on a single individual or a loans. Fongkam refused. Through to the present,
family. They work with low technology, and do she has never operated on credit, although she
not have the resources to innovate. They have uses bank services for transactions. She always
difficulty predicting market changes, and are used income first to pay her employees and
vulnerable to swings in the national and suppliers. If there was any surplus, it was stored
international economy that are beyond their in a fund to guard against risk. Only when funds
control. These pressures have increased accumulated beyond a cushion did she invest
markedly in recent decades with the in expansion. The pace of growth was
accelerating pace of globalization and fiercer determined by the availability of raw materials,
competition from new players in international and the capacity of her own accumulated
markets. capital.
Some survive and prosper over the long term.

But how?

Table 3.1 Siam Cement: Business and human resource strategies
Pre-crisis Crisis era Post-crisis era

(Before 1997) (1997–2002) (2003–)
3
Business strategy ■ Growth ■ Back to core ■ Go regional

■ Import-substitution business ■ Design and
■ Quality and fairness ■ Increase export and development
value-added ■ Innovation and
■ Corporate good differentiation
governance
Human resource ■ Develop ■ Develop ■ More

strategy professional staff self-discipline business-oriented
■ Internal labour ■ Improve ■ Competency-based
market productivity, HRD
■ Promotion from without lay-offs ■ Talent
within ■ Maintain HRD cost management
■ Constructionism/
project-based
learning
Human resource ■ Systematic, ■ Human capital ■ Innovative

management professional management organization
personnel ■ Job redesign ■ Shared services
administration ■ Building multi-skill and outsourcing
employees ■ Knowledge
management
■ Recruitment centre
Human resource ■ Massive investment ■ From classroom- ■ Self-directed

development in training based to activity- learning
■ Conventional T&D based learning, ■ Transformational
■ Promotion from project-based training
within (systematic learning ■ Change
career path) ■ Developing multi- programmes
skill employees ■ Special track
■ Corporate
university
Sometimes orders had to be turned away One even gave her company its English name,
because the natural manufacturing process Preservation House.
required supplies of time and sunlight that were
not flexible. “Someone came to say, I want to As her products acquired an international
place an order with you for two hundred market, she began to diversify the range in
thousand baht to be delivered within a month. order to spread risk, making items as varied as
I didn’t accept it, because it would be too rushed. hospital gowns and elephant sculptures. After
We make what we can.” the government began to provide promotion
for craft industries in the mid 1990s, the
She invested to make sure her employees were number of her products expanded from a
content, as they were crucial to the enterprise’s hundred to a thousand.
ability to diversify while retaining quality.
Employees were offered interest-free loans, and Sa production depends heavily on nature. After
encouraged to participate in daily savings some chemical dyes resulted in sickness among
schemes. the workforce, Fongkam innovated to replace
chemicals with natural products. Even when
Gradually the products found markets outside demand increased, the company stuck to
of Thailand. Fongkam began to export. This was manufacture by hand and refused to install
difficult at first because of language barriers, machinery. Productivity was increased by
but Fongkam was helped by her own clients. innovations developed within the company.

Box 3.9 Profit and principle
In 1985, Wisut Withayathanakorn inherited his family vegetable oil business, which had around
3 10–15 percent of the Thai market. He had started working in the family business after graduating
from vocational school. Even after taking on management responsibility, he continued to find
time to continue his education. Eventually he acquired two bachelor degrees, an MBA and a
Master’s in political science. He noted:
“The world is changing all the time, so I need to update my knowledge all the time. Everything is
related and integrated. Nowadays, people think and act in disconnected ways. When solving one
problem, they create others. We need to know more in order to manage better.”
From the beginning, he determined to take an ethical approach to business.
“I think our lives are a mix between the dhamma path and the capitalist path. In business
management, I use the capitalist way. But in managing the people in my business, I prefer to take
a dhamma way. If we just take the capitalist way all the time, it creates all sorts of problems
because it’s based on infinite greed… Accumulation is useless. We can’t take it with us when
we die.”
These principles dictated his approach to managing the business. He distinguished between
maximum profit and appropriate profit.
“Conventional businesses aim at maximizing profit, but this is risky and likely to create problems.
If we know what is enough, what is an appropriate profit, then the risks are much reduced.”
Maximum profit required a higher degree of exploitation – of employees, of customers and of
other stakeholders. Beyond a certain return, Wisut believed the surplus should be reinvested in
improving the product for the customer, upgrading the skills of the workforce, providing social
contributions for the community and environment, or giving better margins for his suppliers
and other stakeholders. Wisut founded a club for entrepreneurs and executives with goals of
education and social contribution.
His approach to business decisions was cautious. He avoided the temptation to take foreign loans
to finance rapid expansion. As a result, he survived the 1997 crisis with little difficulty.
Over two decades, production capacity expanded six times, sales multiplied ten times, and
the market share grew to 50 percent. Today his company is the acknowledged leader of the
vegetable oil industry. Wisut is a vice-president of the Chamber of Commerce, and has been
honoured for his social contributions.
“In life, sufficiency is insurance against taking risks. If we know what is enough, then we won’t
think in a careless way. If we are not urged on by greed, we are more clear-headed. This is so
important for sustaining life.”
The company devised a simple but effective around 400 people from neighbouring
system of managing waste water to ensure there communities, and exports 80 percent of its
was no pollution of rivers. The resulting water production. The business has survived and
was good enough for raising fish, and caused prospered despite small beginnings, high
no smell or other pollution. Later Fongkam competition and many barriers.
got technical help from a local institute to
generate heat by recycling gas produced as a Fongkam has always thought long-term. She
by-product. has regulated the pace of expansion by the
availability of capital, labour and natural
Throughout, Fongkam conducted her business resources. Growth has come from inside, from
by a strict ethical code. She believed that any development of people and techniques.
underhand practice would ultimately be bad for Fongkam has paid attention to her
the business. stakeholders including suppliers, employees,
customers and the local community. She has
From very small beginnings, Fongkam’s shown great respect for nature, which is the
traditional paper business expanded slowly foundation of the business. She has in
but securely over forty years. It now employs particular valued her own staff whose skill and

creativity are the core of the business. She has inside and outside the enterprise, and shares
built resilience into the business by careful knowledge and experience across the world.
expansion. The 1997 crisis created no problem
since the business had no debt. Pranda Jewelry was caught with foreign
exchange exposure in the 1997 crisis and had
3
Gilding a reputation to enter debt restructuring. Now the company

takes care to hedge its foreign exchange risks.
Jewelry is one of Thailand’s principal exports.The
world market is not only highly competitive, but Preeda gained a worldwide reputation as a
very volatile because of changes in consumer straightforward businessman. The company
tastes. Companies can achieve quick success and has grown steadily over thirty years with not a
also rapid failure. Risk is high because of large single year of decline, even during the economic
capital costs. Corporate turnover is also high. crisis. Pranda now employs 3,500 people in
twelve company groups both within Thailand
Pranda Jewelry was founded in 1973, and has and overseas.
grown steadily for over thirty years. Much of the
success can be attributed to all-round good
Learnings
management including smart marketing,
innovation, attention to customer satisfaction In their different ways, these enterprises have
and financial prudence. But Pranda’s success also achieved considerable success. What are the
has some other, more interesting aspects. common elements?
The company began at a relatively modest size. Moderation

The founder, Preeda Tiasuwan, always aimed
■ They had a long-term perspective and
for “balanced growth” rather than breakneck
were not tempted by more risky routes to
expansion. The company focused on expanding
short-term gain.
one overseas market at a time, beginning with
the UK and eventually servicing forty countries. ■ They believed in extracting a normal or
Preeda believed in fair risk and normal profit. appropriate level of profit so that any
He also paid attention to all his stakeholders surplus could be used in other constructive
including employers and customers, but ways.
especially business partners:
■ They grew by stages, based on appreciation
of their internal capacities.
Is it right to squeeze our partners, making them
cut costs down to the bone? It’s not. You make
Insight
the shareholders happy with the profits made
by sucking the blood out of your partners, but ■ They were very attentive to their
it only works short-term. In the end, your stakeholders including employees, suppliers
partners will collapse and die, and you have to and customers.
find replacements who don’t know what
■ They placed high value on their own people.
your company wants. You have to begin
again. But if you can preserve the old partners
Resilience
by allowing them a suitable profit, then they’ll
feel good about your company and you’ll get ■ They were attentive to managing risks.
benefit from them.
Knowledge
He worked hard at building long-term
■ They grew by developing their internal
relationships with suppliers and trade partners
capabilities, especially the skills of their
by mutual benefit-sharing. He was meticulous
employees.
about paying taxes and working within the law.
Preeda developed the company by using key
Integrity
performance indicators and feedback from
stakeholders. ■ They conducted their business ethically with
due regard for their impact on society and
Preeda began to work with Social Venture environment.
Networks, an international non-profit
■ They invested in projects of corporate social
organization. The network’s watchword is
responsibility.
“healthy communities, human spirit, and high
returns.” It promotes an approach to business
What can be done to translate these and other
which values all stakeholders, pays attention to
learning arising from the Sufficiency Economy
the environment, adopts ethical practices both
approach into tools which help other businesses
to enjoy similar success?

Visioning business with the Business strategy and planning
Sufficiency Economy
One approach to strategic management which
Business is the pursuit of profit. Without a has become very popular since its introduction
3 positive bottom line, a business will not survive. in the early 1990s is Kaplan and Norton’s
But as business has become more complex Balanced Scorecard. This technique broadened
with scale, global competition and accelerating the criteria for assessing a company’s
technological change, so also the notion of performance beyond mere financial
business profit has become more complex. performance by adding three other elements:
a qualitative assessment of internal business
To begin with, the idea of business profit has processes; an assessment of the company’s
a component of time. Most firms are not ability to learn and grow; and an evaluation of
interested only in their immediate returns, but its relationship with its customers. In essence,
also in sustained growth and continuing profits this technique was a device for encouraging
in the future. In addition, the number of factors companies to take some of their focus off the
which affect profits have multiplied. Sales, costs short-term profit-and-loss statement, and to
and the price of money are only a few. Some of assess how well it was building foundations for
the biggest companies in the world have future profit through internal processes and its
disappeared almost overnight because of key relationship with its customers.
ethical failures. Some have been crippled
because they are perceived as socially Another set of theories arose out of the
irresponsible or environmentally dangerous. growing importance for corporations to
Meanwhile others prosper in part because of conform to law and regulation. At their simplest,
the good will of their customers and other these theories were designed to protect the
stakeholders. interests of minority shareholders. At their
more complex, they aimed to import the whole
Corporations understand that long-term notion of good governance into the corporate
success depends on much more than financial world – honesty, the rule of law, transparency
performance. Successful European corporations, and accountability. Many firms have committed
particularly those from the Rhineland area, pay to codes of corporate governance.
increasing attention to their interaction with
society. A business theorist (Avery), who Thus far, these business theories still
analysed the success of long-established concentrated closely on the internal workings
European companies like Novartis, BMW, Allianz of a business and its transactions with two
and Porsche, concluded that sustainable major outside parties, customers and
enterprises must pursue five goals: government. However, from the 1980s, theorists
introduced the concept that businesses had a
■ operate under a long-term perspective
very wide range of stakeholders who had a claim
■ really value their people on the firm, and that all of these stakeholders
had full rights to be taken into consideration.
■ genuinely focus on a range of stakeholders
These stakeholders included customers and
(including future generations)
government, but also employees, business
■ embrace ethical, social and environmentally- partners, the community where the business
friendly practices was located, and the society as a whole. Some
theorists also added the business’ own
■ nurture innovation
competitors to this list.
Modern business theories attempt to capture
Finally, theorists have broadened the concept
these various factors affecting business success
of stakeholders to embrace the whole of the
in models that can be used by firms to plan
outside world, and the society of the future. The
effective business strategies, and to evaluate
concept of corporate social responsibility
their own performance. How can the Sufficiency
emphasises that companies have a
Economy approach be built into such models?
responsibility for their impact on the
Let us start by reviewing the state of the art of
environment, on society, on human rights and
modern business strategy planning.
on the well-being of future generations.

Box 3.10 Sufficiency vending
On the front of Pen’s sticky rice stall is a sign: “I’ve made losses but I’ve never given up. Every
drop of sweat is for the kids’ future.” 3
Pen came to Bangkok from upcountry at age 20 with just a lower secondary education. She found

work as a contract seamstress. The hours were long. She didn’t have time for her children. Their
upbringing fell on her aging mother. She drifted into debt.
After seven years, she decided that to regain control over her life, she needed to be more
self-reliant. She switched to vending.
She could use her own knowledge. She had the cooking skills anyway. She knew how to do
accounts carefully to make a profit. Other expenses were minimal. “I chose this lane because we
live here, there’s lots of people, and I don’t have to pay any rent.” She believed in fair practice, and
resisted the temptation to raise prices on festival days for fear it would damage her reputation
and spoil her relations with customers.
“This gives enough to live on and some savings towards buying a house. I don’t want to buy a
mobile phone. It’s a waste. I want my kids to graduate from college. If I have enough money, I’ll let
them study higher. I want them to work in an office, not slave like me.” One daughter is already
at a prestigious pre-university school.
Her debt is almost cleared. “Just let me get rid of the debt, by having just enough, not being
impatient.”
Sufficiency and long-term business It is not difficult to show that the Sufficiency
strategy approach is compatible with this model at all
its levels. A company needs to accumulate
Taken as a whole, these business theories learning and act with integrity. It will benefit
convey the message that a successful business from exercising moderation, insight and
in the contemporary world needs prudence in its relations with its stakeholders,
■ to build internal processes with the and in its management of its impact on the
capacity for expansion outside world.
■ to conform strictly to law and regulation The Sufficiency approach may not add much in
■ to maintain good relations with all terms of the goals of business strategizing. Its
stakeholders value lies in two other areas.
■ to be responsible for its impact on the First it provides a guide for taking decisions that
outside world and future generations will be in line with these goals. The components
and conditions of the Sufficiency approach can
These various areas can be pictured as be used as a yardstick to evaluate strategic
concentric circles (see Figure 3.4). At the centre options and everyday management decisions.
is day-to-day management of profit-and-loss.
Each larger circle adds a further level of Second, it strengthens the corporate
complexity – better business processes, commitment to remain true to its vision and
corporate governance, attention to advertises that commitment in the public
stakeholders, corporate social responsibility – domain. Some companies have been suspected
in recognition of the complexity of the real of professing commitment to corporate
world. The transition from centre to rim is governance and social responsibility as tools of
a passage from short-term profit orientation marketing and public relations, perhaps in
to a comprehensive and balanced strategy for order to mask activities that run counter to
long-term growth.

Figure 3.4 Balanced strategy for long-term growth
3 Sufficiency Economy
corporate social responsibility
employees
cu
or
st
corporate governance
tit
om
pe
er
m
co
s
processes
future generations
environment
government
regulators
long-term
profitability
learning
rs
so
ne
ci
et
rt
pa
y
community
these codes. In principle, a commitment to the Any enterprise which wishes to survive for any
Sufficiency approach is a commitment to ethics length of time needs to broaden its horizon
which precludes such deception. Sharing this beyond its own bottom line. It needs to consider
commitment with employees and other a strategic approach to the changing
stakeholders can help to solidify this environment, its relations with multiple
commitment even further. stakeholders and its place in society. Here the
Sufficiency Economy approach can help. As
In medium to large corporations, the principal the brief summary of the business models
responsibility for making use of these principles above indicates, integrating the thinking of the
will lie with the board of directors. They have the Sufficiency Economy into an enterprise’s
duty of overseeing the quality of day-to-day long-term vision and strategy can help to build
operations including business practices and the inner strength that delivers resilience in a
financial results, and also of evaluating the competitive world.
corporation’s strategy including business
objectives, risk management and corporate
policies. The Sufficiency components and Sufficiency and the national
conditions – moderation, insight, resilience,
economy
knowledge, integrity – can be used to evaluate
both strategy and operations. For example the
What use can be made of the Sufficiency
board may set scopes or limits for key financial
Economy approach in the management of the
performance indicators, or insist on the
national economy?
preparation of fuller plans for risk management.

After the King’s speeches in 1997 and 1998, Thai service ratio below 15 percent; at least 25
economists concluded that the Sufficiency percent of the government budget devoted to
approach was compatible with mainstream capital projects; and a balanced budget by the
economics because it accepted trade and year 2005–6.
globalization, and because it embraced an idea
3
of optimization. Every Thai government since Fifth, research work has begun on the creation

that time has formally espoused the Sufficiency of a national risk management scheme based
Economy as its guiding principle. What on indicators of both the domestic and global
have been the results in the areas of macroeconomy.
management, policy design and overall
development strategy? With these new measures in place, Thailand
recovered much of its reputation for
conservative macroeconomic management.
Building greater immunity into
However, advocates of the Sufficiency
macroeconomic management approach point to two areas where Thailand’s
Thailand had a long history of conservative macroeconomy continues to lack moderation
macroeconomic management founded on a and self-immunity.
fixed exchange rate and fiscal discipline
enforced by a legal cap on government First, domestic savings have fallen, with the
borrowing. However, in the late twentieth consequence of increasing the country’s
century, the adequacy of this approach was reliance on foreign funds. The fall began in the
weakened by the massive expansion of the bubble atmosphere of the mid 1990s,
private sector, liberalization of the financial accelerated during the asset destruction of the
sector in the context of greatly expanded crisis, and was extended by policies to stimulate
international capital flows, and, finally, the end economic recovery by increasing credit. The
of the fixed exchange rate in 1997. In the overall gross savings rate fell from 36 percent
aftermath of the financial crisis, the Sufficiency in 1994 to 30 percent a decade later (see
approach’s emphasis on the need for Figure 3.5).
self-immunity helped to guide a wide-
ranging overhaul of Thailand’s approach to The fall in savings was especially steep among
macroeconomic management. households (8.5 to 4.8 percent over 1993–2004).
The flipside of this decline has been rising
Since then, the system has incorporated several levels of household debt. More households are
new components. First, the floating exchange in debt, and the average amount is much higher
rate has been retained so that the value of the in relation to income. More households have
currency will closely reflect market forces. The inadequate resources to cover their own
central bank undertakes to limit its role to short- investment needs. This reduces the immunity of
term interventions designed to smooth over households to shock. This trend deserves
unusual or irrational short-term movements in special attention in view of the aging society.
the currency’s value. The central bank has to As the workforce shrinks as a proportion of the
resist political pressures to intervene in order to total population, there is a tendency for savings
manipulate the currency’s value in favour of to fall further, and a risk that society will not be
certain groups. able to provide well for its elderly.
Second, as debts had proved the undoing of A second area of weakness lies in energy
countries in the 1997 crisis, and reserves had security – a fact that was driven home by the
served some as a bulwark, the government steep inflation of oil prices in 2006. Thailand is
undertook to reduce overseas debt and to build highly reliant on oil as a source of energy, and
up the foreign reserves to a historic high. is very inefficient in its usage. Artificially low
pricing for energy encourages wasteful
Third, in 2000 the central bank imposed some consumption. The Sufficiency approach
discipline on its own management of interest suggests a need to develop greater self-reliance
rates by adopting the technique of inflation through alternative energy sources and
targeting – setting medium-term goals for the appropriate pricing. Government has dallied
underlying rate of inflation, and then managing with policies to promote solar energy, and more
key interest rates to achieve that goal. recently bio-energy, but these policies have
lacked drive and consistency. The low efficiency
Fourth, fiscal conservatism has been reinforced of energy use is partly a function of the
by retaining the old practice of keeping industrial structure, but also a result of a highly
government debt below 50 percent of GDP, and energy-wasteful transport system.
adding some extra goals: a government debt

Box 3.11 A model for Sufficiency Economy business tools
How to convert this thinking into a practical business tool? Here we offer a simple four-stage
3 model.
Stage 1: Identify the relevant stakeholders. At a start-up stage of the business, this might
include only internal stakeholders such as employees, executives and shareholders. At a later
stage of business growth, this list might be extended to include external stakeholders such as
customers, partners, communities and society.
Against each set of stakeholders, define strategic objectives which accord with Sufficiency
principles. The result might look something like this:
Internal stakeholders External stakeholders
Shareholders Executives Employees Customers Partners

Knowledge ■ Full ■ Good ■ Publish ■ Articulate ■ Mechanism
Integrity compliance corporate company commitment to share
with law governance business and respon- information
and taxation philosophy sibility to
■ Ethical ■ Recognize consumers
investment employees’
criteria rights and
freedoms
Moderation ■ Economic ■ Maximize ■ Balance ■ Focus on ■ Develop

Reasonableness profit rather use of between product long-term
Resilience than internal employee value not relationship
business resources benefit and price and with mutual
profit ■ Growth shareholder margin benefit
■ Reasonable within benefit ■ Spread risk
shareholder means ■ Skill by managing
benefit upgrading product
■ Good risk ■ Full social range
manage- provision ■ Innovation
ment in through
investment constant
R&D
Stage 2: Devise means to measure progress against each of these objectives. This can be done
through a simple form setting out the objective, the item to be measured, and the initiatives or
projects to realize the target.
Objective Measure Target Baseline data Initiatives

Economic profit rather ■ Production (value) (value) (projects)
than business profit volume to
optimize
economic profit
Reasonable shareholder ■ Dividend ratio to (value) (value) (projects)
benefit other companies
in sector
Good risk management ■ Debt ratio (value) (value) (projects)
in investment
Stage 3: Weigh the importance of each of the stakeholders, internal and external, at this stage
of business development. The weights allocated are a function of the management’s own
judgement.

Stage 4: Calculate a Sufficiency Alignment Index, by assigning scores based on the
measurement criteria, and applying the weights for each set of stakeholders (see table following
for an example). 3

Stakeholder Objective Score Weight Index
Shareholders ■ Full compliance with law and taxation 100 100 100
■ Ethical investment criteria
■ etc
Executives ■ Good corporate governance 70 100 70
■ Maximize use of internal resources
■ etc
Employees ■ Publish company business philosophy 50 100 50
■ Recognize employees’ rights and freedoms
■ etc
Customers ■ Articulate commitment and responsibility 40 50 20
to consumers
■ Focus on product value not price and
margin
■ etc
Partners ■ Mechanism to share information 80 40 32
■ Develop long-term relationship with
mutual benefit
■ etc
Communities ■ Awareness of business impact on 20 50 10
community
■ Support local community
■ etc
Society ■ Foster good business practice 10 50 5
■ Act as good citizen
■ etc
Competitors 0 0 0
Totals 490 287
Index (287/490) 58.6
This tool is simply an aid for a company to define objectives for itself which are in line with the
Sufficiency Economy principles, and to measure its own progress towards them. The model needs
to be adjusted to each company’s nature and needs. The important point is that the company’s
operation should be studied within the whole framework of moderation, reasonableness,
resilience, knowledge and integrity. The relative importance of each of these will be different for
each company, and will change over time.
Designing sustainable policies ■ universal health care,

The Sufficiency approach potentially provides ■ rural debt relief and
criteria to help in shaping and evaluating
■ village-level development funds.
government policies. Does the policy follow a
middle path, thus avoiding extremes? Is it
These policies deliver real social benefits and are
well-thought through, consistent, achievable
rightly popular. But advocates of the Sufficiency
and sustainable? Does it increase immunity and
approach have raised concerns whether the
lessen exposure to risk? Will it make individuals,
design of these policies could not be improved.
groups or the whole country stronger and more
In particular, the costs may not be sustainable.
self-reliant?
Two examples that follow will make that point.
Since 2001, government has a put in place
several landmark initiatives in the area of
social provisions:

Figure 3.5 Gross savings as a percentage of GDP, 1995–2004
40%
3
30%
Business
20%
Government
10%
Households
0
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003
Year
Note: Calculated from the Annual Flow Funds accounts, prepared by NESDB
The ‘million baht per village’ fund is intended single government scheme. It has made a
to raise local productivity by making credit major contribution to human development.
much more easily available at the local level.
Hundreds of thousands of households have But the evolution of the scheme contradicts
benefited from the scheme. However, there have many aspects of the Sufficiency Economy
been fears that some portion of the loans has approach. The planning of the scheme was
been used to defray other debts or make rushed. It did not build on developments
consumer purchases, rather than meeting the from within the health care industry. No
original objectives. Critics have accused the comprehensive review was undertaken to
scheme of contributing to the rising level of measure the implications of launching such as
household debt. Unfortunately there has been scheme in parallel with promoting health
no rigorous, independent evaluation of the services as an export item.
scheme.
As a result, the scheme lacks firm foundations.
In the current design of the scheme, placing Funding is inadequate. Administrative systems
controls on the usage of the funds would have needed to be constantly revised. Many
probably be impractical and ineffective. hospitals and doctors have abandoned
Sufficiency thinking suggests an alternative the scheme. In short, the planning and
strategy would be to transform the scheme into implementation lacked moderation and
village banks in which loans are balanced by insight. The result is unsustainable in its present
deposits. This approach would offset any form. Thailand is rapidly evolving a multi-tier
increase in debt by simultaneously system of health care, and the experience of
encouraging savings. It would also be an other countries shows that the lowest tier of
incentive to borrowers to make more such a system will deteriorate over time.
productive use of the funds in order to build
their own creditworthiness. This approach These examples raise questions about the true
would increase local self-reliance, and lower extent of governments’ commitment to the
household exposure to risk. Sufficiency Economy. In principle, there should
be no contradiction between designing policies
Thailand’s universal health care scheme which are popular, and designing policies
introduced four years ago has lifted more that are sustainable and conform to the
people above the poverty line than any other Sufficiency approach.

Box 3.12 The changing economics of development
The approach to economic development theory has changed over recent years, and new
approaches have made the discipline more receptive to the Sufficiency Economy thinking. 3
Early theories of development focused intently on achieving growth of GDP through two main

means. First by overcoming a presumed shortage of capital by raising the rate of savings or by
importing foreign capital. Second by transferring labour from agriculture into activities with higher
productivity, especially industry. The agency for achieving these goals was the state – by
providing infrastructure, setting up incentives, removing market-mechanism barriers and
providing overall coordination.
Over the last decade, a new generation of development economists has supplanted this model.
Their thinking is based on appraisal of what happens in the real world, often employing rigorous
quantitative techniques, rather than the sweeping generalizations of earlier theories.
The learnings are more subtle. Capital is still important, but how and where capital is used has
become more important than its sheer quantity. Productivity is important but can be achieved
in many ways, particularly through the quality of human capital. Government is important but
government has its own interests that are not necessarily best for society. Its decisions can be
motivated more by politics than theory, and often the decisions are wrong. There are many things
that can confound development – such as high transaction costs, weak property rights, incorrect
or incomplete information, misperforming markets and corruption. The market can no longer be
conceived as a self-regulating process because it is distorted by unequal access to information,
by political interventions and by other factors. Government has to create institutions that help
markets to work as efficiently in practice as they should in theory.
In addition, economists have begun to redefine the scope of development. Sustainability has
become so well accepted it is now virtually a given. Environmental concerns can no longer be
ignored. Studies of well-being and happiness have begun to redefine the goals of development
in a potentially radical way.
There has also been a change of attitude towards optimization. Mainstream economics assumed
a choice could be optimized by comparing the effects (utilities) of different options. In truth, that
situation rarely holds because information is never perfect, and because any decision takes
effect in a future that is changed by many other decisions taken in parallel by other actors. As
a result, economists have attempted to theorize about decision-making under situations of
uncertainty. An important contribution by Herbert Simon argued that because of “bounded
rationality” (roughly, imperfect ability to understand the true situation), it made more sense to
take decisions that delivered a known satisfactory outcome, rather than a theoretically best
possible one. This thinking closely parallels the idea of a middle way based on appraisal of the
best information available.
Making Sufficiency the guiding principle adopted the Sufficiency Economy approach,
of development strategy but implementation was still hindered by the
lingering aftermath of the crisis. Most of the
The vision for Thailand’s Tenth Five-year Plan quantitative targets were met, but qualitative
(2007–2011) is built around the Sufficiency goals in the areas of society, community and
Economy approach. This has resulted in a more culture were forsaken.
comprehensive strategy than in other recent
plans with similar objectives. In part this happened because the economic
and social components of these two Plans were
Thailand’s plans are indicative documents, and not well integrated. Particularly in the Eighth
implementation is always spotty at best. The Plan, an ambitious social programme sat
Eighth Plan (1997–2001) aimed to change the rather uneasily alongside a conventional
priorities in economic policy from growth macroeconomic plan. In the Tenth Plan, the
to social development, but after the 1997 Sufficiency Economy thinking is used to provide
economic crisis, the Plan’s vision was overtaken a more integrated and coherent framework.
by short-term focus on survival. The Ninth Plan
(2002–2006) restated the vision and formally

Box 3.13 Sufficiency in government service
When I was in a senior position in the public health ministry I had the opportunity to make
3 hidden benefits from signing off on purchasing and contracting. But I never did it. It depends on
the individual. If you don’t get involved, they leave you alone. I have to give credit to my wife too.
When I was in government service, people came to see her, but she wouldn’t receive them.
Because of this, some people think that my family and I are already well off. In truth, we’re not.
And some people who are well off only want more and more.
My father used the word “corruption” for anything received improperly. My family taught that
there’s nothing wrong with being poor. If we have less than other people, it’s not demeaning.
In the past, people would give blessings to children like “May you grow up to have a lot of people
under you and be rich as a millionaire.” If the children then failed to achieve that, they felt a failure
in life. My father understood this, and wanted to change it. He always said, “May you be a good
person for society. Don’t create difficulty for the society and yourself. May you be healthy and
content as appropriate.”
Dr. Witoon Saengsingkaew, former health administrator (adapted from Praew Magazine, 25 December 2005, p. 252.)
The process of developing the Tenth Plan, as in make people the centre of development; to
the two previous instances, involved a lengthy invest in building people’s capabilities; to
consultation with a wide array of institutions create a fairer institutional environment, in
and social groups. More than on previous which everybody can contribute to national
occasions, however, this process was focused on development; and to ensure popular
interpreting what the Sufficiency Economy participation not only in the drafting of the plan
approach meant for national development but also in its implementation.
strategy.
The draft plan summed up the strategy as,
The planners concluded that the principle of
reasonableness dictated a need for great care in …drawing on knowledge, integrity and
appraising the true situation of the country, both perseverance, and following the principles
internally and externally, so that development of moderation, reasonableness and self-
strategy would draw on the country’s assets and immunity, in order to respond well to change
potential, fulfil social needs and be consistent and globalization and to move towards an
with external circumstances. Previous plans ideal of a ‘society of sustainable happiness.’
delivered high growth with many benefits,
but also resulted in massive environmental The strategy to achieve all of these aims is to
destruction, gaping inequities, major social concentrate attention on the country’s internal
problems and increased exposure to external resources – its people, natural environment,
shocks. social capital, culture, institutions and business
assets – rather than looking primarily for
The planners interpreted the principle of assistance from outside. The Tenth Plan aims to
moderation as pointing to a need to strike make the usage of all of these various internal
a balance between self-reliance and resources more efficient and more sufficient.The
competitiveness, between assigning resources result of this strategy will be greater self-reliance,
to strengthen the social foundations, especially more sustainable growth based on the
in rural communities, while at the same time country’s true competitive advantage, and more
investing to ensure Thailand’s businesses equitable sharing of social benefits.
improved their competitive advantage in the
world. This strategy is broken down into five main
programmes. The first of these programmes
The need for self-immunity was interpreted to aims to develop the quality of people through
mean building internal strengths at every level reforms of education and training, more
from the individual through the community to investment in research and expertise, and
the nation in order to cope with external better health care.
changes, pressures and shocks.
The second lays out plans for strengthening
And finally, the underlying conditions of local communities to provide a stronger social
knowledge and integrity dictated a need to foundation and greater equity.

The third and most wide-ranging segment of In line with Sufficiency thinking, the Plan
the plan envisages a major overhaul of the concentrates on processes as well as objectives,
economic structure to improve the usage of all and lays out an array of performance targets
kinds of resources. This includes changing the which go beyond the conventional economic
tax and investment structure for business, dimensions to include measurements of income
3
mobilizing under-utilized government assets inequality, education provision, health care and

including land, extending social security, many other social indicators.
improving savings through a national pension
fund, giving more independence to the central As this Report is written, the Sufficiency
bank, upgrading infrastructure and logistics to Economy approach has served as the guiding
improve competitiveness, improving efficiency principle for a coherent strategy with insight and
of energy use, undermining monopolies and vision. Whether this plan is more successful than
other distortions that hinder open competition, its two predecessors now depends on how this
and introducing more transparent public-sector thinking is translated into concrete strategies,
accounting. and how those are implemented.
The fourth segment lays out plans to revive the

Sufficiency and governance in public
environment and protect bio-diversity through
various measures including tax disincentives.
services
The fifth and final segment aims to extend good The fifth segment of the plan addresses the
governance through legal reforms, further issue of good governance in public services. This
decentralization, increased popular section acknowledges that the effectiveness of
participation and the promotion of democratic government strategies is critically affected by
culture. the quality of public servants. This agrees with
the emphasis that the new development
This plan lays out the biggest shift in Thailand’s economics places on corruption and related
economic orientation in over two decades. forms of government failure. It also agrees with
It hopes to achieve this by relying less on the Sufficiency approach, which has ethical
government and more on public participation. practice as a precondition for any successful
The Plan identifies four main sets of endeavour. Corrupt governments are rarely
stakeholders – government agencies, business successful at delivering balanced and
networks, local communities and families. The sustainable development.
planning agency intends to work with all of
these to inculcate Sufficiency thinking, and King Bhumibol has repeatedly spoken on the
create demand for implementation of the importance ethics as a precondition.
Plan’s programmes.
Box 3.14 Education for development

From the start of his reign, the King actively promoted education as one aspect of development
that benefits not only the individual, but also the community and the nation as a whole. Projects
ranged from funds for the temple schools that served the poor, through to scholarships for the
brightest students to study at tertiary level in Thailand and overseas. In 1969, he initiated a project
to develop Thai-language junior encyclopedias for different branches of knowledge. Now, 24
volumes are distributed to schools and public libraries.
The King also understood the importance of non-formal learning and exchange of information.
He promoted construction of small multi-purpose halls where villagers, monks and government
officials could meet informally to discuss local affairs.
“Education is a major factor to create and develop a person’s knowledge, ideas, behaviour and
merit. Any society and country should provide good, complete and well-balanced education,
covering all aspects for the youth so that the society and country will have qualified citizens. They
will be able to sustain the country’s prosperity and to develop the country progressively.” (27 July
1981)

Box 3.15 Sufficiency curriculum
The lower-primary level trains children to adopt a Sufficiency Economy approach in their daily
3 lives in the home.
G1: self-reliance in daily life; sharing with family and friends; saving
G2: economical spending; analysing family expenses; reducing expenses

G3: being helpful and generous; sharing money and goods
The upper-primary level moves on to applying the principles at school.
G4: surveying household accounts; cooperative projects
G5: applying Sufficiency principles at the school
G6: analysing the application of Sufficiency at school
The lower-secondary level progresses to applying Sufficiency principles in the community.
G7: Analysing the community’s history, status, social capital, and current problems;
applying Sufficiency methods to solve those problems
G8: Applying cooperative principles in daily life; participating in a cooperative store;
identifying a community cooperative project
G9: Applying Sufficiency principles in community development
Finally at the upper-secondary level, the focus switches to the national level.
G10: Study of the concepts in the Royal Projects and King’s speeches
G11: Understanding Sufficiency in economic and social development
G12: Application of Sufficiency principles in various sectors
A country has both good and bad people. (Speaking to provincial governors on
Nobody can make everybody good. Ensuring 8 October 2003, as reported by Dr. Sumet
a country is in a normal state of peace and Tantivejkul, Thai Rath, 21 March 2004)
stability is not a matter of making everyone
good, but of supporting the good people to But recently it was revealed that 10 billion baht
govern the country, and preventing the bad had gone missing from budget funds. Senators
people from having the power to create have complained that bribe-taking is rampant
turmoil. among their colleagues. Suwarnabhumi Airport,
(Siracha, 11 December 1969) the biggest infrastructure project in recent
years, has been plagued with accusations of
You must always act in a way that is seen to corruption.
be correct, because if people work without
sincerity, matters deteriorate, and ethical The fifth component of the Tenth Plan aims to
standards decline away until they disappear improve the working culture of the bureaucracy,
completely. If you dare to act correctly, it will upgrade ethical standards, ensure compliance
serve as an example which encourages all with legislation to give citizens freedom of
intelligent people to be determined to act in access to information, improve procedures for
the same way. bidding on government contracts, and enforce
more transparency in budget allocation.
(Chulalongkorn University, 15 July 1971)
If you are dishonest, may you go to hell in the

future. This is a crude way of putting it, but Sufficiency Economy and education
necessary. If you are honest and committed to The Sufficiency approach is a guide for living –
development, may you live to be a hundred a guide to taking the small decisions of
years old and be strong in your old age. an individual’s everyday life, and the national
Honesty will enable Thailand to escape decisions over the economy. For the Sufficiency
dangers, and prosper within ten years. The key approach to become part of the culture of
point is to uphold honesty and never be everyday life, it must settle into the mindset of
dishonest at all. people as something as natural as doing
arithmetic or riding a bicycle. For this to happen,
education is crucial.

Recently, there has been a systematic attempt and other activities to provide the school with
to integrate the Sufficiency Economy thinking necessities. This project not only reduces the
into the school curriculum at every level. The aim costs of running the schools and earns money
is to teach children from an early age how to be for the students’ families but also acts as
self-reliant and live a balanced life so that they practical education in the values of the
3
can contribute to society and cope with changes Sufficiency Economy.

in the globalized world. This teaching is
distributed across the curriculum in four three- Another scheme has been launched to provide
year sections (see Box 3.15). children with training in the use of computers
and the Internet without incurring the costs
A large part of the teaching is practical and this would normally imply. The project solicits
participatory. Children at the lower-primary donations of computers from the public, and
level learn how to keep their own income- teaches children usage of the Internet offline
expenditure balance sheets as a tool to make through the use of specially prepared content
better use of their money and time. Later they discs. This avoids not just the cost but often the
take part in savings schemes, projects to learn practical impossibility of setting up an Internet
the value of frugality through recycling items connection in the remote areas where some of
used at school, and growing garden vegetables these schools are located.
for use in school meals.
One major problem of the Thai educational
At secondary level children work on community system is providing good-quality teaching in
development projects, take part in activities at rural schools that have fewer students and
the local temple or mosque, and develop hence fewer teachers. In 1995, a project was
projects to promote local wisdom, conserve begun to overcome this problem at reasonable
local historical sites, and sustain the inheritance cost by exploiting the modern technology of
of Thai culture. A special emphasis is placed on satellite broadcasting. The live programming is
local projects for environmental conservation. filmed in a school on the premises of the
Klaikangwon Palace in Hua Hin. Thirteen
In 2004, children from all schools and all satellite channels are used for simultaneous
levels were invited to participate in an essay broadcast of twelve grades of primary and
competition on the topic, “Examples of secondary schooling, and one channel of
sufficiency economy applications that I know.” vocational, community and university
This project revealed that most children education.
understood Sufficiency only within the limited
concept of the model self-reliant farm. As a By 2004, 8,140 schools, around one quarter of
result, another competition was devised for the total, had been connected to the system.
teachers or pupils to develop teaching tools to In addition, the programming is made freely
improve the understanding of the Sufficiency available on the Internet. Participating schools
discipline in its broader aspects. are supplied with course manuals, and hook-ups
via phone and fax. The courses go beyond the
To teach Sufficiency principles in the most normal school curriculum to include more moral
effective way, the school itself needs to be an education and extra subjects of vocational
environment where those principles are at work. training in agriculture and industry.The King has
From October 2006, teachers, school directors provided scholarships for the best graduates
and local education officials from all over the of the programme to continue to tertiary level.
country will be involved in training on The technology has been transferred into
integrating Sufficiency principles not only into neighbouring countries through training
the curriculum but also into the management courses and gifts of equipment. The principle of
of the school. distance learning has also been extended
through international hook-ups for teacher
Experiments on integrating the Sufficiency training.
Economy into the way that schools are run has
already begun in welfare schools that provide These initiatives in integrating Sufficiency into
children of poor families with a free education, education are either experimental or at an early
including accommodation, food and clothing. stage. Their future success will depend crucially
Under the auspices of Princess Sirindhorn, these on the extent to which teachers and school
schools have launched a programme to make administrators truly embrace Sufficiency
the schools more self-reliant. The students principles.
engage in planting vegetables, raising poultry

Box 3.16 Model schools
Certain schools across the country have been selected as pilot projects for more intensive
3 application of Sufficiency principles.
Chamathewi School, Lamphun, has an integrated learning project on Sufficiency living.
Kanchanapiset School, Phetchabun, has an experiment in school banking.

Ban Kutchiang Mi School, Yasothon, is practising bio-agriculture to supply school meals.
Ban Laokokhongsawang School, Khon Kaen, has a cooperative project.
Makut Raachakuman School, Rayong, has an environmental management project in a local river
basin.
Chulabhorn Ratchawittayalai, Phetchaburi, is developing a botanical garden to raise community
income.
Ratwinit School, Bangkok, has a project on conserving Thai culture and way of life.
Thai Rath Wittaya, Ranong, is studying the environment for sustainable agriculture.
Kalayani Si Thammarat School, Nakhon Si Thammarat, is developing an integrated curriculum
based on Sufficiency principles.
Wat Kho Suwanram School, Bangkok, has a model integrated farm with rice, herbs and poultry.
Borom Rath Rangsan School, Bang Bon, has a model farm, vetiver grass planting and fisheries
project.
Khlong Phittayalongkhon School, Bangkhunthian, is breeding shellfish.
Conclusion: Sufficiency Economy companies, ranging from small family firms to

large conglomerates, have already made this
at work
discovery. Work is now under way to translate
these insights into tools that are appropriate
Ideas similar to the Sufficiency approach have
for the culture and practice of business.
had growing appeal to Thailand’s small farmers
over recent decades, as they realize their
The Sufficiency Economy now serves as a
vulnerability within the context of globalization.
mission statement for the nation. At the
The shock of the 1997 crisis spread similar
individual level, Sufficiency thinking is being
awareness much more broadly within Thailand.
integrated into the school system. At the macro
level, it is being used to guide the strategy
The long story of the Inpaeng network illustrates
for economic and social development
the core truths of the Sufficiency approach. You
planning. When translated into the world of
need a firm foundation before you build up. You
macroeconomics, the key elements of
must proceed with caution and care, learning
moderation, insight and resilience translate
at every stage. The Inpaeng case also illustrates
into clearer thinking about competitiveness,
that the Sufficiency approach is dynamic. One
sustainability and risk management.
stage leads to another with no need for a limit
or ceiling. On this basis, the communities in this
For the Sufficiency approach to have its full
traditionally poverty-stricken area have been
effect, it must find a place in the mindset of
able to overcome their problems and find a
the people. Sufficiency is now taught across the
more comfortable place in the world.
curriculum of primary and secondary schooling,
and Sufficiency principles are being applied to
The same basic principles are as applicable
the management of schools.
to the firm as they are to the farm. Several

4
Sufficiency Going Forward
4
The Sufficiency Economy is a movement that Sufficiency Economy and Human

has appeared in Thailand over recent years. It
Development
has been articulated and promoted by the
country’s monarch, King Bhumibol Adulyadej,
The UNDP’s agenda of Human Development
but has taken root because it aligns with a long
and the thinking behind the Sufficiency
history of community-based thinking on
Economy share a lot of common ground.
alternative development. The objective of the
Both place people firmly at the centre of
movement is to change the direction of thinking
development. Both emphasize that
and practice on development.
development is a process of equipping people
with the opportunities to improve themselves
The Sufficiency Economy is not a theory about
and realize their own potential in order to live
how the economy of a country works. Rather, it
full, creative lives with freedom and dignity. Both
is a guide to making decisions that will produce
approaches assume that development has to be
outcomes that are beneficial to development.
sustainable, equitable and respectful of the
natural environment.
From the perspective of the Sufficiency
Economy, development is a process of building
But Sufficiency Economy deepens and
self-reliance as a secure foundation for the
complements human development thinking
future. Sustainable development is a gradual
in two key ways.
process, which proceeds by stages and is driven
largely, but not exclusively, by an internal
First, the Sufficiency Economy offers a process,
dynamic.
coded into three simple principles, which can
be used for analyzing situations, identifying
To achieve this form of development requires
objectives, setting plans and taking decisions
the application of three main principles in
that will achieve sustainability, health,
assessing opportunities and taking decisions:
longevity, learning, empowerment and well-
■ choose a middle path, seeking moderation being. These principles are applicable at any
and avoiding extremes; level. They can be applied to the management
of a small farm, the running of a business, or the
■ apply insight, understanding well the
drafting of a national plan.
background of any action and its
consequences; and
Second, the Sufficiency approach places
■ be aware of risks and the need to build in greater emphasis on mental and spiritual
resilience. development. Indeed, it contends that mental
or spiritual development is integral to all kinds
Pursuing this path requires a commitment to of development. Practitioners must be
knowledge and learning; a high level of committed to learning, have a high level of
integrity and sincerity; and a capacity for integrity and be able to persevere. Adopting
tolerance and perseverance. the Sufficiency approach is a form of discipline
that brings its own reward. At the level of
Sufficiency thinking is rooted in Buddhist the individual, it develops mental and spiritual
thinking about the nature of humanity, but capacity. At the level of organizations, it
these ideas are not exclusive to Buddhism, and cultivates a culture of ethical and
find echoes in humanist ideas found in most compassionate behaviour.
religions about the perfectibility of man, the
importance of compassion and the benefits of
self-discipline.

Six messages for taking Poverty alleviation and rural development are
inseparable from the environment and natural
Sufficiency forward
resources, which are of critical importance in
building self-reliance. Care for the environment
The Sufficiency approach originated in the
should follow Sufficiency principles.
context of rural development, but is not limited
Conservation projects should be low-cost, non-
to that realm. The principles can be applied in
many different contexts to avoid unbalanced
intrusive, and careful to respect the complex 4
inter-connections within eco-systems. As far as
growth, to advance human development, and

possible they should rely on natural processes,
to guard against the threats and dangers of
but borrow technology where appropriate. In
globalization. From the analysis of the
several Thai communities that follow the
application of the Sufficiency Economy in this
Sufficiency thinking, this approach to the
Report, six key messages emerge. These
environment is an integral part of local planning.
universal messages are presented here along
with some key action points for Thailand today.
Any development should build greater
immunity against the risk of future shocks. The
1. The Sufficiency Economy is central poor have often become poor or remain poor
to alleviating poverty and because they are vulnerable to crises of all kinds,
reducing the economic from family disasters to global instability. The
vulnerability of the poor. liberalization of markets and advances in
communication technology mean that
The Sufficiency approach directs attention away disturbances arising in the international
from large-scale, capital-intensive projects that economy are larger and more sudden than
often bring more benefits for politicians and before. The Sufficiency approach is not a
contractors than for the supposed beneficiaries. withdrawal from globalization, as this is
Large dams and similar projects are no impractical and would forsake benefits along
substitute for projects that work closer to the with risks. Rather, Sufficiency aims for a more
ground and involve the community and the prudent balance between local and global
household. agendas so that the impacts of outside shocks
are manageable.
The key to development is the pursuit of greater
self-reliance. This is a powerfully simple idea, but Action points:
one that is sometimes easy to misunderstand. It
does not mean seeking independence from the ■ Make the Sufficiency approach central to
market or other outside linkages, but having government anti-poverty policy through
greater relative reliance on one’s own resources. schemes to build local capacity for self-
In some cases, this may mean higher reliant production, disciplined expenditure
dependence on own production at the and prudent risk management.
household or community level. But this is not
■ Provide the landless and land-poor with land
universally the case. More often, it means greater
from the extensive reserves of land that
dependence on the knowledge, capital,
is unused because of ownership by
resources and other assets of the household or
government agencies, encumbered by legal
community rather than dependence on the
process, or other reasons.
outside.
■ Implement the community control over
With the idea of self-reliance comes the idea of local resources that was promised in
growth by stages, powered, as far as possible, the 1997 Constitution by passing the
by the internal dynamic of accumulating community forestry bill and other enabling
knowledge, capital and other capabilities. Don’t legislation.
run before you can walk. Don’t overstretch
■ Ensure development spending is not
resources. Learn continuously. In short, apply the
skewed to certain provinces with political
principles of moderation, insight and resilience
clout, but is equitably distributed, targeted
at every stage.
at areas of real need, and used more
creatively.

Box 4.1 The rewards of perseverance
At the same time he was articulating the Sufficiency Economy, King Bhumibol published an
adaptation of Mahajanaka, one of the Jataka tales about the previous lives of the Buddha.
In a quest to better himself quickly, a young prince undertakes a highly risky business venture.
4 He is shipwrecked and his companions all perish. However, he sets out to swim towards an
impossible landfall. After several days without sight of land, a goddess challenges him to give up,
but he replies:
“Any individual who practises perseverance, even in the face of death, will not be in any debt to
relatives or gods or father or mother… Any enterprise that is not achieved through perseverance
is fruitless; obstacles will occur… Anyone who knows for sure that his activities will not meet
with success, can be deemed to be doomed; if that one desists from perseverance in that way, he
will surely receive the consequence of his indolence… Some people in this world strive to get
results for their endeavours even if they don’t succeed… As for us, we are going to endeavour
further to the utmost of our ability; we are going to strive like a man to reach the shores of the
ocean.”
The goddess decided to rescue him.
2. The Sufficiency Economy is central One major role of community organization is to

to community empowerment and compile, store and share local knowledge and
the strengthening of communities the learning experiences from Sufficiency
as foundations of the national practice. Communities cannot rely on the formal
economy. educational system. As in Inpaeng, communities
need to devise their own institutions for
Greater self-reliance at the community level is passing on knowledge to future generations
the foundation for sustainable growth in the within the community and to outsiders.
local economy. This is true in rural community
networks such as the Inpaeng case where Within the context of the community, some
self-reliant local circuits of exchange provided forms of redistribution and welfare are needed
the springboard for secure and sustainable to aid those who are incapacitated in some
engagement with the outside world. It is equally way through disability, old age, household
true of urban communities, though the details breakdown, natural disaster, lack of access to
are different. Development efforts in poor urban resources, or whatever. But interventions from
communities should focus on promoting outside create a breach with the principle of self-
economic activities that have long-term reliance and may be poorly planned and ill-
sustainability, and on building local capacity targeted. At worst, they become mere hand-outs.
for self-help. Where needed, funds should be channelled
through existing community institutions so
Leadership and organization are critical for the that they strengthen rather than weaken these
success of Sufficiency-oriented communities. bodies.
Religious organizations, of any denomination,
can play important roles in developing values Corporate projects of community development
conducive to a Sufficiency approach. should also be focused on the Sufficiency
Community organizations should be able to strategy of building local capacity and
access the resources made available by self-reliance.
administrative decentralization.

Action points: First, it offers a process for planning and
implementing business strategies with the goals
■ Target community development efforts, of sustainable profit and social responsibility.
urban and rural, towards building capacity The three Sufficiency principles provide an
for self-help and sustainable economic integrated framework for devising strategies
activities that build internal protection against risks,
■ Strengthen community capability to observe proper governance, and are careful of 4
manage finances, and investigate feasibility the impact on community, society and

of converting village funds into local banks environment.
in order to promote savings and nurture a
more sufficient credit culture Second, the Sufficiency approach represents a
level of commitment that goes beyond the
■ Ensure local government bodies provide observance of rules and codes. Major Thai firms
opportunity for community participation have found that building their corporate
■ Facilitate efforts to share learning and best philosophy around Sufficiency principles, and
practice of successful community groups sharing that philosophy with their employees
and networks and other stakeholders creates a culture that is
conducive to long-term corporate success.
■ Replace hand-out policies with schemes that
strengthen communities’ own capacity to
Action points:
provide for all of their members’ needs
■ Incorporate Sufficiency principles into
■ Encourage corporations to support
training for corporate directors and into the
community projects in line with Sufficiency
code of corporate governance enforced by
principles as part of corporate social
the Stock Exchange of Thailand
responsibility
■ Persuade the major business associations to
propagate Sufficiency principles among
3. The Sufficiency Economy takes
their members
corporate responsibility to a new
level by raising the strength of ■ Provide more widespread publicity for
commitment to practices businesses of all sizes that have utilized
conducive to long-term Sufficiency principles in ways that benefit
profitability in a competitive both the business and the society at large
environment. ■ Create an advisory service to help
Today the pursuit of business profit is a lot more corporations align their social projects with
complex than the management of costs and Sufficiency principles
returns. Businesses have to be attentive to a
range of stakeholders ranging from their 4. Sufficiency principles are vital for
employers and customers to the society at large. improving standards of
They have to be acutely conscious of risk in governance in public
a highly competitive and fast-changing administration.
environment. They must answer to oversight by
official agencies and by civil society. In recent Achieving Human Development depends
years, ethical mistakes have wiped out major greatly on the quality of public administration.
companies, and damage to the environment Corruption is an enemy of Human Development.
has crippled others. Corporations need new It weakens the impact of government policies,
disciplines to ensure their profit and growth is and distorts the direction of government
sustainable. strategy. The poor and vulnerable are often
the worst victims of higher costs and poorer
These disciplines have been provided by new services.
codes for risk management, stakeholder
appreciation, corporate governance and This is an area where the Sufficiency conditions
corporate social responsibility. The Sufficiency of ethics and knowledge are of critical
approach is compatible with and supportive importance. The King has constantly spoken on
of these systems, but it also adds two extra the importance of high standards of personal
dimensions. conduct in public administration. Over recent
years, there have been attempts to strengthen
institutions to overcome corruption, but there
is widespread doubt that this has been
successful.

Recent governments have publicly espoused The Sufficiency approach, with its emphasis on
Sufficiency principles, but have failed to explore building inner strength to immunize against
ways to mobilize those principles for improving internal shocks, can serve as a guide to macro
standards of behaviour in public service. policy making in this unstable environment. In
Several things could be done. The institutions Thailand, since the 1997 crisis, the Sufficiency
for monitoring and punishing corrupt practices approach has underpinned a major rethinking
4 need to be strengthened, and the system for of macro policies: reducing exposure to foreign
selecting their members overhauled. The drive debt, enhancing foreign reserves, insulating
to improve ethical standards within the public currency management from political pressures,
services, which has lost its momentum in recent using inflation targeting for disciplined
years, needs to be revived. More space could be management of interest rates, capping
created for civil society to act as a watchdog. government debt, and creating an advance-
warning system for future internal and external
Action points: risks.
■ Find ways to immunize the institutions The Sufficiency approach can also serve as a
that monitor corruption and malfeasance in disciplined process to lend more focus and
public services from political contamination coherence to planning development strategies.
and influence In national planning, social policies may easily
■ Integrate Sufficiency principles into the get detached from economic objectives, and risk
Public Administration Plan, including key being ignored in implementation. Under a
performance indicators used for the Sufficiency approach, people are placed firmly
evaluation of government departments and at the centre of development strategy;
personnel participation is key to implementation;
sustainability and equity cannot be ignored;
■ Create a framework based on Sufficiency and immunity against shock must be integral.
principles for monitoring decision-making The logical consequences of applying
and implementation in public-sector Sufficiency principles to national development
projects is that all of a country’s various capitals and
■ Reform the Freedom of Information Act so resources must be used more efficiently in
that it truly serves its objective of ensuring order to build the inner strengths to manage
that people have access to information. globalization.
Action points:
5. The Sufficiency Economy can
guide national policy to immunize ■ Ensure implementation of Thailand’s Tenth
a country against shocks, to craft Plan fulfils its commitment to the Sufficiency
better policies and to plan Economy, and meets the aspirations of all
strategies for more equitable and who contributed to the drafting
sustainable growth. ■ Initiate policies to reverse the decline in the
The financial crises that affected the domestic savings rate so that the economy
developing world through the 1990s were a is more self-reliant for capital, and
stern warning of the dangers and difficulties in households are better prepared for the
the new era of globalization – a period marked future
by massive and largely unregulated flows of ■ Pursue a more consistent energy policy
private capital. These crises often were major focused on greater self-reliance by
setbacks to human development – slashing accelerating research on substitute fuels and
employment, tipping people into poverty and finding more economies in energy usage
destroying social capital.
■ Further develop the deservedly popular
universal health scheme using Sufficiency
principles to ensure it is efficient and
sustainable

6. Sufficiency thinking demands a Some ways need to be found to give more
transformation of values and a exposure to Sufficiency ideas in the public arena
revolution in the mindset, both while upholding the principles of media
necessary for the advancement freedom. Probably the most important influence
of human development. is the behaviour of role models and leaders
across the spectrum of society from politics to
The impact of the Sufficiency approach over the entertainment, from business to the community. 4
long term depends on embedding the thinking

in the culture of development within the Action points:
country.
■ Upgrade the quality of education, including
The Sufficiency approach begins and ends both content and pedagogical methods, to
with people. They are the agents and the fulfil the key preconditions of knowledge
beneficiaries.That is the approach’s strength, but and integrity for successful operation of the
also its difficulty. As one of the leaders of the Sufficiency Economy
Inpaeng community concluded:“It’s not an easy ■ Expand the application of Sufficiency
job. I know I’ll have to work harder.” Successful principles in the management and
practitioners of the Sufficiency approach seem administration of schools
to share certain personal characteristics. They
like to work hard. They are honest. They enjoy ■ Provide more support for non-formal
learning, experimenting, and cultivating education which responds to the needs of
their own wisdom. They are not especially communities for life-long learning
materialistic and are aware of the need for ■ Explore ways to promote Sufficiency
sustainable consumption. They have high thinking within the mass media including
respect for nature. They exhibit compassion. more airtime for programming with social
In short, they have a particular mindset. content and public participation
In Thailand now, training in Sufficiency thinking ■ Provide social recognition for people in
has been integrated into the school curriculum communities, business, public service, and
from primary to higher secondary stages, with other sectors who act as leaders or role
emphasis on learning from practical experience. models of the Sufficiency Economy
Experiments are under way to extend
Sufficiency principles into the management and
running of schools. These efforts will bear fruit Visionary and courageous
only if they are embraced and “owned” by the leadership
teachers and school administrators.
Leadership is paramount. The Sufficiency
But formal schooling is only one part of a much thinking has been rapidly adopted in Thailand
larger process of education. People learn from because of the strength of Thailand’s movement
their family and from their peers. Their ideas are of community activism.9 Many leaders, thinkers,
formed through their own direct experience, and exemplars exist at all levels. In business too,
and through what they imbibe from media of firms across the spectrum of size have adopted
all kinds. The latter is especially important. With Sufficiency principles because of visionary
technical advances of recent years, information leadership. Within officialdom, some agencies
and entertainment is now available from all over are committed not only to implementation of
the world. The quality of the packaging is all too the thinking but to spreading it more widely
easily mistaken for the quality of the product. within the bureaucracy through example and
The selection of what information is available through osmosis.
is dictated by the forces of a highly distorted
market. The message of Sufficiency is Such leadership needs to be passed on to
competing in a mental marketplace crowded future generations. In both big companies like
with products which may seem more Siam Cement, and rural community networks
glamorous and appealing. like Inpaeng, efforts have been consciously
made to train new leaders for the future
by inculcating not only skills but values, and
by using largely hands-on practical methods
of teaching.
9
See UNDP, Thailand Human Development Report 2003: Community Empowerment and Human Development. Bangkok: UNDP, 2003.

There is no question that the Sufficiency adds nothing to the mental and spiritual
thinking has been taken up in Thailand because capabilities of people.
of the pioneer role of King Bhumibol Adulyadej.
The thinking has arisen out of his own Mindless growth can occur when people are
concern for his people, especially the most pawns in the pursuit of statistics, when they are
disadvantaged; out of his fascination for passive recipients of policy benefits, and when
4 practical experiments; out of his ability to the process of growth fails to develop their
articulate a complex idea in simple principles; knowledge, insight, and confidence to control
and out of his readiness to lend his enormous their own lives.
prestige and personal standing to propel the
movement. He serves as scientist, philosopher, Avoiding mindless growth means paying
advocate, and exemplar. attention to education, but even more it means
cultivating an approach to development in
He offers an example of outstanding leadership which people participate, build their own self-
that might be unique, but is still an inspiration reliance, gain the knowledge and insight to
from which the world can learn. move ahead in stages, and develop themselves
as people in the fullest sense, including their
mental capacity and spiritual well-being.
Avoiding mindless growth
The Sufficiency Economy offers a way to avoid
The 1996 Human Development Report issued mindless growth through application of a set of
a warning “to avoid growth that is jobless, principles which can seem disarmingly simple,
ruthless, voiceless, rootless and futureless.” This but which are rooted in observation of the real
injunction has become one of the clarion calls world, and underwritten by humanist theory.
of Human Development. The appeal of the approach is that the principles
are easy to grasp, but the daunting fact is
In the light of the Sufficiency Economy that the application demands high standards of
approach, it’s time to add another to this list: commitment and integrity. But then, if
mindless growth – where the path of growth development was easy…
Box 4.2 Sufficiency in the mind

In the Mahajanaka story, the prince is rescued by the goddess, and returns to his kingdom to
reign for seven thousand years. One day he visits the Royal Park. At the entrance, there are two
mango trees, one laden with fruit and the other bare. The King tastes a mango from the first tree
and proceeds into the park. People following behind rush to pick the other fruit of the first tree. In
their haste, they break the branches, strip the leaves, and finally uproot the tree through careless
use of an automated harvester.
The King returns and is saddened by the sight. He draws a conclusion: the second tree was better
off for having no fruit.
The King was tempted to renounce all his possessions, including the throne, and seek
enlightenment.
Remembering his promise to the goddess, the King also took two actions before withdrawing.
First, he applied natural methods and technology to revive the first tree.
Second, he also founded an “institute of higher learning” to teach “not only technical knowledge
but also common knowledge, i.e. common sense,” and the virtue of perseverance which he learnt
from his ordeal in the sea.

REFERENCES
Background papers
Works cited
Background papers
Chapter 1:
Parichart Sivalak and Sunantha Netnuj, ‘State of Human Development in Thailand.’
Nattapong Thongpakdee, ‘Discovering Sufficiency Economy (SE) as an Extension of Development

Paradigm towards Sustainable Human Development.’
Chapter 2:
Apichai Puntasen, ‘Human Development through Sufficiency Economy: Lessons from Various
National Economics and Social Development Plans.’
Apichai Puntasen, ‘Application of Sufficiency Economy to National Economic Development and as

a Solution to the Problems of Poverty.’
Sooksan Kantabutra, ‘Sufficiency Economy Philosophy: A Business and Management Perspective.’
Titiporn Siriphant Puntasen, ‘Sufficiency Economy Philosophy and Integral Perspective on Human
Development.’
Chapter 3:
Walaitat Worakul, ‘Case Study on the Application of the Sufficiency Economy Philosophy at
Community Organization Network Level: The Inpaeng Network.’
Priyanut Piboolsravut, ‘Application of Sufficiency Economy Philosophy in Natural Resources and

Environment.’
Priyanut Piboolsravut, ‘His Majesty’s Development Work and the Sufficiency Economy.’
Sombat Kusumawalee, ‘Philosophy of Sufficiency Economy in the Large Scale Enterprise: A Case
Study of Human Capital Management in the Siam Cement Group.’
Sooksan Kantabutra, ‘Sufficiency Economy Philosophy: SME Experience.’
Pipat Yodprudtikan, ‘Sufficiency Economy as a Management Tool in Private Business.’
Michita Champathes Rodsutti, ‘Individual Level Case Studies in Sufficiency Economy.’
Kobsak Pootrakool, ‘Analysis of Self-immunity in the Sufficiency Economy.’
Kobsak Pootrakool, ‘Sufficiency Economy and the Government.’
Priyanut Piboolsravut, ‘Application of Sufficiency Economy in Educational Sector.’

Works cited
Ashvin Ahuja, Thitima Chucherd, and Kobsak Pootrakool. “Human Capital Policy: Building a
Competitive Workforce for 21st Century Thailand.” Bank of Thailand Symposium, August 2006.
Avery, G. C. Leadership for Sustainable Futures: Achieving Success in a Competitive World.
Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA: Edward Elgar, 2005.
Chang, Ha-Joon, ed. Rethinking Development Economics. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Group to Develop the Economic Theory of the Sufficiency Economy. Krop naeo khit thang thitsadi
setthasat pratya setthakit pho phiang (Framework of thinking in economic theory about the
Sufficiency Economy). Bangkok, March 2003.
Karani seuksa chumchon sethakit pho phiang (Case studies of Sufficiency Economy communities).
Bangkok: Subcommittee for the promotion of the Sufficiency Economy, 2004.
Khwankae Vajarodaya, Distance Learning via Satellite: Life-long Learning via Technology since 1995.
July 2004.
Kobsak Pootrakool, Kiatipong Ariyapruchya, and Thammanoon Sodsrichai. Long-term Saving in
Thailand. Bank of Thailand, 2005.
Layard, Richard. Happiness: Lessons from a New Science. New York: Penguin, 2005.
Medhi Krongkaew. ‘The Philosophy of the Sufficiency Economy.’ Kyoto Review of Southeast Asian
Studies, 3, article 292.
Meier, Gerald J. Stiglitz, eds. Development Economics: the Future in Perspective. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2001.
Muscat, R. The Fifth Tiger. UN University Press, 1994.
Niphot Thianwihan, speech at “Economics of Thai Village Community Conference,” 25-26 October
2002.
Niratorn, N., Ngamvittayapong, A. and Rungreukrit, C. Krongkan seuksa sethakit nok phak thangkan
nai khet muang pheu khap khluan sethakit pho phiang (Studies in the Urban Informal Economy for
the Sufficiency Economy Movement). Bangkok: Thailand Research Fund, October, 2005.
Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board. Tua yang setthakit pho phiang thi
khapchao ruchuk (Examples of the Sufficiency Economy which I know). Bangkok: NESDB, 2004.
Office of the Royal Development Projects Board. Alternative Development: Sufficiency Economy.
Bangkok, August 2004.
Phaen phatthana setthakit lae sangkhom haeng chat chabap thi sip pho. so. 2550-2554 (Tenth
national economic and social development plan, 2007-2011). Bangkok: NESDB, August 2006.
Priyanut Piboolsravut. ‘Research Note: Sufficiency Economy.’ ASEAN Economic Bulletin, 21, 1, April
2004.
Rabop kaset insi tam naew thang setthakit pho phiang: thang rot khong kasettakon lae sangkhom
thai. (Organic farming in the style of the Sufficiency Economy: survival route for farmers and
Thai society).
Sachs, Jeffrey. Informing policy choices using the economics of happiness. Transcript, Brookings
Institution, 3 June 2004.
Sooksan Kantabutra. ‘Relating Vision-based Leadership to Sustainable Business Performance: A
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Sufficiency Economy Movement Subcommittee. Pramuan kham nai phraborommarachowat
phrabatsomdt phrachaoyuhua phumiphon adulyadet tang tae phuttasakkarat 2493-2506 khieo
khong kap pratya khong setthakit pho phiang (Collected sayings of King Bhumibol Adulyadej
related to the Sufficiency Economy, 1950-2003). Bangkok, September 2005.
Sufficiency Economy Movement Subcommittee. Muban setthakit pho phiang tua yang (Model
villages for the Sufficiency Economy). Four regional volumes. Bangkok: Ministry of Interior, 2006.
TDRI. ‘The 1999 TDRI Year-end Conference on Sufficiency Economy.’ TDRI Quarterly Review, 15, 1,
March 2000.
UNDP. Thailand Human Development Report 2003: Community Empowerment and Human
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World Bank. East Asia’s Economic Miracle. 1993.

ANNEX I
Human Achievement Index
Assessing Human Development with HAI
HAI methodology and data
HAI 2003 Compared with HAI 2006
The Eight Indices

Health Index
Education Index
Employment Index
Income Index
Housing and Living Environment Index
Family and Communication Index
Transportation and Communication Index
Participation Index
Tables
Table AI.1 Top and bottom ten provinces from HAI 2003 and HAI 2006
Table AI.2 Structure of the Human Achievement Index
Table AI.3 Five best and worst performers on health indicators
Table AI.4 Five best and worst performers on education indicators
Table AI.5 Five best and worst performers on employment indicators
Table AI.6 Five best and worst performers on income indicators
Table AI.7 Five best and worst performers on housing and living environment
indicators
Table AI.8 Five best and worst performers on family and community life indicators
Table AI.9 Five best and worst performers on transportation and communication
indicators
Table AI.10 Five best and worst performers on participation indicators
Table AI.11 Provincial ranking by HAI indices
Figures
Figure AI.1 Health Index
Figure AI.2 Education Index
Figure AI.3 Employment Index
Figure AI.4 Income Index
Figure AI.5 Housing and Living Environment Index
Figure AI.6 Family and Community life Index
Figure AI.7 Transportation and Communication Index
Figure AI.8 Participation Index
ANNEX I
Assessing Human Development with HAI HAI methodology and data
The Human Achievement Index (HAI) is HAI applies the methodology used in the
a composite index developed to assess the calculation of the Human Development Index
state of human development at a sub-national (HDI). 10 For each indicator, the following

level. calculation is used for each province:
Actual value – Minimum value
■ HAI is composed of eight indices, based
on 40 indicators. It follows a human’s Maximum value – Minimum value
lifecycle, starting with the first essential The minimum and maximum values are set for
thing that everyone must have on the first each indicator to serve as “goal post” which
day of life – health – followed by the next covers a range for that indicator in the next ten
important step for every child – education. years. The goal post set for each indicator is
After schooling, one gets a job to secure shown in Table A1.211
enough income, to have decent housing
and living environment, to enjoy family and For some indicators, for example unemployment
community life, to establish contacts and and occupational injuries, the data reflect
communications with others, and, last but “negation in human development.” Hence, HAI
not least, to participate as a member of uses the inverse value (1 – calculated value) to
society. show the degree of progress.
■ HAI is the only human development index HAI does not divide the provinces into
at the provincial level. Although several predetermined groups. It allows the 76
indices have been developed in the past few provinces to fall into individual positions,
years, none provide an overall assessment hence there can be as many as 76 positions on
of the human development situation that each indicator. The variation at the high and
allows for comparison of the 76 provinces. low ends are captured and treated in the
HAI is, therefore, a useful tool for capturing same manner. As a consequence, a very good
disparity patterns at the provincial level to performance on one indicator can offset a very
allow for relevant policy-making and poor performance on another.
effective operational undertakings.
Weighting is not applied at any level of the
■ HAI, as a composite index, provides an calculation. The Health Index is an average of
overall ranking of the provinces, which all seven indicators. Also, all eight indices carry
should be understood as indicative, not equal weight in calculating the composite HAI.
definitive, of levels of overall human
development. HAI uses secondary data that do not require
laborious processing. But the data must have
■ HAI does not count the uncounted. For national coverage with provincial
example, ethnic minorities and non- disaggregation. Several indicators, such as life
registered migrants, especially those living expectancy at birth, were dropped because
and working along the borders, are not provincial data are not available. Most data are
included in official statistics used in these from surveys that are conducted every two to
calculations of HAI. three years. Most administrative data are
updated annually.
Data are certainly much less reliable at the

provincial level, due to small sample sizes for
10
For more details, see UNDP, Thailand Human Development Report 2003.
11
For an indicator that combines two or more incidences, the maximum value may exceed 100 per cent. One example is the
percentage of population affected by flood and/or drought, which is the sum of the percentages of the population affected by
flood and by drought, and may contain duplication.

survey data, 12 inconsistent data collection as the concept and about two thirds of the
methods for administrative data,13 and so on. indicators remain the same, comparison may be
Another caveat is the data coverage. For made at the composite level to show some
example, ethnic minorities and non-registered trends in the overall development pattern.
migrants especially those living and working
along the border are not included in official The rankings did not change much at the top
statistics used in the calculation of HAI. echelon (see Table AI.1). Seven provinces retain
their position in the top ten: Bangkok,
But acknowledging this constraint when using Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani, and Nakhon Pathom
ANNEX I
the data is better than ignoring the data. HAI in Bangkok Vicinity; Rayong, the industrial
will highlight the social and economic disparity, centre of the East; Songkhla and Phuket, the
as well as draw attention to the data needed business and tourism centres in the South.
for monitoring development.
Changes are more noticeable at the lower end.

In HAI 2003, nine out of the bottom ten
HAI 2003 compared with HAI 2006
provinces were from the Northeast. In HAI
HAI is still a work-in-progress, and HAI 2006 2006, only half are in that region. Three of
departs from HAI 2003 for a number of reasons, these were in the bottom ten in 2003: Nakhon
such as lack of up-to-date data or availability of Phanom, Si Sa Ket, and Nong Bua Lam Phu.
new or better data, and change or addition of So too was Mae Hong Son, which is now joined
indicators to address current development by three other northern provinces. Narathiwat,
challenges. Hence, HAI 2006 cannot be in the deep South, is in the bottom ten list for
compared with HAI 2003 index by index. But the first time.
Table AI.1 Top and bottom ten provinces from HAI 2003 and HAI 2006
Top Ten Provinces Bottom Ten Provinces
HAI 2003 HAI 2006 HAI 2003 HAI 2006
1. Phuket (South) 1. Phuket (South) 67. Mae Hong Son (North) 67. Nong Bua Lam Phu
(Northeast)
2. Nonthaburi 2. Bangkok 68. Nong Khai (Northeast) 68. Phetchabun (North)

(Bangkok Vicinity)
3. Chon Buri (East) 3. Pathum Thani 69. Mukdahan (Northeast) 69. Nakhon Phanom
(Bangkok Vicinity) (Northeast)
4. Nakhon Pathom 4. Ayutthaya (Centre) 70. Udon Thani (Northeast) 70. Chaiyaphum
5. Songkhla (South) 5. Nonthaburi 71. Sakon Nakhon 71. Narathiwat (South)

6. Bangkok 6. Songkhla (South) 72. Amnat Charoen 72. Si Sa Ket (Northeast)

(Northeast)
7. Rayong (East) 7. Sing Buri (Centre) 73. Nong Bua Lam Phu 73. Kamphaeng Phet
(Northeast) (North)
8. Lumphun (North) 8. Nakhon Pathom 74. Buri Ram (Northeast) 74. Surin (Northeast)
(Bangkok Vicinity)
9. Samut Songkhram (West) 9. Rayong (East) 75. Si Sa Ket (Northeast) 75. Tak (North)
10. Pathum Thani 10. Samut Prakan 76. Nakhon Phanom 76. Mae Hong Son (North)
(Bangkok Vicinity) (Bangkok Vicinity) (Northeast)
12
The reliability of the provincial survey data is of less concern for simple questions with binary answers such as “Do you have
internet access or not?”, “Have you been sick in the past two weeks?” It is more problematic for questions with a broad range of
possible answers.
13
Among common problems with administrative data are data coverage, biased data collection and reportage.

Table AI.2 Structure of the Human Achievement Index
HAI Indices Components Indicators Min Max
1. Health Index 1. Quality of life 1. Underweight birth (%) 5 25
2. Population with physical 5 45

illness (%)
ANNEX I
3. Population with disability and/ 2 8
or chronic health problems (%)
4. AIDS incidence (per 100,000) 0 65

5. Population with mental illness 0 100
(per 1,000)
2. Health 6. Unhealthy behaviour (%) 15 60

promotion
3. Health 7. Population per physician 600 20,000

infrastructure (persons)
2. Education 4. Stock of 8. Mean years of schooling for 3 12

Index education people aged 15+ (years)
5. Flow of 9. Upper secondary and 15 101

education vocational enrolment (%)
6. Quality of 10. Average score of lower 30 65

education secondary students (%)
7. Educational 11. Lower secondary students 20 60

infrastructure per classroom (students)
3. Employment 8. Employment 12. Unemployment (%) 0 8

Index
13. Underemployment (%) 0 30
9. Labour 14. Employees covered by social 1 125

protection security (%)
15. Occupational injuries 0 100

(per 1,000 workers)
4. Income Index 10. Income level 16. Household monthly income 4,000 30,000
(Baht)
11. Poverty 17. Poverty incidence (%) 0 60
12. Debt 18. Households with debts (%) 20 90
5. Housing and 13. Housing 19. Households living in own 25 100

Living security house and on own land (%)
Environment
Index
14. Basic 20. Households having refrigerator 30 100

appliances (%)
21. Households cooking with gas 10 100

or electric stove (%)

Table AI.2 Structure of the Human Achievement Index (continued)
HAI Indices Components Indicators Min Max
15. Living 22. Population affected by flood 0 120

environment and/or drought (%)
23. Households not affected by 70 100

pollution (%)
ANNEX I
6. Family and 16. Family life 24. Orphans, abandoned children, 0 15

Community Life children affected by AIDS
Index (per 1,000)
25. Working children aged 15-17 0 60

(%)
26. Single-headed households (%) 10 30
27. Elderly living alone (%) 0 14
17. Safety 28. Violent crimes reported 0 85

(per 100,000)
29. Drug-related arrests 15 680

(per 100,000)
7. Transportation 18. Transport 30. Villages with all-season main 25 100

and roads (%)
Communication
Index
31. Vehicle registration (per 1,000) 70 1,100
32. Road surface 0 1

(km/provincial area)
33. Land traffic accidents 10 1,000

(per 100,000)
19. Communica- 34. Households having access to 40 100

tion TV (%)
35. Population having mobile 1 70

phone (%)
36. Population having internet 1 30

access (%)
8. Participation 20. Political 37. Voter turnout (%) 50 100

Index participation
21. Civil society 38. Community groups 4 450

participation (per 100,000)
39. Households participating in 70 100

local groups (%)
40. Participation in social services 0.7 3.9

and unpaid services to other
households (hours/day)

The Eight HAI Indices
Health Index
Health is the most basic component of well mental illness, unhealthy behaviour, and physician
being. The Health Index, constructed from data per population, is meant to capture the overall
on underweight birth, disability and/or chronic quality of physical and mental health, as well as
health problems, physical illness, AIDS incidence, the propensity for future health.
ANNEX I
Table AI.3 Five best and worst performers on health indicators
Underweight Population with Population with AIDS incidence Population with Unhealthy Population per
births (%) physical disability and/or (half year per mental illness behaviour: physician
illness (%) chronic health 100,000) (per 1,000) smoking and/or (persons)

problems (%) drinking (%)
Five best
Maha Sarakham (6.8) Phang-nga (7.3) Yala (2.3) Roi Et, Pattani (2) Sing Buri (18.5) Bangkok
Metropolis (879)
Ranong (7.2) Samut Sakhon (8.6) Phuket (2.8) Yala, Satun, Pattani (22.7) Nakhon Nayok
Uttaradit (5) (1,406)
Roi Et (7.3) Phetchaburi (9.7) Nakhon Si Nong Khai, Nakhon Phang-nga (24.6) Phuket (1,700)
Thammarat (2.9) Si Thammarat,
Phetchaburi,
23 provinces (<0.1) Pathum Thani,
Mukdahan, Nan (6)
Trat (7.4) Yala, Ranong (9.9) Satun (3.0) Phuket, Nonthaburi (24.9) Songkhla (1,738)
Samut Sakhon,
Maha Sarakham (7)
Samut Songkhram, Pathum Thani (10.2) Narathiwat, Chacheongsao, Narathiwat, Chon Buri (1,858)
Nong Khai, Pattani Nonthaburi (3.1) Uthai Thani, Pathum Thani (25.6)
(7.7) Phang-nga (8)
Five worst
Mukdahan (11.1) Uttaradit (31.7) Phrae (6.4) Rayong (15.8) Loei (34) Lamphun (49.6) Nong Bua
Lam Phu (10,811)
Chiang Rai, Chai Nat (36.1) Mukdahan, Nakhon Nayok Lamphun (37) Phayao (49.7) Chaiyaphum
Chiang Mai (11.8) Nong Khai (6.7) (17.3) (10,846)
Lamphun (12.4) Kamphaeng Phet Si Sa Ket (7) Ratchaburi (18.3) Khon Kaen (45) Tak (51.3) Sakon Nakhon
(39.3) (10,967)
Mae Hong Son (18.3) Khon Kaen (41.8) Buri Ram (7.3) Phuket (18.4) Chaiyaphum (46) Nan (52.9) Phetchabun
(11,283)
Tak (20.3) Chiang Rai (42.8) Chaiyaphum (7.7) Ranong (40) Nakhon Phanom, Chiang Rai (57.0) Si Sa Ket (12,210)
Nonthaburi,
Saraburi (52)
Remarks:
■ Provincial data on AIDS incidence from the Department of Disease Control were 10 times smaller than the national estimate, and were considered highly
underreported, but they are useful for gauging geographical distribution.
■ Data on mental illness is, to some extent, biased against provinces with large mental health facilities.

Figure AI.1 Health Index
Rank
1 Yala
2 Pathum Thani
76 3 Pattani
4 Phang-nga
63 5 Satun
49
6 Phetchaburi
65 62 7 Phuket
8 Chon Buri
ANNEX I
66 9 Samut Sakhon
75 69 45 10 Nakhon Pathom
11 Trat
50 12 Chumphon
60 13 Narathiwat
51 54 38 57 14 Samut Songkhram
61
15 Songkhla
68 52 16 Prachuap Khiri Khan
74 67 70 17 Nonthaburi
72 18 Bangkok
48 53 19 Chachoengsao
73 44 20 Nakhon Si Thammarat
59 55 47
37 21 Rayong
33 23 Trang
58 40 46 24 Sing Buri
24 43 64 56 71 25 Krabi
30 39 41
26 Prachin Buri
29
27 Chanthaburi
22 34 28 Samut Prakan
2 26 29 Kanchanaburi
10 17 18
35 30 Suphan Buri
42 9 28 19 31 Surat Thani
14 8 32 Ranong
33 Uthai Thani
6 21 27 34 Nakhon Nayok
35 Sa Kaeo
11 36 Phatthalung
16 37 Nakhon Sawan
38 Udon Thani
39 Ang Thong
40 Lop Buri
41 Saraburi
42 Ratchaburi
12 44 Maha Sarakham
45 Nong Khai
46 Ubon Ratchathani
32 Health Index 47 Amnat Charoen
48 Phichit
■ Very high (0.799 to 0.864) 49 Phayao
50 Uttaradit
■ High (0.736 to 0.799) 51 Sukhothai
52 Phitsanulok
31 ■ Medium (0.663 to 0.736) 53 Phetchabun
4
20 ■ Low (0.626 to 0.663) 54 Loei
55 Yasothon
25
7 ■ Very low (0.523 to 0.626) 56 Surin
57 Sakon Nakhon
58 Chai Nat
23 36 59 Roi Et
60 Nakhon Phanom
61 Nong Bua Lam Phu
5 15 62 Nan
3
63 Mae Hong Son
1 64 Buri Ram
13 65 Chiang Mai
66 Lampang
67 Kalasin
68 Tak
69 Phrae
70 Mukdahan
71 Si Sa Ket
72 Kamphaeng Phet
73 Chaiyaphum
74 Khon Kaen
75 Lamphun
76 Chiang Rai

Education Index
Education enables people to function effectively schooling, upper secondary and vocational
in a society and realize their potential. The enrolment, lower secondary test scores, and
Education Index covers mean years of lower secondary students per classroom.
Table AI.4 Five best and worst performers on education indicators

Mean years of schooling Upper secondary and Average score of lower Lower secondary students
ANNEX I
(years) vocational enrolment (%) secondary students (%) per classroom (students)
Five best
Nonthaburi (10.9) Bangkok (100.5) Bangkok (44.5) Sing Buri (26)

Bangkok (10.8) Sing Buri (85.0) Samut Prakan (44.1) Mae Hong Son,
Phetchabun (28)
Pathum Thani (10.2) Chon Buri (84.1) Nonthaburi (42.3) Trat (30)
Phuket (10) Lampang (82.5) Phuket (41.8) Nan, Uthai Thani,

Lamphun, Yasothon,
Loei (31)
Samut Prakan (9.9) Sukhothai (79.2) Rayong (41.4) Phichit, Mukdahan,

Phatthalung, Chai Nat,
Phrae, Khampaeng Phet,
Kalasin (32)
Five worst
Nakhon Ratchasima, Nakhon Phanom (43.6) Narathiwat (33.9) Songkhla,

Phichit, Samut Songkhram,
Phetchabun (7.1) Krabi (39)
Loei, Mae Hong Son (42.8) Nakhon Ratchasima (33.8) Chumphon,

Ubon Ratchathani (7.0) Samut Sakhon,
Chanthaburi, Trang (40)
Buri Ram, Samut Sakhon (41.7) Sa Kaeo (33.3) Pathum Thani,

Kamphaeng Phet (6.9) Samut Prakan,
Ratchaburi (41)
Chaiyaphum, Narathiwat (35.2) Nong Bua Lam Phu (32.5) Bangkok, Chon Buri (42)
Sukhothai (6.8)
Yasothon (6.7) Phetchabun (15.2) Chaiyaphum (31.9) Nakhon Pathom, Pattani,

Nonthaburi, Phuket (43)
Remarks:
■ The Office of the National Education Council estimated the mean years of schooling for 2005 at 8.5. According to the NSO’s
Labour Force Survey, 3rd Quarter, 2005 data (used to calculate this Index), the mean years of schooling for the population aged
15 or over was 8.2.
■ Upper secondary and vocational enrolment in Bangkok is over 100%. This is a gross, not net enrolment figure. Gross enrolment
rate is calculated from the number of students, regardless of ages that are enrolled at that educational level and the total number
of children in the specific age group – 15–17 years old for upper secondary and vocational level. The calculation for net
enrolment includes only students in that particular age group. A high level of gross enrolment rate is often a result of over-aged
students. But in Bangkok, the over 100% figure is likely to represent out-of-province students who migrate or commute to study
in Bangkok-based schools.
■ The average scores are from the national assessment test administered by the Ministry of Education on students in grade 6
(primary level), grade 9 (lower secondary level), and grade 12 (upper secondary level), randomly selected from all educational
areas. The total number of samples for each level is approximately 175,000. For the lower secondary level, the test includes Thai,
English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies.
■ Ironically, provinces that successfully mobilize students into school face shortage in education infrastructure, while provinces
that have difficulty enrolling students have much less crowded classrooms. The average scores, however, show that crowded
classrooms are not a significant barrier to educational achievement.

Figure AI.2 Education Index
Rank
1 Bangkok
2 Sing Buri
29 3 Nan
4 Phuket
49 5 Chon Buri
6
6 Phayao
14 3 7 Lop Buri
8 Phrae
ANNEX I
28 9 Lamphun
9 8 66 10 Rayong
11 Songkhla
12 12 Uttaradit
69 13 Saraburi
32 45 52 60 14 Chiang Mai
73
15 Chai Nat
62 26 16 Phetchaburi
27 41 30 17 Nakhon Nayok
68 18 Nakhon Si Thammarat
61 76 19 Nonthaburi
74 51 20 Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
54 38 56
55 21 Ang Thong
22 Phatthalung
37 23 Samut Prakan
15 7 70 24 Pathum Thani
2 63 71 65 64 25 Prachin Buri
61 21 13
26 Phitsanulok
58
27 Khon Kaen
20 17 28 Lampang
24 25 29 Chiang Rai
36 19 1
72 30 Mukdahan
48 67 23 40 31 Surat Thani
43 5 32 Sukhothai
33 Satun
16 10 47 34 Trat
35 Yala
34 36 Nakhon Pathom
39 37 Uthai Thani
38 Yasothon
39 Prachuap Khiri Khan
40 Chachoengsao
41 Kalasin
42 Chumphon
43 Samut Songkhram
42 44 Phang-nga
45 Loei
46 Ranong
46 Education Index 47 Chanthaburi
48 Ratchaburi
■ Very high (0.519 to 0.676) 49 Mae Hong Son
50 Trang
■ High (0.493 to 0.519) 51 Maha Sarakham
52 Udon Thani
31 ■ Medium (0.463 to 0.493) 53 Krabi
44
18 ■ Low (0.433 to 0.463) 54 Roi Et
55 Nakhon Sawan
53
4 ■ Very low (0.352 to 0.433) 56 Amnat Charoen
57 Phichit
58 Kanchanaburi
50 22 59 Pattani
60 Sakon Nakhon
61 Suphan Buri
33 11 62 Tak
59
35 64 Si Sa Ket
75 65 Surin
66 Nong Khai
67 Samut Sakhon
68 Kamphaeng Phet
69 Nakhon Phanom
70 Ubon Ratchathani
71 Buri Ram
72 Sa Kaeo
73 Nong Bua Lam Phu
74 Chaiyaphum
75 Narathiwat
76 Phetchabun

Employment Index
Gainful employment does not only provide fundamental basis for security and
a means of living, it also represents a protection. The Employment Index covers
manifestation of people’s capacity to realize unemployment, underemployment, social security
their potential. Employment is also a and occupational injuries.
Table AI.5 Five best and worst performers on employment indicators
ANNEX I
Unemployment Underemployment Social security Occupational injuries
(%) (%) coverage (%) (per 1,000)
Five best

Nonthaburi, Samut
Yasothon (0.03) Samut Prakan (123.8) Mae Hong Son (3.8)
Songkhram (0.0)
Loei (0.05) Nan (0.02) Samut Sakhon (100.3) Maha Sarakham (5.4)
Roi Et (0.11) Chon Buri (0.05) Pathum Thani (86.8) Nakhon Phanom (5.5)
Nakhon Sawan (0.15) Bangkok (0.06) Ayutthaya (79.7) Yasothon (6.5)
Kalasin (0.19) Nakhon Phanom (0.08) Rayong (78.7) Amnat Charoen (7.0)
Five worst
Songkhla (2.41) Satun (4.40) Nong Khai (2.9) Nakhon Sawan (40.8)
Sing Buri (2.66) Mukdahan (5.34) Surin (2.8) Samut Sakhon (46.3)
Khon Kaen (3.01) Si Sa Ket (7.80) Mae Hong Son (2.6) Yala (46.7)
Si Sa Ket,
Chachoengsao (3.13) Krabi (8.60) Samut Prakan (61.8)
Amnat Charoen (1.8)
Amnat Charoen (3.18) Phang-nga (17.41) Nong Bua Lam Phu Phang-nga (86.7)
(1.7)
Remarks:
■ Underemployment is defined as working less than 35 hours/week and willing to work more. Underemployment has been
exceptionally but consistently high in Phang-nga. This may be due to the timing of the data collection. In most parts of the
country, the rainy season is when employment is generally higher and underemployment generally lower than other times of the
year. But in the South, the situation is the opposite, as the rainy season is the low season for both the rubber and tourist
industries. Phang-nga is heavily dependent on these two sectors.
■ Social security coverage is high in industrial areas where most people are employed in the formal sector. The coverage appears
higher than 100 per cent in Samut Prakan and Samut Sakhon due to inconsistencies in the data. The number of workers is taken
from the NSO’s Labour Force Survey while the number of employees having social security is an administrative record from the
Social Security Office.
■ Occupational injuries are unusually high in Phang-nga in 2005, due to the tsunami in December 2004.

Figure AI.3 Employment Index
Rank
1 Samut Prakan
40 3 Samut Sakhon
4 Pathum Thani
12 5 Bangkok
19
6 Rayong
53 20 7 Chon Buri
8 Phuket
ANNEX I
50 9 Prachin Buri
10 37 41 10 Lamphun
11 Yasothon
47 12 Mae Hong Son
34 13 Loei
46 13 31 42 14 Kalasin
28
15 Nonthaburi
43 39 16 Ranong
64 42 49 17 Chaiyaphum
75 18 Nakhon Pathom
63 67 19 Phayao
17 23 20 Nan
27 11 66
48 21 Prachuap Khiri Khan
22 Saraburi
29 23 Maha Sarakham
74 51 24 24 Ubon Ratchathani
73 38 32 54 60 25 Surat Thani
70 59
26 Nakhon Nayok
56 22
27 Roi Et
2 26 28 Nong Bua Lam Phu
4 9 29 Uthai Thani
18 15 5
57 30 Chumphon
36 3 1 68 31 Udon Thani
35 7 32 Buri Ram
33 Chanthaburi
62 6 33 34 Nakhon Phanom
35 Samut Songkhram
61 36 Ratchaburi
21 37 Phrae
39 Phitsanulok
40 Chiang Rai
41 Nong Khai
42 Sakon Nakhon
43 Tak
30 44 Phatthalung
45 Narathiwat
46 Sukhothai
16 Employment Index 47 Uttaradit
48 Nakhon Sawan
■ Very high (0.692 to 0.805) 49 Mukdahan
50 Lampang
■ High (0.66 to 0.692) 51 Lop Buri
52 Trang
25 ■ Medium (0.649 to 0.66) 53 Chiang Mai
76
72 ■ Low (0.626 to 0.649) 54 Surin
55 Satun
71
8 ■ Very low (0.375 to 0.626) 56 Kanchanaburi
57 Sa Kaeo
58 Songkhla
52 44 59 Ang Thong
60 Si Sa Ket
55 61 Trat
63 Phichit
69 64 Khon Kaen
45 65 Pattani
66 Amnat Charoen
67 Phetchabun
68 Chachoengsao
69 Yala
70 Suphan Buri
71 Krabi
73 Sing Buri
74 Chai Nat
75 Kamphaeng Phet
76 Phang-nga

Income Index
To a large extent, income is the basis for a Debt is often a sign of inadequate income.
decent standard of living. It cannot buy The Income Index covers household income,
happiness, but it safeguards against poverty. poverty incidence, and households with debt.
Table AI.6 Five best and worst performers on income indicators
Household income
ANNEX I
Poverty incidence (%) Households with debt (%)
(Baht per month)
Five best
Bangkok (29,425) Pathum Thani, Surat Thani (0) Samut Sakhon (29.1)

Nonthaburi (28,907) Phuket (0.21) Ayutthaya (39.7)
Phuket (26,017) Samut Prakan (0.31) Samut Prakan (43.6)
Pathum Thani (22,653) Phang-nga (0.55) Samut Songkhram (44.5)
Samut Prakan (19,594) Nonthaburi (0.57) Bangkok (45.8)
Five worst
Nong Bua Lam Phu (6,943) Tak (29.60) Buri Ram (83.7)
Mae Hong Son (6,681) Sakon Nakhon (30.16) Si Sa Ket (84.4)
Surin (6,485) Nakhon Phanom (32.27) Roi Et (85.2)
Uthai Thani (6,407) Mae Hong Son (33.95) Maha Sarakham (85.5)
Yasothon (6,018) Surin (33.97) Amnat Charoen (86.2)
Remarks:
■ Poverty incidence takes into account both income and expenditure. It represents people whose income in cash and in kind is
insufficient to cover necessary subsistence expenses.
■ Average household debt is generally a good indicator of indebtedness, but some well-off provinces have high debt figures due
to business loans. Poverty-stricken provinces in the Northeast have higher proportion of indebted households; their debts are
mostly for consumption and are therefore more difficult to finance.

Figure AI.4 Income Index
Rank
1 Bangkok
2 Nonthaburi
48 3 Samut Sakhon
4 Samut Prakan
74 5 Phuket
51
6 Pathum Thani
53 65 7 Chon Buri
ANNEX I
39 9 Songkhla
38 33 43 10 Samut Songkhram
11 Phang-nga
40 12 Nakhon Pathom
73 13 Surat Thani
52 66 46 67 14 Chachoengsao
75
15 Saraburi
62 34 16 Ang Thong
45 58 68 17 Yala
42 18 Chanthaburi
47 57 19 Ratchaburi
70 61 20 Satun
60 63 64
50 21 Trang
22 Phetchaburi
36 49 37 24 Rayong
26 59 72 76 71 25 Trat
27 16
26 Sing Buri
28 15
27 Suphan Buri
6 31 29 Chumphon
12 2 1
54 30 Phatthalung
19 3 4 14 31 Prachin Buri
10 7 32 Ranong
33 Phrae
22 24 18 34 Phitsanulok
35 Krabi
25 36 Chai Nat
23 37 Ubon Ratchathani
38 Lamphun
39 Lampang
40 Uttaradit
42 Kamphaeng Phet
43 Nong Khai
29 44 Nakhon Nayok
45 Khon Kaen
46 Udon Thani
32 Income Index 47 Phichit
48 Chiang Rai
■ Very high (0.647 to 0.861) 49 Lop Buri
50 Nakhon Sawan
■ High (0.538 to 0.647) 51 Phayao
52 Sukhothai
13 ■ Medium (0.455 to 0.538) 53 Chiang Mai
11
41 ■ Low (0.400 to 0.455) 54 Sa Kaeo
55 Pattani
35
5 ■ Very low (0.211 to 0.400) 56 Narathiwat
57 Phetchabun
58 Kalasin
21 30 59 Nakhon Ratchasima
60 Roi Et
61 Maha Sarakham
20 9 62 Tak
55
63 Yasothon
17 64 Amnat Charoen
56 65 Nan
66 Loei
67 Sakon Nakhon
68 Mukdahan
69 Uthai Thani
70 Chaiyaphum
71 Si Sa Ket
72 Buri Ram
73 Nakhon Phanom
74 Mae Hong Son
75 Nong Bua Lam Phu
76 Surin

Housing and Living Environment Index
A decent livelihood requires secured housing, covers housing security, possession of basic
basic appliances and a safe living environment. appliance, e.g. refrigerator and electric or gas
The Housing and Living Environment Index stove, exposure to flood and/or drought, pollution.
Table AI.7 Five best and worst performers on housing and living environment indicators
Housing Security (%) Households having Households having gas or Population affected by Households not affected
ANNEX I
refrigerator (%) electric stove (%) drought and/or flood (%) by pollution (%)
Five best
Yasothon, Roi Et (96.8) Phang-nga (94.0) Rayong (96.7) Nakhon Pathom, Buri Ram (100)
Nonthaburi, Pathum Thani,

Samut Sakhon (0)
Surin (95.0) Phrae (93.9) Nakhon Nayok (95.3) Ang Thong (.90) Samut Songkhram (99.4)
Si Sa Ket (94.9) Ayutthaya (92.2) Surat Thani (93.2) Bangkok (1.01) Yasothon, Phuket (99.3)
Nakhon Phanom (94.4) Nakhon Nayok (92.0) Suphan Buri (92.0) Sing Buri (1.23) Roi Et (99.1)
Udon Thani (94.3) Rayong (91.0) Nakhon Pathom (91.4) Pattani (1.35) Amnat Charoen (99.0)
Five worst
Phuket, Chon Buri (47.4) Pattani (61.5) Nakhon Phanom (46.2) Phrae (57.63) Phatthalung (89.2)
Nonthaburi (41.5) Si Sa Ket (61.3) Ubon Ratchathani (43.0) Udon Thani (57.73) Saraburi (88.8)
Samut Sakhon (37.2) Surin (60.4) Yasothon (42.8) Surin (66.27) Samut Sakhon (87.5)
Bangkok (34.7) Narathiwat (60.3) Mae Hong Son (39.7) Nong Khai (80.81) Surat Thani (86.6)
Samut Prakan (30.1) Mae Hong Son (46.8) Mukdahan (39.4) Ranong (108.20) Kamphaeng Phet (82.2)
Remarks:
■ Housing security is defined as having ownership of the house and the land on which the house is located. This is more stringent than the MDG definition of
ownership/lease purchase/rent.
■ The number of people affected by drought and the number of people affected by flood are combined for the calculation of the percentage of population
affected by drought and/or flood. In some cases, this means double counting, but it reflects the plight of those who are encountered by both drought and
flood. This, however, was not the reason for the exceptionally high figure for Ranong where the percentage of people affected by flood was negligible, but the
percentage of people affected by drought alone was higher than 100 percent representing another case of data inconsistency.
■ Data on population affected by drought and/or flood do not include those affected by the tsunami in Phuket, Phang-nga, Krabi, Ranong, Satun and Trang
in December 2004.
■ Data on number of people affected by drought and/or flood, and the number of households not affected by pollution are not available for Bangkok.
Bangkok Vicinity is used as proxy for Bangkok on this measure.

Figure AI.5 Housing and Living Environment Index
Rank
1 Ang Thong
2 Sing Buri
27 3 Lampang
4 Lamphun
76 5 Phetchaburi
12
64 21 7 Prachin Buri
8 Nakhon Nayok
ANNEX I
3 9 Uttaradit
4 24 39 10 Lop Buri
11 Trang
9 12 Phayao
67 13 Nakhon Ratchasima
52 29 58 61 14 Phang-nga
59
15 Phatthalung
74 36 16 Rayong
56 57 68 17 Nakhon Pathom
66 18 Suphan Buri
37 46 19 Yala
53 49 20 Samut Songkhram
51 48 55
39 21 Nan
41 23 Kanchanaburi
30 10 65 24 Phrae
2 13 40 73 60 25 Narathiwat
18 1
26 Pattani
23 43
27 Chiang Rai
8 17 28 Chanthaburi
35 7 29 Loei
17 50 69
42 30 Chai Nat
31 72 71 63 31 Ratchaburi
33 Satun
5 16 28 34 Songkhla
35 Pathum Thani
54 36 Phitsanulok
22 37 Phichit
38 Surat Thani
39 Nakhon Sawan
40 Buri Ram
41 Uthai Thani
42 Sa Kaeo
43 Saraburi
44 44 Chumphon
45 Chon Buri
46 Phetchabun
75 Housing and Living 47 Phuket
48 Yasothon
Environment Index 49 Maha Sarakham
■ Very high (0.825 to 0.889) 50 Nonthaburi
51 Roi Et
38 ■ High (0.792 to 0.825) 52 Sukhothai
53 Chaiyaphum
14 ■ Medium (0.768 to 0.792) 54 Trat
32 55 Amnat Charoen
62 ■ Low (0.747 to 0.768) 56 Khon Kaen
47 57 Kalasin
■ Very low (0.486 to 0.747)
58 Udon Thani
11 15 59 Nong Bua Lam Phu
60 Si Sa Ket
61 Sakon Nakhon
33 34 62 Krabi
26
63 Chachoengsao
19 64 Chiang Mai
25 65 Ubon Ratchathani
66 Kamphaeng Phet
67 Nakhon Phanom
68 Mukdahan
69 Bangkok
70 Nong Khai
71 Samut Prakan
72 Samut Sakhon
73 Surin
74 Tak
75 Ranong
76 Mae Hong Son

Family and Community Life
Everyone needs a family and a community life. with social problems also expose their members
Strong family and community ties provide to human insecurity. The Family and Community
necessary emotional support and are the most Life index covers orphans/abandoned children/
reliable social safety net. A stressful family life, children affected by AIDS, working children,
on the other hand, places extra burden on all single-headed households, elderly living alone,
family members. Communities that are beset violent crimes, drug-related arrests.
ANNEX I
Table AI.8 Five best and worst performers on family and community life indicators
Orphans, abandoned Working children Single-headed Elderly living Violent crimes Drug-related arrests
children, children aged 15-17 (%) households (%) alone (%) reported (per 100,000)
affected by AIDS (per 100,000)

(per 1,000)
Five best
Nonthaburi (0.07) Roi Et (4.6) Si Sa Ket (10.0) Pathum Thani (1.8) Yasothon (1.3) Surin (17.6)
Samut Sakon (0.14) Phrae (5.4) Pathum Thani (10.3) Samut Prakan (2.5) Sakon Nakhon (2.4) Buri Ram (28.1)
Pathum Thani (0.15) Maha Sarakham (6.6) Samut Sakon (10.6) Udon Thani (2.6) Roi Et (2.6) Udon Thani (38.0)
Sing Buri (0.22) Phayao (8.7) Samut Prakan (10.7) Yasothon, Si Sa Ket (2.8) Si Sa Ket (38.4)
Nonthaburi (2.7)
Bangkok (0.31) Khon Kaen (9.0) Mukdahan (11.4) Loei (2.8) Amnat Charoen, Roi Et (38.6)
Buri Ram (3.0)
Five worst
Si Sa Ket (4.73) Sukhothai (33.0) Nakhon Nayok (22.9) Phichit (10.4) Samut Sakhon (40.7) Ang Thong (359.8)
Narathiwat (5.37) Phang-nga (34.6) Prachin Buri (23.2) Chiang Rai (11.1) Narathiwat (54.0) Chiang Rai (410.7)
Chiang Mai (5.77) Ratchaburi (37.4) Ang Thong (24.8) Uthai Thani (11.2) Pattani (55.6) Samut Prakan (476.9)
Chiang Rai (9.78) Samut Sakhon (45.3) Lop Buri (24.9) Lamphun (11.7) Yala (56.0) Bangkok (533.6)
Phayao (10.04) Mae Hong Son (49.8) Ratchaburi (25.7) Tak (11.8) Phatthalung (82.7) Chon Buri (672.7)
Remarks:
■ The high percentages of orphans in the Northern provinces is largely the effect of AIDS. Data for Bangkok Vicinity is used as proxy for Bangkok.
■ Violent crimes include murder, robbery, burglary, kidnapping, arson. Violent crimes reported increased from 13 to 16 during 2000 to 2005. The high
percentages of violent crimes in the Southern provinces are due to the expansion of conflict in the past few years.

Figure AI.6 Family and Community Life Index
Rank
1 Nong Bua Lam Phu
2 Pathum Thani
75 3 Khon Kaen
4 Loei
40 5 Udon Thani
66
6 Surin
67 25 7 Roi Et
8 Buri Ram
ANNEX I
34 9 Mukdahan
48 23 13 10 Si Sa Ket
11 Yasothon
44 12 Nonthaburi
31 13 Nong Khai
68 4 5 14 14 Sakon Nakhon
1
15 Sa Kaeo
64 37 16 Kalasin
3 16 9 17 Krabi
46 18 Nakhon Ratchasima
55 21 19 Songkhla
26 20 20 Maha Sarakham
7 11 42
29 21 Phetchabun
22 Ubon Ratchathani
50 23 Phrae
28 62 22 24 Satun
36 18 8 6 10 25 Nan
61 72 53
26 Chaiyaphum
47
27 Phang-nga
52 51 28 Chai Nat
2 57 29 Nakhon Sawan
58 12 54
15 30 Phuket
70 56 32 33 31 Nakhon Phanom
33 Chachoengsao
45 59 35 34 Lampang
35 Chanthaburi
38 36 Sing Buri
63 37 Phitsanulok
38 Trat
40 Mae Hong Son
41 Ranong
42 Amnat Charoen
43 Chumphon
43 44 Uttaradit
45 Phetchaburi
46 Kamphaeng Phet
41 Family and Community 47 Kanchanaburi
48 Lamphun
Life Index 49 Trang
■ Very high (0.788 to 0.845) 50 Uthai Thani
51 Nakhon Nayok
60 ■ High (0.749 to 0.788) 52 Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
53 Saraburi
27 ■ Medium (0.711 to 0.749) 54 Bangkok
39 55 Phichit
17 ■ Low (0.662 to 0.711) 56 Samut Sakhon
30 57 Prachin Buri
■ Very low (0.519 to 0.662)
58 Nakhon Pathom
49 73 59 Rayong
60 Surat Thani
61 Suphan Buri
24 19 62 Lop Buri
69
71 64 Tak
76 65 Samut Songkhram
66 Phayao
67 Chiang Mai
68 Sukhothai
69 Pattani
70 Ratchaburi
71 Yala
72 Ang Thong
73 Phatthalung
74 Chon Buri
75 Chiang Rai
76 Narathiwat

Transportation and Communication Index
Mobility and connectivity enhance people’s covers road condition, road length, vehicle
potential and enrich their lives. The registration, land traffic accidents, TV, mobile
Transportation and Communication Index phone and internet.
Table AI.9 Five best and worst performers on transportation and communication indicators
Villages with Vehicle Length of road Land traffic Households Population Population
ANNEX I
all-seasoned registration per province area accidents having TV (%) having mobile having internet
main roads (%) (per 1,000) (km) (per 100,000) phone (%) access (%)
Five best
Bangkok, Bangkok (1,079.3) Bangkok (0.75) Narathiwat (19.1) Ayutthaya (98.5) Nonthaburi (61.2) Bangkok (25.9)

Phuket (93.3)
Samut Prakan (79.9) Phuket (996.2) Phuket (0.51) Buri Ram (28.2) Phang-nga (97.5) Bangkok (59.2) Nonthaburi (24.1)
Samut Sakon (78.2) Rayong (640.9) Nonthaburi (0.47) Khon Kaen (36.3) Amnat Charoen Samut Prakan Samut Prakan
(97.4) (56.8) (20.7)
Nonthaburi (77.7) Chon Buri (632.3) Samut Songkhram Nong Bua Lam Phu Udon Thani (97.3) Pathum Thani (56.2) Phuket (20.0)
(0.45) (37.2)
Pathum Thani (76.5) Lamphun (571.4) Sing Buri (0.44) Mae Hong Son Maha Sarakham Phuket (55.4) Phrae (18.2)
(39.9) (97.2)
Five worst
Nakhon Sawan (33.7) Nong Bua Lam Phu Uthai Thani (0.12) Satun (385.8) Yala (82.3) Buri Ram (23.5) Sakon Nakhon,
(160.5) Nakhon
Ratchasima (6.0)
Mae Hong Son (32.5) Nonthaburi (152.9) Phitsanulok (0.11) Bangkok (394.9) Narathiwat (82.0) Yasothon (22.6) Prachuap
Khiri Khan (5.8)
Buri Ram (31.6) Mae Hong Son Lampang, Krabi (463.3) Tak (77.5) Narathiwat, Sa Kaeo (5.2)
(135.7) Mae Hong Son, Mukdahan (22.5)
Chaiyaphum (0.09)
Kamphaeng Phet Pathum Thani Tak, Samut Sakhon Pattani (75.0) Si Sa Ket (21.0) Phang-nga (4.5)
(30.3) (116.1) Kanchanaburi (0.08) (545.7)
Surin (28.5) Samut Prakan (75.8) Chanthaburi (0.02) Phuket (816.9) Mae Hong Son Mae Hong Son Narathiwat (4.1)
(62.3) (11.0)
Remarks:
■ There are no data on “villages with all-seasoned main roads” for Bangkok. Phuket, which has the highest figure, is used as proxy for Bangkok.
■ Vehicle registration is abnormally low in Bangkok Vicinity because many people buy in Bangkok itself. The same is true of other provinces adjacent to large
business centres.

Figure AI.7 Transportation and Communication Index
Rank
1 Bangkok
2 Phuket
26 3 Nonthaburi
4 Sing Buri
76 5 Rayong
31
6 Pathum Thani
8 Chon Buri
ANNEX I
19 9 Nakhon Pathom
13 12 47 10 Songkhla
11 Samut Songkhram
23 12 Phrae
49 13 Lamphun
56 52 60 66 14 Saraburi
69
15 Ang Thong
73 30 16 Trang
27 42 44 17 Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
54 18 Ratchaburi
39 51 19 Lampang
72 57 20 Samut Sakhon
53 61 64
50 21 Phetchaburi
22 Trat
62 23 Uttaradit
24 28 70 24 Chai Nat
4 63 71 74 75 25 Surat Thani
32 15 14
26 Chiang Rai
46
27 Khon Kaen
17 33 28 Lop Buri
6 43 29 Phang-nga
9 3 1
68 30 Phitsanulok
18 20 7 36 31 Phayao
11 8 32 Suphan Buri
33 Nakhon Nayok
21 5 38 34 Phatthalung
35 Yala
22 36 Chachoengsao
40 37 Nan
38 Chanthaburi
39 Phichit
41 Chumphon
42 Pattani
43 Prachin Buri
41 44 Mukdahan
45 Chiang Mai
46 Kanchanaburi
48 Transportation and 47 Nong Khai
48 Ranong
Communication Index 49 Nakhon Phanom
■ Very high (0.499 to 0.835) 50 Nakhon Sawan
51 Phetchabun
25 ■ High (0.475 to 0.499) 52 Loei
53 Roi Et
29 ■ Medium (0.448 to 0.475) 54 Kamphaeng Phet
59 55 Krabi
55 ■ Low (0.42 to 0.448) 56 Sukhothai
2 57 Maha Sarakham
■ Very low (0.272 to 0.42)
58 Narathiwat
60 Udon Thani
61 Yasothon
65 10 62 Uthai Thani
42
35 64 Amnat Charoen
58 65 Satun
66 Sakon Nakhon
67 Kalasin
68 Sa Kaeo
69 Nong Bua Lam Phu
70 Ubon Ratchathani
71 Buri Ram
72 Chaiyaphum
73 Tak
74 Surin
75 Si Sa Ket
76 Mae Hong Son

Participation
Political and social participation enriches community groups, participation in local groups,
people’s lives and enhances community life. participation in social services.
The Participation Index covers voter turnout,
Table AI.10 Five best and worst performers on participation indicators
Participation in social
ANNEX I
Households
Community groups services and unpaid
Vote turnout (%) participating in
(per 100,000) services for other
local groups (%)
households (hours/day)
Five best

Lamphun (86.6) Amnat Charoen Yasothon (99.5) Mae Hong Son, Phuket
(427.6) (3.2)
Maha Sarakham Amnat Charoen,

Satun (82.9) Phayao (2.7)
(341.0) Roi Et (99.4)
Chiang Mai (82.7) Mukdahan (277.5) Maha Sarakham (99.1) Lamphun (2.6)
Ubon Ratchathani,
Krabi (82.4) Trat (245.1) Ayutthaya (2.5)
Kalasin (98.8)
Chumphon, Nong Khai,

Bangkok, Phang-nga,
Saraburi (81.0) Phang-nga (232.8) Si Sa Ket (98.7)
Sakon Nakhon, Nakhon
Ratchasima (2.4)
Five worst
Nakhon Phanom Si Sa Ket, Amnat

Pathum Thani (12.9) Satun (81.9)
(63.9) Charoen, Ang Thong (1.3)
Trat, Surat Thani,

Sakhon Nakhon (63.4) Samut Prakan (12.1) Tak (81.8) Phitsanulok,
Kanchanaburi (1.2)
Surin (62.9) Ayutthaya (8.6) Mae Hong Son (80.7) Samut Prakan (1.1)
Nong Bua Lam Phu Chon Buri,

Pathum Thani (77.6) Kamphaeng Phet (1.0)
(62.6) Bangkok (7.8)
Bangkok, Nonthaburi, Pattani,

Nong Khai (62.5) Nonthaburi (4.0)
Samut Sakhon (73.6) Narathiwat (0.9)
Remarks:
■ There are no data on households participating in local groups in Bangkok. Samut Sakhon, which has the lowest figure, is used as
proxy for Bangkok.

Figure AI.8 Participation Index
Rank
1 Amnat Charoen
2 Maha Sarakham
11 3 Lamphun
4 Phang-nga
36 5 Chumphon
6
6 Phayao
27 8 7 Mukdahan
8 Nan
ANNEX I
13 9 Phuket
3 12 35 10 Loei
11 Chiang Rai
39 12 Phrae
50 13 Lampang
41 10 56 42 14 Songkhla
25
15 Nakhon Nayok
63 66 16 Sa Kaeo
33 18 7 17 Nakhon Ratchasima
69 18 Kalasin
26 55 19 Chai Nat
46 2 20 Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
47 51 1
60 21 Buri Ram
22 Samut Songkhram
24 23 Phatthalung
19 44 32 24 Uthai Thani
34 17 21 53 58 25 Nong Bua Lam Phu
40 48 52
26 Phichit
62
27 Chiang Mai
73 37 29 Ranong
43 75 74
16 30 Trat
31 76 70 38 31 Ratchaburi
22 72 32 Ubon Ratchathani
33 Khon Kaen
28 57 59 34 Sing Buri
35 Nong Khai
30 36 Mae Hong Son
54 37 Prachin Buri
38 Chachoengsao
39 Uttaradit
40 Suphan Buri
41 Sukhothai
42 Sakon Nakhon
43 Nakhon Pathom
5 44 Lop Buri
45 Krabi
46 Chaiyaphum
29 Partcipation Index 47 Roi Et
48 Ang Thong
■ Very high (0.514 to 0.62) 49 Satun
50 Nakhon Phanom
■ High (0.461 to 0.514) 51 Yasothon
52 Saraburi
67 ■ Medium (0.444 to 0.461) 53 Surin
4
63 ■ Low (0.406 to 0.444) 54 Trang
55 Phetchabun
45
9 ■ Very low (0.225 to 0.406) 56 Udon Thani
57 Rayong
58 Si Sa Ket
54 23 59 Chanthaburi
60 Nakhon Sawan
65
63 Tak
71 65 Pattani
66 Phitsanulok
67 Surat Thani
68 Yala
69 Kamphaeng Phet
70 Samut Prakan
71 Narathiwat
72 Chon Buri
73 Pathum Thani
74 Bangkok
75 Nonthaburi
76 Samut Sakhon

Table AI.11 Provincial ranking by HAI indices
Housing Family and Transportation
Health Education Employment Income and living community and Participation HAI
environment communication
1 Yala Bangkok Samut Bangkok Ang Thong Nong Bua Bangkok Amnat Phuket
Prakan Lam Phu Charoen
2 Pathum Sing Buri Ayutthaya Nonthaburi Sing Buri Pathum Phuket Maha Bangkok
ANNEX I
Thani Thani Sarakham
3 Pattani Nan Samut Samut Lampang Khon Kaen Nonthaburi Lamphun Pathum
Sakhon Sakhon Thani
4 Phang-nga Phuket Pathum Samut Lamphun Loei Sing Buri Phang-nga Ayutthaya

Thani Prakan
5 Satun Chon Buri Bangkok Phuket Phetchaburi Udon Thani Rayong Chumphon Nonthaburi
6 Phetchaburi Phayao Rayong Pathum Ayutthaya Surin Pathum Phayao Songkhla

Thani Thani
7 Phuket Lop Buri Chon Buri Chon Buri Prachin Buri Roi Et Samut Mukdahan Sing Buri
Prakan
8 Chon Buri Phrae Phuket Ayutthaya Nakhon Buri Ram Chon Buri Nan Nakhon
Nayok Pathom
9 Samut Lamphun Prachin Buri Songkhla Uttaradit Mukdahan Nakhon Phuket Rayong
Sakhon Pathom
10 Nakhon Rayong Lamphun Samut Lop Buri Si Sa Ket Songkhla Loei Samut
Pathom Songkhram Prakan
11 Trat Songkhla Yasothon Phang-nga Trang Yasothon Samut Chiang Rai Samut
Songkhram Songkhram
12 Chumphon Uttaradit Mae Hong Nakhon Phayao Nonthaburi Phrae Phrae Phetchaburi
Son Pathom
13 Narathiwat Saraburi Loei Surat Thani Nakhon Nong Khai Lamphun Lampang Chon Buri
Ratchasima
14 Samut Chiang Mai Kalasin Chachoeng- Phang-nga Sakon Saraburi Songkhla Lamphun
Songkhram sao Nakhon
15 Songkhla Chai Nat Nonthaburi Saraburi Phatthalung Sa Kaeo Ang Thong Nakhon Chumphon
Nayok
16 Prachuap Phetchaburi Ranong Ang Thong Rayong Kalasin Trang Sa Kaeo Phang-nga
Khiri Khan
17 Nonthaburi Nakhon Chaiyaphum Yala Nakhon Krabi Ayutthaya Nakhon Prachin Buri
Nayok Pathom Ratchasima
18 Bangkok Nakhon Si Nakhon Chanthaburi Suphan Nakhon Ratchaburi Kalasin Phrae

Thammarat Pathom Buri Ratchasima
19 Chachoeng- Nonthaburi Phayao Ratchaburi Yala Songkhla Lampang Chai Nat Trat
sao
20 Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Nan Satun Samut Maha Samut Ayutthaya Satun

Thammarat Songkhram Sarakham Sakhon
21 Rayong Ang Thong Prachuap Trang Nan Phetchabun Phetchaburi Buri Ram Saraburi
Khiri Khan
22 Ayutthaya Phatthalung Saraburi Phetchaburi Prachuap Ubon Trat Samut Ang Thong
Khiri Khan Ratchathani Songkhram
23 Trang Samut Maha Prachuap Kanchanaburi Phrae Uttaradit Phattha Nakhon

Prakan Sarakham Khiri Khan lung Nayok
24 Sing Buri Pathum Ubon Rayong Phrae Satun Chai Nat Uthai Samut
Thani Ratchathani Thani Sakhon

Table AI.11 Provincial ranking by HAI indices (continued)
25 Krabi Prachin Buri Surat Thani Trat Narathiwat Nan Surat Thani Nong Bua Trang
Lam Phu
26 Prachin Buri Phitsanulok Nakhon Sing Buri Pattani Chaiyaphum Chiang Rai Phichit Nan
ANNEX I
Nayok
27 Chantha Khon Kaen Roi Et Suphan Chiang Rai Phang-nga Khon Kaen Chiang Mai Phayao
buri Buri
28 Samut Lampang Nong Bua Kanchanaburi Chanthaburi Chai Nat Lop Buri Phetchaburi Lampang
Prakan Lam Phu
29 Kanchana Chiang Rai Uthai Thani Chumphon Loei Nakhon Phang-nga Ranong Chachoeng
buri Sawan sao
30 Suphan Mukdahan Chumphon Phatthalung Chai Nat Phuket Phitsanulok Trat Chanthaburi
Buri
31 Surat Thani Surat Thani Udon Thani Prachin Buri Ratchaburi Nakhon Phayao Ratchaburi Prachuap
Phanom Khiri Khan
32 Ranong Sukhothai Buri Ram Ranong Nakhon Si Samut Suphan Buri Ubon Maha
Thammarat Prakan Ratchathani Sarakham
33 Uthai Thani Satun Chanthaburi Phrae Satun Chachoeng Nakhon Khon Kaen Uttaradit
sao Nayok
34 Nakhon Trat Nakhon Phitsanulok Songkhla Lampang Phatthalung Sing Buri Loei
Nayok Phanom
35 Sa Kaeo Yala Samut Krabi Pathum Chanthaburi Yala Nong Khai Surat Thani
Songkhram Thani
36 Phattha- Nakhon Ratchaburi Chai Nat Phitsanulok Sing Buri Chachoeng- Mae Hong Yala
lung Pathom sao Son
37 Nakhon Uthai Thani Phrae Ubon Phichit Phitsanulok Nan Prachin Buri Ratchaburi
Sawan Ratchathani
38 Udon Thani Yasothon Nakhon Lamphun Surat Thani Trat Chanthaburi Chachoeng- Phatthalung
Ratchasima sao
39 Ang Thong Prachuap Phitsanulok Lampang Nakhon Nakhon Si Phichit Uttaradit Chai Nat
Khiri Khan Sawan Thammarat
40 Lop Buri Chachoeng- Chiang Rai Uttaradit Buri Ram Mae Hong Prachuap Suphan Buri Lop Buri
sao Son Khiri Khan
41 Saraburi Kalasin Nong Khai Nakhon Si Uthai Thani Ranong Chumphon Sukhothai Suphan Buri
Thammarat
42 Ratchaburi Chumphon Sakon Kamphaeng Sa Kaeo Amnat Pattani Sakon Nakhon

Nakhon Phet Charoen Nakhon Ratchasima
43 Nakhon Samut Tak Nong Khai Saraburi Chumphon Prachin Buri Nakhon Kanchana
Ratchasima Songkhram Pathom buri
44 Maha Phang-nga Phatthalung Nakhon Chumphon Uttaradit Mukdahan Lop Buri Udon Thani
Sarakham Nayok
45 Nong Khai Loei Narathiwat Khon Kaen Chon Buri Phetchaburi Chiang Mai Krabi Krabi
46 Ubon Ranong Sukhothai Udon Thani Phetchabun Kamphaeng Kanchanaburi Chaiyaphum Nakhon Si
Ratchathani Phet Thammarat
47 Amnat Chanthaburi Uttaradit Phichit Phuket Kanchanaburi Nong Khai Roi Et Khon Kaen
Charoen
48 Phichit Ratchaburi Nakhon Chiang Rai Yasothon Lamphun Ranong Ang Thong Yasothon
Sawan

49 Phayao Mae Hong Mukdahan Lop Buri Maha Trang Nakhon Satun Phitsanulok
Son Sarakham Phanom
50 Uttaradit Trang Lampang Nakhon Nonthaburi Uthai Thani Nakhon Nakhon Sa Kaeo
ANNEX I
Sawan Sawan Phanom
51 Sukhothai Maha Lop Buri Phayao Roi Et Nakhon Phetchabun Yasothon Amnat
Sarakham Nayok Charoen
52 Phitsanulok Udon Thani Trang Sukhothai Sukhothai Ayutthaya Loei Saraburi Kalasin

53 Phetchabun Krabi Chiang Mai Chiang Mai Chaiyaphum Saraburi Roi Et Surin Mukdahan
54 Loei Roi Et Surin Sa Kaeo Trat Bangkok Kamphaeng Trang Ranong

Phet
55 Yasothon Nakhon Satun Pattani Amnat Phichit Krabi Phetchabun Nakhon

Sawan Charoen Sawan
56 Surin Amnat Kanchanaburi Narathiwat Khon Kaen Samut Sukhothai Udon Thani Roi Et
Charoen Sakhon
57 Sakon Phichit Sa Kaeo Phetchabun Kalasin Prachin Buri Maha Rayong Nong Khai
Nakhon Sarakham
58 Chai Nat Kanchana- Songkhla Kalasin Udon Thani Nakhon Narathiwat Si Sa Ket Ubon
buri Pathom Ratchathani
59 Roi Et Pattani Ang Thong Nakhon Nong Bua Rayong Nakhon Si Chanthaburi Phichit
Ratchasima Lam Phu Thammarat
60 Nakhon Sakon Si Sa Ket Roi Et Si Sa Ket Surat Thani Udon Thani Nakhon Uthai Thani
Phanom Nakhon Sawan
61 Nong Bua Suphan Buri Trat Maha Sakon Suphan Buri Yasothon Nakhon Si Pattani
Lam Phu Sarakham Nakhon Thammarat
62 Nan Tak Phetchaburi Tak Krabi Lop Buri Uthai Thani Kanchana Sukhothai
buri
63 Mae Hong Nakhon Phichit Yasothon Chachoeng- Prachuap Nakhon Tak Chiang Mai
Son Ratchasima sao Khiri Khan Ratchasima
64 Buri Ram Si Sa Ket Khon Kaen Amnat Chiang Mai Tak Amnat Prachuap Sakon
Charoen Charoen Khiri Khan Nakhon
65 Chiang Mai Surin Pattani Nan Ubon Samut Satun Pattani Chiang Rai
Ratchathani Songkhram
66 Lampang Nong Khai Amnat Loei Kamphaeng Phayao Sakon Phitsanulok Buri Ram
Charoen Phet Nakhon
67 Kalasin Samut Phetchabun Sakon Nakhon Chiang Mai Kalasin Surat Thani Nong Bua
Sakhon Nakhon Phanom Lam Phu
68 Tak Kamphaeng Chachoeng Mukdahan Mukdahan Sukhothai Sa Kaeo Yala Phetchabun

Phet sao
69 Phrae Nakhon Yala Uthai Thani Bangkok Pattani Nong Bua Kamphaeng Nakhon
Phanom Lam Phu Phet Phanom
70 Mukdahan Ubon Suphan Buri Chaiyaphum Nong Khai Ratchaburi Ubon Samut Chaiyaphum
Ratchathani Ratchathani Prakan
71 Si Sa Ket Buri Ram Krabi Si Sa Ket Samut Yala Buri Ram Narathiwat Narathiwat
Prakan
72 Kamphaeng Sa Kaeo Nakhon Si Buri Ram Samut Ang Thong Chaiyaphum Chon Buri Si Sa Ket
Phet Thammarat Sakhon

73 Chaiyaphum Nong Bua Sing Buri Nakhon Surin Phatthalung Tak Pathum Kamphaeng
Lam Phu Phanom Thani Phet
74 Khon Kaen Chaiyaphum Chai Nat Mae Hong Tak Chon Buri Surin Bangkok Surin
ANNEX I
Son
75 Lamphun Narathiwat Kamphaeng Nong Bua Ranong Chiang Rai Si Sa Ket Nonthaburi Tak
Phet Lam Phu
76 Chiang Rai Phetchabun Phang-nga Surin Mae Hong Narathiwat Mae Hong Samut Mae Hong
Son Son Sakhon Son

ANNEX II
Indices Data
Table AII.0 Basic data
Table AII.1 Health
Table AII.2 Education
Table AII.3 Employment
Table AII.4 Income
Table AII.5 Housing and living environment
Table AII.6 Family and community life
Table AII.7 Transport and communication
Table AII.8 Participation
Table AII.0 Basic Data
Gross Provincial
Population 2005 Households 2004 Product (GPP)
2004p
Average Total Forest Farm Unclassified Population

Total Male Female Total household Total Per land area hold land density
Location size capita area 2004 land 2004 2004
2004 2003
(number) (number) (number) (number) (persons) (mil.Baht (Baht (sq.km) (sq.km) (sq.km) (sq.km) (persons
/year) /year) /sq.km.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Kingdom 62,418,054 30,818,629 31,599,425 16,765,049 3.4 6,503,488 101,304 513,115 167,591 180,297 165,227 122
Bangkok 5,658,953 2,705,954 2,952,999 2,077,607 3.2 1,908,140 283,780 1,565 3 169 1,393 3,615
Bangkok Vicinity 4,126,183 1,988,482 2,137,701 1,002,445 3.3 2,895,287 259,871 6,193 40 2,422 3,731 666
Nakhon Pathom 808,961 391,585 417,376 228,065 3.4 111,665 121,381 2,168 – 989 1,179 373
Nonthaburi 972,280 462,010 510,270 222,449 3.3 83,749 77,298 622 – 262 360 1,562
Pathum Thani 815,402 391,909 423,493 174,254 3.5 149,211 206,660 1,526 – 702 824 534
Samut Prakan 1,077,523 523,247 554,276 252,464 3.1 416,732 350,252 1,004 6 260 737 1,073
Samut Sakhon 452,017 219,731 232,286 125,213 3.1 225,790 449,780 872 33 208 631 518
Central Region 2,942,459 1,443,615 1,498,844 812,295 3.4 477,236 157,348 16,593 1,534 8,993 6,067 177
ANNEX II
Chai Nat 340,129 164,703 175,426 111,271 3.2 19,354 53,602 2,470 59 1,528 883 138
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 746,919 361,947 384,972 195,740 3.3 264,679 360,649 2,557 2 1,476 1,079 292
Lop Buri 751,951 377,436 374,515 201,160 3.6 60,578 80,476 6,200 731 3,454 2,014 121
Saraburi 601,938 298,423 303,515 158,835 3.6 99,890 150,901 3,576 743 1,375 1,458 168
Sing Buri 217,744 104,407 113,337 68,752 3.3 16,364 67,839 822 – 552 271 265
Ang Thong 283,778 136,699 147,079 76,537 3.4 16,371 58,029 968 – 607 361 293
Eastern Region 4,333,848 2,147,452 2,186,396 1,103,915 3.4 968,311 222,982 36,503 8,240 13,005 15,257 119
Indices Data
Chanthaburi 498,159 246,468 251,691 130,871 3.3 26,930 51,989 6,338 2,119 2,201 2,018 79
Chachoengsao 647,610 318,037 329,573 170,043 3.5 160,511 245,418 5,351 858 2,069 2,424 121
Chon Buri 1,172,432 577,878 594,554 276,784 3.2 300,829 276,576 4,363 483 1,402 2,478 269
Trat 219,135 110,281 108,854 59,610 3.3 16,639 68,998 2,819 965 834 1,020 78
Nakhon Nayok 250,779 123,954 126,825 73,779 3.5 14,691 61,402 2,122 643 840 639 118
Prachin Buri 449,621 223,148 226,473 114,266 3.7 62,164 147,617 4,762 1,484 1,466 1,812 94
Rayong 559,135 276,918 282,217 136,701 3.3 364,026 691,093 3,552 313 1,191 2,048 157
Sa Kaeo 536,977 270,768 266,209 141,862 3.4 22,521 34,406 7,195 1,376 3,003 2,816 75
Western Region 3,628,123 1,788,403 1,839,720 926,569 3.5 271,813 75,615 43,047 19,666 9,959 13,422 84
Ratchaburi 823,494 403,218 420,276 213,731 3.3 87,737 104,296 5,196 1,607 1,536 2,053 158
Kanchanaburi 826,169 416,492 409,677 186,486 3.7 50,993 62,249 19,483 11,630 3,049 4,804 42
Suphan Buri 842,613 409,345 433,268 237,570 3.5 42,907 50,864 5,358 605 3,006 1,748 157
Samut Songkhram 195,068 93,893 101,175 54,701 3.3 11,500 61,331 417 13 126 278 468
Phetchaburi 453,982 219,885 234,097 116,691 3.4 39,114 88,836 6,225 3,313 829 2,084 73
Prachuap Khiri Khan 486,797 245,570 241,227 117,390 3.4 39,561 85,467 6,368 2,499 1,414 2,455 76
Northeastern Region 21,328,111 10,647,346 10,680,765 5,349,918 3.7 682,274 31,351 168,854 28,096 81,834 58,925 126
Nakhon Ratchasima 2,546,763 1,261,666 1,285,097 697,162 3.7 118,142 44,409 20,494 3,149 10,184 7,161 124
Buri Ram 1,531,430 764,457 766,973 356,755 3.7 39,689 25,150 10,322 952 5,438 3,932 148
Surin 1,374,700 687,063 687,637 353,599 3.6 33,735 22,832 8,124 845 5,317 1,962 169
Si Sa Ket 1,443,975 721,229 722,746 362,370 3.6 34,356 22,917 8,840 1,032 5,130 2,678 163
Ubon Ratchathani 1,774,808 889,792 885,016 418,234 3.8 52,774 30,482 15,745 2,712 7,036 5,997 113
Yasothon 541,264 271,538 269,726 145,021 3.7 14,906 27,456 4,162 456 2,334 1,372 130
Chaiyaphum 1,116,934 556,309 560,625 293,306 3.6 30,727 27,851 12,778 3,745 4,622 4,412 87
Amnat Charoen 368,791 184,751 184,040 90,207 3.8 8,581 17,253 3,161 574 1,701 886 117
Nong Bua Lam Phu 496,657 250,019 246,638 115,219 3.8 11,039 17,083 3,859 567 2,067 1,226 129
Khon Kaen 1,747,542 868,007 879,535 462,472 3.5 92,081 55,210 10,886 1,231 5,527 4,128 161
Udon Thani 1,523,802 763,130 760,672 358,556 3.8 50,542 34,335 11,730 1,476 5,788 4,466 130
Loei 612,422 310,141 302,281 159,985 3.7 21,682 33,749 11,425 4,280 3,356 3,789 54
Nong Khai 896,099 450,661 445,438 221,414 3.7 26,295 26,653 7,332 666 3,582 3,084 122
Maha Sarakham 936,883 464,600 472,283 249,351 3.8 25,575 28,587 5,292 222 3,674 1,396 177
Roi Et 1,310,672 654,589 656,083 324,358 3.7 36,082 26,565 8,299 532 5,126 2,642 158
Kalasin 973,556 485,384 488,172 239,707 3.5 28,050 28,706 6,947 830 3,296 2,820 140
Sakon Nakhon 1,104,106 551,233 552,873 255,174 3.8 29,557 27,667 9,606 2,048 3,994 3,563 115
Nakhon Phanom 693,594 345,434 348,160 171,679 3.7 18,674 31,050 5,513 1,322 2,390 1,801 126
Mukdahan 334,113 167,343 166,770 75,350 3.6 9,787 27,343 4,340 1,457 1,273 1,610 77
Northern Region 11,883,517 5,878,674 6,004,843 3,302,673 3.2 560,677 48,110 169,644 92,068 40,033 37,543 70
Chiang Mai 1,650,009 811,990 838,019 450,755 3.1 93,540 58,962 20,107 15,691 2,166 2,250 82
Lamphun 404,727 197,546 207,181 124,616 3.0 47,263 124,190 4,506 2,606 744 1,156 90
Lampang 776,726 383,952 392,774 227,934 3.1 37,358 47,318 12,534 8,601 1,158 2,776 62
Uttaradit 469,387 231,693 237,694 132,117 3.2 20,047 43,430 7,839 4,443 1,495 1,901 60
Phrae 471,447 230,754 240,693 155,035 3.2 17,514 38,833 6,539 4,264 910 1,365 72
Nan 478,080 241,276 236,804 131,463 3.0 15,490 33,105 11,472 8,497 1,344 1,631 42
Phayao 486,889 240,203 246,686 146,925 3.0 16,935 33,394 6,335 3,189 1,502 1,644 77
Chiang Rai 1,225,058 606,689 618,369 336,442 3.1 41,856 32,925 11,678 5,101 3,463 3,114 105
Mae Hong Son 253,609 130,985 122,624 56,078 3.3 7,462 30,790 12,681 11,128 403 1,150 20
Nakhon Sawan 1,077,808 528,683 549,125 313,185 3.0 52,596 52,167 9,598 848 5,700 3,049 112
Uthai Thani 326,731 160,943 165,788 91,370 3.4 13,015 42,812 6,730 3,322 1,962 1,445 49
Kamphaeng Phet 728,265 362,233 366,032 198,059 3.5 51,754 65,492 8,607 1,971 3,817 2,819 85
Tak 522,197 266,262 255,935 124,503 3.4 22,358 46,048 16,407 12,670 1,496 2,241 32
Sukhothai 610,361 297,634 312,727 172,714 3.1 22,088 37,134 6,596 2,133 2,679 1,783 93
Phitsanulok 840,970 415,305 425,665 229,132 3.1 40,146 50,653 10,816 3,940 3,478 3,398 78
Phichit 558,794 273,498 285,296 156,264 3.2 22,058 45,329 4,531 13 3,090 1,428 123
Phetchabun 1,002,459 499,028 503,431 256,082 3.4 39,198 37,899 12,668 3,651 4,625 4,392 79
Southern Region 8,516,860 4,218,703 4,298,157 2,189,627 3.7 647,890 74,734 70,715 17,943 23,882 28,890 120
Nakhon Si Thammarat 1,504,420 747,639 756,781 437,325 3.8 98,499 60,999 9,943 1,881 4,059 4,003 151
Krabi 395,665 198,713 196,952 86,707 3.6 33,178 85,056 4,709 882 1,817 2,010 84
Phang-nga 241,442 121,199 120,243 71,978 3.5 21,735 92,106 4,171 1,723 1,077 1,371 58
Phuket 292,245 140,703 151,542 59,092 3.4 54,845 192,588 543 99 101 343 538
Surat Thani 947,349 470,126 477,223 236,682 3.6 87,561 92,582 12,891 3,757 4,098 5,036 73
Ranong 178,122 93,335 84,787 40,815 3.4 12,308 68,625 3,298 1,709 661 929 54
Chumphon 475,763 237,689 238,074 129,879 3.3 32,594 68,839 6,009 1,291 2,570 2,149 79
Songkhla 1,302,421 637,355 665,066 342,102 3.2 126,942 96,843 7,394 858 2,459 4,076 176
Satun 277,865 138,515 139,350 63,816 4.0 20,260 73,700 2,479 1,259 664 555 112
Trang 602,045 296,206 305,839 160,872 3.8 44,026 69,311 4,918 1,151 1,819 1,947 122
Phatthalung 500,501 245,917 254,584 141,345 3.3 22,945 44,618 3,424 615 1,768 1,042 146
Pattani 634,376 313,132 321,244 149,578 4.1 33,958 59,895 1,940 80 590 1,270 327
Yala 464,121 231,087 233,034 109,113 4.4 26,763 56,121 4,521 1,504 1,156 1,861 103
Narathiwat 700,525 347,087 353,438 160,324 4.4 32,280 42,134 4,475 1,134 1,043 2,299 157
See Annex III for data sources

Table AII.1 Health
Population Under Crude Infant Maternal Sexually AIDS New AIDS patients Population with Mental
mid-year weight death mortaiity mortality transmitted Patients Jan-July 2004 physical illness 2005 illness
2005 births 2005 2005 2005 diseases 2004 1984– 2005
2005 2004
Location % of per per per Patients STD per Total Total per Male Female Total per
total 1,000 1,000 100,000 with STD 100,000 100,000 1,000
births pop live births live births pop pop pop
(number) (%) (number) (number) (number) (number) (number) (number) (number) (number) (%) (%) (%) (number)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Kingdom 62,195,839 9.3 6.4 7.6 na 13,132 0.21 242,576 2,088 3.3 17.7 21.7 19.7 18
Bangkok 5,646,542 9.5 6.8 7.9 8.8 4,545 0.79 26,147 392 6.8 12.2 12.9 12.6 33
Bangkok Vicinity 4,064,295 9.2 6.4 7.1 na 509 0.13 17,884 180 4.5 9.9 13.9 12.0 23
Nakhon Pathom 803,489 9.7 6.9 6.1 35.6 88 0.11 4,098 5 0.6 11.2 13.7 12.4 12
Nonthaburi 957,285 9.3 6.2 7.9 na 0 0.00 3,950 2 0.2 11.4 16.1 13.8 52
Pathum Thani 792,700 9.6 6.3 5.1 8.2 13 0.02 3,680 0 0.0 9.0 11.5 10.2 6
Samut Prakan 1,063,469 8.7 5.9 9.1 na 332 0.32 3,973 134 12.8 10.4 14.9 12.6 22
Samut Sakhon 447,352 9.3 7.6 6.4 na 76 0.17 2,183 39 8.8 5.8 11.2 8.6 7
Central Region 2,936,393 8.9 7.9 7.2 na 367 0.12 10,063 229 7.7 17.4 21.4 19.5 34
ANNEX II
Chai Nat 340,810 8.8 8.0 10.4 35.8 0 0.00 708 0 0.0 33.0 39.4 36.1 26
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 743,658 8.2 8.0 8.0 10.1 313 0.42 3,337 102 13.7 9.8 12.4 11.1 29
Lop Buri 750,718 9.2 6.9 5.1 12.3 0 0.00 2,140 82 10.8 20.3 20.9 20.6 33
Saraburi 598,903 9.5 8.3 7.9 22.6 0 0.00 2,209 0 0.0 13.8 19.2 16.6 52
Sing Buri 218,932 8.7 9.4 3.6 na 44 0.20 834 18 8.1 18.2 30.0 24.4 17
Ang Thong 283,372 8.9 8.7 8.7 na 10 0.03 835 27 9.4 17.4 25.6 21.6 33
Eastern Region 4,303,424 9.1 6.9 6.5 na 527 0.12 23,324 261 6.1 13.7 15.9 14.8 13
Indices Data
Chanthaburi 496,080 9.9 7.7 6.9 na 24 0.05 4,015 0 0.0 18.6 22.5 20.5 17
Chachoengsao 645,521 9.3 6.8 7.4 na 15 0.02 2,242 81 12.5 13.3 17.4 15.3 8
Chon Buri 1,157,709 9.2 7.6 5.7 3.8 443 0.39 4,664 0 0.0 11.0 11.3 11.1 14
Trat 218,543 7.4 5.7 4.5 na 19 0.09 1,997 0 0.0 11.2 17.7 14.6 15
Nakhon Nayok 249,685 8.6 7.5 7.1 na 0 0.00 1,103 43 17.2 20.8 31.1 25.9 20
Prachin Buri 447,783 9.0 6.8 7.6 na 26 0.06 1,063 20 4.4 15.0 17.1 16.0 9
Rayong 551,512 9.3 7.2 7.2 10.3 0 0.00 7,023 87 15.8 11.6 10.8 11.2 11
Sa Kaeo 536,591 8.6 4.7 6.9 na 0 0.00 1,217 30 5.6 16.7 19.4 18.1 12
Western Region 3,609,730 8.8 6.7 6.5 na 447 0.12 17,718 213 5.9 19.6 21.5 20.5 16
Ratchaburi 819,286 8.7 7.2 6.9 8.8 124 0.15 4,064 151 18.3 22.5 23.5 23.0 30
Kanchanaburi 818,217 9.4 5.3 5.3 10.0 112 0.14 3,424 23 2.9 19.9 23.1 21.5 12
Suphan Buri 841,334 9.1 7.8 7.2 10.9 78 0.09 3,103 13 1.5 24.3 28.5 26.5 12
Samut Songkhram 195,144 7.7 7.2 5.8 na 24 0.12 1,164 2 1.0 17.4 20.4 19.0 17
Phetchaburi 452,506 8.6 6.9 7.7 18.8 72 0.16 3,473 17 3.7 9.9 9.5 9.7 6
Prachuap Khiri Khan 483,243 8.3 5.8 5.9 16.3 37 0.08 2,490 7 1.4 15.7 15.4 15.6 10
Northeastern Region 21,297,769 8.8 6.5 8.0 na 2,598 0.12 41,436 189 0.9 19.3 24.9 22.1 21
Nakhon Ratchasima 2,543,053 8.3 5.9 7.0 7.0 248 0.10 3,508 76 3.0 16.7 21.0 18.8 19
Buri Ram 1,527,845 8.6 5.1 5.6 0.0 25 0.02 3,113 0 0.0 20.2 28.5 24.2 9
Surin 1,373,064 9.8 5.0 5.0 6.6 0 0.00 2,839 14 1.0 17.6 17.4 17.5 28
Si Sa Ket 1,442,190 9.9 5.2 7.3 6.9 24 0.02 2,453 54 3.7 17.0 24.3 20.4 20
Ubon Ratchathani 1,768,935 10.4 5.9 11.3 13.6 83 0.05 3,427 3 0.2 14.1 15.6 14.9 24
Yasothon 541,292 9.1 6.1 6.7 19.6 1 0.00 1,165 1 0.2 19.6 29.0 24.0 14
Chaiyaphum 1,117,026 8.4 5.5 6.2 9.4 0 0.00 2,024 0 0.0 15.8 20.5 18.1 46
Amnat Charoen 368,153 8.9 4.9 4.1 na 0 0.00 720 0 0.0 19.9 30.0 24.5 16
Nong Bua Lam Phu 495,625 8.6 5.0 6.4 na 3 0.01 774 0 0.0 16.1 29.6 22.9 31
Khon Kaen 1,744,646 8.5 6.7 13.8 10.0 1,191 0.68 4,595 10 0.6 36.1 47.0 41.8 45
Udon Thani 1,521,152 8.2 5.5 7.0 22.8 850 0.56 3,928 2 0.1 20.2 25.3 22.6 9
Loei 611,446 9.1 5.8 7.3 na 55 0.09 1,646 0 0.0 10.5 12.8 11.6 34
Nong Khai 895,911 7.7 5.3 7.1 19.6 2 0.00 1,304 9 1.0 13.4 19.2 16.3 6
Maha Sarakham 935,967 6.8 5.9 4.6 na 31 0.03 1,860 0 0.0 13.5 20.3 17.0 7
Roi Et 1,310,461 7.3 6.0 12.8 8.5 0 0.00 3,022 0 0.0 29.4 32.5 31.0 2
Kalasin 972,425 8.8 5.8 10.3 10.4 1 0.00 1,698 20 2.0 26.8 33.1 29.9 14
Sakon Nakhon 1,102,863 10.0 5.6 6.4 21.4 19 0.02 1,275 0 0.0 12.4 19.8 16.2 19
Nakhon Phanom 692,377 9.2 5.7 6.7 12.3 12 0.02 1,386 0 0.0 12.6 14.7 13.6 52
Mukdahan 333,338 11.1 5.7 6.0 na 53 0.16 699 0 0.0 28.8 32.1 30.4 6
Northern Region 11,862,908 11.1 7.2 7.5 na 1,864 0.16 81,100 261 2.2 24.9 29.7 27.3 19
Chiang Mai 1,640,389 11.8 8.5 8.1 37.0 298 0.18 17,911 70 4.3 25.8 27.4 26.6 20
Lamphun 404,754 12.4 9.0 12.7 na 36 0.09 4,607 49 12.0 19.5 28.0 23.8 37
Lampang 777,826 10.6 8.5 8.7 na 101 0.13 8,947 27 3.4 25.3 32.3 28.8 32
Uttaradit 469,665 8.6 7.6 6.2 22.2 0 0.00 1,023 19 4.0 28.9 34.6 31.7 5
Phrae 472,404 9.8 9.0 4.4 na 21 0.04 2,513 26 5.4 22.3 29.1 25.8 18
Nan 477,917 10.3 6.4 7.9 na 0 0.00 2,508 0 0.0 25.0 28.1 26.6 6
Phayao 487,616 9.2 8.1 6.2 na 41 0.08 10,066 7 1.4 9.7 14.1 11.9 29
Chiang Rai 1,219,732 11.8 7.5 7.4 na 354 0.29 16,204 0 0.0 39.9 46.1 42.8 20
Mae Hong Son 248,672 18.3 4.6 7.2 na 22 0.09 1,378 13 5.4 15.1 12.7 14.0 26
Nakhon Sawan 1,077,632 8.0 7.1 7.9 9.3 660 0.60 2,976 2 0.2 18.5 24.4 21.7 19
Uthai Thani 326,366 9.2 6.2 8.8 29.3 6 0.02 639 2 0.6 14.7 22.5 18.4 8
Kamphaeng Phet 727,351 9.5 5.7 4.4 42.7 64 0.09 2,436 24 3.2 35.7 43.0 39.3 17
Tak 519,037 20.3 4.9 5.0 36.5 0 0.00 950 0 0.0 22.9 25.2 24.1 11
Sukhothai 610,869 9.1 6.5 8.5 36.8 25 0.04 2,128 16 2.6 26.0 28.5 27.1 15
Phitsanulok 841,247 10.2 7.6 11.7 34.2 221 0.26 2,339 1 0.1 26.3 34.6 30.3 14
Phichit 559,611 8.1 7.0 8.6 na 15 0.03 1,817 5 0.9 22.5 29.5 26.0 10
Phetchabun 1,001,820 9.8 5.6 4.2 21.7 0 0.00 2,658 0 0.0 18.1 21.3 19.7 22
Southern Region 8,474,778 8.9 5.6 8.3 na 2,275 0.27 24,904 363 4.3 15.1 19.4 17.2 14
Nakhon Si Thammarat 1,502,381 8.3 5.5 6.8 27.3 181 0.12 2,604 45 3.0 20.5 24.9 22.5 6
Krabi 391,708 8.7 4.9 6.1 na 24 0.06 1,244 5 1.3 18.7 26.2 22.6 10
Phang-nga 240,253 9.5 5.1 5.1 na 11 0.05 705 0 0.0 8.1 6.5 7.3 8
Phuket 289,073 7.9 6.2 5.6 29.6 666 2.36 2,413 52 18.4 11.3 10.9 11.1 7
Surat Thani 942,800 9.5 5.6 9.6 13.5 247 0.26 2,833 68 7.3 13.5 19.8 16.8 32
Ranong 177,247 7.2 3.9 4.6 46.3 35 0.21 2,366 68 40.0 11.1 8.8 9.9 17
Chumphon 473,916 9.8 5.8 6.6 15.6 18 0.04 1,274 0 0.0 9.3 14.0 11.8 10
Songkhla 1,291,965 9.0 6.1 9.3 18.6 744 0.58 3,995 3 0.2 15.7 24.1 19.9 28
Satun 275,706 8.0 4.6 6.6 na 13 0.05 724 0 0.0 14.7 12.7 13.6 5
Trang 599,066 9.9 5.7 7.2 na 40 0.07 2,172 6 1.0 20.2 30.2 25.1 12
Phatthalung 499,399 7.8 5.2 4.6 na 61 0.12 1,112 56 11.2 15.1 23.3 19.2 13
Pattani 632,119 7.7 5.5 8.0 41.8 131 0.21 1,424 28 4.4 10.0 11.0 10.5 2
Yala 461,995 9.6 5.4 9.4 19.6 59 0.13 643 29 6.3 11.0 8.5 9.7 5
Narathiwat 697,150 9.7 6.1 14.8 30.8 45 0.06 1,395 3 0.4 12.4 13.8 13.1 9

Table AII.1 Health (continued)
Alcohol consumption 2004 Cigarette smoking 2004 Unhealthy behaviour 2004
(smoking and/or drinking)
Location Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Kingdom 45.8 8.9 27.2 40.1 2.4 21.1 61.0 10.8 35.7
Bangkok 35.5 5.5 19.7 28.9 1.2 14.3 49.0 6.6 26.6
Bangkok Vicinity 47.7 7.4 27.4 32.6 1.8 17.1 58.6 8.8 33.5
Nakhon Pathom 38.0 5.0 22.2 29.0 0.4 15.3 53.6 5.5 30.5
Nonthaburi 34.5 4.8 19.4 20.8 2.0 11.2 42.7 7.8 24.9
Pathum Thani 37.9 3.7 21.2 22.2 1.6 12.1 45.4 4.9 25.6
Samut Prakan 62.9 12.1 36.7 42.7 1.9 21.6 73.2 12.8 42.0
Samut Sakhon 46.2 3.7 24.3 39.3 3.3 20.8 62.7 6.8 34.0
Central Region 39.1 7.1 22.6 38.5 3.0 20.2 55.6 9.3 31.7
Chai Nat 47.2 16.7 31.2 49.7 4.0 25.7 65.2 17.4 40.2
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 38.6 0.7 19.6 36.6 0.5 18.5 53.9 2.0 27.9
ANNEX II
Lop Buri 40.0 6.8 22.2 37.0 4.2 19.4 54.8 10.0 30.8
Saraburi 41.7 13.5 27.5 41.2 4.9 22.9 62.2 17.5 39.7
Sing Buri 26.9 0.4 12.5 32.3 0.8 15.1 38.5 1.7 18.5
Ang Thong 31.7 5.4 18.7 33.9 3.0 18.6 49.4 6.5 28.2
Eastern Region 39.6 7.6 23.2 38.8 3.3 20.6 57.8 10.7 33.7
Chanthaburi 48.4 3.5 26.1 38.6 3.1 21.0 59.1 6.7 33.0
Chachoengsao 25.9 3.2 14.3 39.1 4.9 21.6 52.7 6.6 29.1
Indices Data
Chon Buri 39.2 9.2 23.2 38.7 4.2 20.3 56.5 12.0 32.8
Trat 34.4 3.1 18.9 36.8 3.3 20.2 52.6 6.0 29.6
Nakhon Nayok 43.0 5.4 24.0 38.4 2.6 20.3 56.9 8.4 32.3
Prachin Buri 42.5 14.3 27.3 39.7 3.6 20.2 59.6 17.8 37.0
Rayong 45.3 7.1 26.5 36.3 0.9 18.9 62.6 8.8 36.1
Sa Kaeo 39.5 12.9 26.4 43.1 2.7 23.2 60.4 17.5 39.3
Western Region 35.4 3.7 19.5 38.2 2.9 20.5 54.4 6.0 30.1
Ratchaburi 32.0 6.2 18.8 37.8 3.2 20.1 55.2 9.1 31.6
Kanchanaburi 42.7 3.1 23.1 44.2 3.2 24.0 59.7 6.0 33.2
Suphan Buri 36.1 2.5 20.1 36.5 1.6 19.8 51.5 3.3 28.5
Samut Songkhram 36.5 1.6 17.9 37.6 0.8 18.0 52.9 2.9 26.2
Phetchaburi 34.4 1.6 17.7 35.9 1.6 18.4 53.3 2.7 27.5
Prachuap Khiri Khan 31.0 5.0 17.6 36.6 6.9 21.3 53.0 9.5 30.6
Northeastern Region 53.7 10.1 32.0 45.0 0.8 23.1 65.8 10.7 38.5
Nakhon Ratchasima 48.7 7.7 26.7 44.3 1.7 21.4 63.0 8.8 33.9
Buri Ram 50.6 16.5 33.1 50.5 0.0 24.6 67.4 16.6 41.3
Surin 44.0 9.5 27.0 42.3 0.8 21.9 59.4 11.9 36.0
Si Sa Ket 55.1 9.4 33.1 46.2 1.5 24.7 70.3 10.3 41.4
Ubon Ratchathani 50.6 7.4 29.5 42.4 0.4 21.9 62.3 7.5 35.6
Yasothon 52.3 10.8 32.0 46.8 0.1 23.9 62.3 11.4 37.4
Chaiyaphum 56.8 8.6 33.6 48.0 0.7 25.2 72.7 10.8 42.9
Amnat Charoen 57.6 4.6 30.8 41.2 0.6 20.7 66.5 4.6 35.2
Nong Bua Lam Phu 55.7 5.2 31.6 49.5 0.2 26.0 65.5 5.4 36.8
Khon Kaen 59.6 17.6 39.0 42.7 0.6 22.1 67.5 18.0 43.2
Udon Thani 53.8 6.0 30.2 42.5 0.9 21.9 63.0 6.0 34.8
Loei 62.4 11.7 38.0 52.1 0.1 27.1 72.4 11.7 43.3
Nong Khai 55.4 11.3 34.4 39.6 0.9 21.2 61.8 11.3 37.8
Maha Sarakham 51.6 10.0 30.7 44.5 0.1 22.1 66.8 10.6 38.5
Roi Et 52.0 16.2 34.6 40.1 1.2 21.1 62.5 16.6 40.1
Kalasin 55.6 9.6 33.7 48.8 1.0 26.0 70.8 10.0 41.8
Sakon Nakhon 58.3 5.3 31.7 46.8 1.3 24.0 69.3 5.8 37.5
Nakhon Phanom 54.2 11.3 32.4 45.9 0.6 22.9 61.2 12.1 36.2
Mukdahan 67.5 7.2 37.5 54.6 1.2 28.0 77.0 8.3 42.8
Northern Region 53.6 17.9 35.9 39.5 6.4 23.0 68.8 22.2 45.7
Chiang Mai 52.5 21.6 37.3 39.6 7.1 23.6 67.5 26.5 47.3
Lamphun 55.9 21.9 39.5 34.8 4.1 20.0 71.9 25.7 49.6
Lampang 58.9 13.2 36.4 38.6 8.0 23.5 71.6 20.0 46.2
Uttaradit 54.3 21.6 38.0 35.8 5.0 20.5 70.7 24.1 47.5
Phrae 56.0 23.8 39.2 39.1 7.1 22.4 72.9 27.5 49.2
Nan 68.6 29.9 50.1 29.0 3.4 16.8 72.3 31.8 52.9
Phayao 61.4 27.5 43.9 39.0 6.2 22.1 70.0 30.6 49.7
Chiang Rai 57.0 30.4 45.1 27.3 12.4 20.6 71.0 39.7 57.0
Mae Hong Son 56.0 9.1 34.6 41.5 8.3 26.4 67.2 15.0 43.4
Nakhon Sawan 36.5 6.3 20.2 40.5 2.3 20.0 54.8 8.3 29.8
Uthai Thani 46.8 8.1 27.2 51.6 5.0 28.0 66.9 9.6 37.8
Kamphaeng Phet 49.0 19.3 34.3 42.6 3.2 23.1 70.5 20.9 46.0
Tak 56.1 20.6 37.1 48.4 22.3 34.4 71.5 33.9 51.3
Sukhothai 51.5 13.5 32.1 41.8 4.7 22.9 69.0 17.1 42.5
Phitsanulok 62.1 15.6 38.8 49.4 1.8 25.6 76.8 16.5 46.7
Phichit 44.2 6.7 25.9 43.9 5.3 25.1 61.7 10.9 37.0
Phetchabun 54.6 10.2 32.7 43.2 2.7 23.2 69.4 12.4 41.3
Southern Region 31.0 1.3 16.1 46.6 1.6 24.1 55.7 2.5 29.0
Nakhon Si Thammarat 41.2 1.4 21.4 53.7 1.8 27.9 61.6 2.4 32.2
Krabi 27.2 0.9 14.0 48.4 0.6 24.4 53.9 2.0 27.8
Phang-nga 24.5 1.8 13.3 35.3 1.0 18.4 45.7 2.8 24.6
Phuket 41.0 2.3 21.1 34.0 0.5 16.8 56.6 2.5 28.8
Surat Thani 37.1 2.6 20.9 43.4 2.3 24.1 55.0 3.5 30.9
Ranong 36.5 1.1 18.6 54.1 1.6 27.5 61.4 2.7 31.7
Chumphon 37.7 2.9 18.9 45.0 2.4 22.0 55.7 5.0 28.3
Songkhla 35.7 1.5 18.4 42.5 1.5 21.8 55.6 2.4 28.8
Satun 17.7 0.2 9.0 49.9 0.7 25.5 55.0 0.7 28.1
Trang 39.4 0.1 19.4 51.2 0.6 25.5 60.8 0.6 30.2
Phatthalung 34.7 0.2 17.8 54.6 0.0 27.8 62.3 0.3 31.8
Pattani 10.3 0.7 5.2 40.5 3.0 20.4 44.5 3.8 22.7
Yala 8.4 1.2 4.8 47.1 1.9 24.6 51.4 2.2 26.9
Narathiwat 9.2 0.4 4.9 43.3 3.0 23.5 47.2 3.1 25.6

Table AII.1 Health (continued)
Disability 2002 Population with disability and/or Population per health personnel/infrastructure 2004
impairment and chronic illness 2002
Location Male Female Total Male Female Total Physician Dentist Pharmacist Nurse Hospital bed
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (number) (number) (number) (number) (number)
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34
Kingdom 1.8 0.9 1.7 4.2 5.7 5.0 3,305 15,143 8,432 652 469
Bangkok 0.8 0.3 0.7 3.7 4.5 4.1 879 5,583 4,632 289 224
Bangkok Vicinity 1.2 0.4 1.0 3.0 3.8 3.4 2,738 14,550 7,726 660 326
Nakhon Pathom 1.1 0.4 1.0 3.0 4.1 3.6 3,195 16,104 8,752 751 506
Nonthaburi 2.9 1.1 2.5 3.4 2.9 3.1 2,544 11,385 7,019 550 248
Pathum Thani 0.7 0.2 0.6 2.9 4.1 3.5 2,764 13,722 6,679 610 295
Samut Prakan 1.3 0.3 1.0 3.1 3.6 3.4 2,894 18,708 8,954 839 371
Samut Sakhon 1.9 0.6 1.5 3.3 3.2 3.2 2,205 14,369 7,302 565 295
Central Region 1.1 0.7 1.2 3.5 5.2 4.4 3,740 17,674 8,998 569 427
Chai Nat 1.0 0.9 1.4 3.7 5.9 4.8 5,079 23,024 9,088 622 519
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 0.8 0.6 1.0 3.1 4.7 3.9 4,311 17,758 9,944 667 608
ANNEX II
Lop Buri 2.2 1.0 2.0 3.5 4.8 4.2 4,491 19,462 11,162 715 410
Saraburi 0.9 0.5 1.0 3.3 5.1 4.2 2,433 15,660 7,101 461 332
Sing Buri 0.7 0.3 0.7 4.1 5.7 4.9 3,119 11,071 6,710 357 300
Ang Thong 1.1 0.6 1.1 3.5 5.4 4.5 4,627 22,069 9,563 534 448
Eastern Region 1.5 0.5 1.3 3.3 4.2 3.7 2,840 16,332 8,244 533 406
Chanthaburi 1.2 0.6 1.1 3.6 5.0 4.3 2,718 17,957 7,981 439 381
Chachoengsao 1.1 0.5 1.1 2.8 3.9 3.4 5,226 25,919 11,172 764 593
Indices Data
Chon Buri 1.0 0.3 0.8 2.8 3.6 3.2 1,858 11,275 6,250 399 290
Trat 1.1 0.6 1.1 3.4 4.3 3.9 3,516 24,610 10,068 412 378
Nakhon Nayok 1.5 0.5 1.2 3.2 4.3 3.7 1,406 8,937 6,103 397 318
Prachin Buri 1.7 0.5 1.3 3.6 4.7 4.1 4,687 21,426 7,758 635 429
Rayong 3.1 1.2 2.7 3.8 3.3 3.6 3,074 19,654 7,862 601 506
Sa Kaeo 2.7 0.9 2.3 4.1 3.5 3.8 7,281 23,427 19,956 1,289 718
Western Region 1.2 0.5 1.1 3.2 4.5 3.9 4,372 18,399 8,819 640 432
Ratchaburi 1.4 0.6 1.3 3.4 4.8 4.1 2,893 19,629 7,633 467 305
Kanchanaburi 0.8 0.3 0.7 3.1 4.5 3.9 5,153 22,328 11,011 836 512
Suphan Buri 1.5 0.6 1.4 3.3 4.5 3.9 5,852 20,838 9,820 743 503
Samut Songkhram 1.5 0.8 1.4 3.1 4.0 3.6 4,642 13,307 6,439 484 398
Phetchaburi 0.8 0.5 0.9 2.6 4.3 3.4 4,388 10,866 7,606 623 478
Prachuap Khiri Khan 1.6 0.6 1.4 3.4 3.9 3.7 5,117 23,147 9,348 756 509
Northeastern Region 2.2 1.3 2.4 5.3 7.5 6.4 7,466 24,699 13,048 1,045 747
Nakhon Ratchasima 2.6 2.0 3.3 4.7 7.8 6.2 5,182 24,430 13,155 957 662
Buri Ram 2.8 1.7 3.0 5.9 8.7 7.3 8,504 29,040 16,374 1,407 846
Surin 2.3 0.9 2.2 5.5 6.3 5.9 10,213 33,072 14,777 1,298 794
Si Sa Ket 2.5 1.4 2.7 5.8 8.3 7.0 12,210 38,236 15,967 1,331 1,091
Ubon Ratchathani 3.2 1.6 3.2 5.2 6.9 6.0 7,024 25,129 11,511 907 586
Yasothon 2.6 0.6 1.9 5.5 7.1 6.3 8,290 36,476 11,399 891 749
Chaiyaphum 2.3 1.3 2.4 6.4 9.1 7.7 10,846 24,522 15,452 1,256 1,041
Amnat Charoen 2.2 1.1 2.2 4.2 6.1 5.1 9,002 20,504 11,184 984 820
Nong Bua Lam Phu 1.6 0.8 1.6 4.9 6.7 5.8 10,811 31,081 14,626 1,262 1,135
Khon Kaen 1.2 0.9 1.6 4.9 7.8 6.3 3,697 9,649 8,567 655 492
Udon Thani 2.0 1.3 2.3 4.8 6.0 5.4 6,246 22,504 11,863 973 677
Loei 1.9 1.0 2.0 5.2 7.4 6.3 7,349 22,862 11,647 866 621
Nong Khai 3.3 1.8 3.4 5.9 7.4 6.7 8,868 27,409 15,595 1,152 924
Maha Sarakham 2.6 1.3 2.7 4.7 7.1 5.8 9,997 30,313 11,746 1,217 873
Roi Et 2.9 1.7 3.2 5.2 7.2 6.2 10,126 47,011 14,465 1,197 932
Kalasin 1.5 0.8 1.6 4.6 7.2 5.9 10,239 28,084 15,602 1,206 890
Sakon Nakhon 1.6 0.9 1.6 5.6 6.8 6.2 10,967 33,566 16,783 1,386 821
Nakhon Phanom 2.8 1.4 2.8 4.8 6.9 5.8 10,782 41,224 12,742 975 808
Mukdahan 2.1 0.8 1.9 5.7 7.7 6.7 8,191 30,529 11,994 825 560
Northern Region 2.0 0.8 1.8 4.8 6.4 5.6 4,534 16,039 9,037 684 503
Chiang Mai 1.6 0.6 1.3 5.2 7.0 6.1 2,392 7,284 6,710 427 269
Lamphun 4.3 2.0 4.2 5.5 6.3 5.9 5,897 19,377 8,304 700 500
Lampang 2.1 0.9 2.0 4.8 6.2 5.5 3,921 17,132 8,295 565 486
Uttaradit 1.6 0.6 1.4 4.5 5.8 5.1 3,604 11,895 7,552 629 551
Phrae 1.9 0.7 1.6 5.2 7.5 6.4 5,621 23,890 8,382 620 615
Nan 2.0 0.8 1.9 5.3 6.7 6.0 5,106 17,777 9,230 649 571
Phayao 2.0 0.9 1.9 4.8 6.0 5.4 5,155 21,519 10,311 585 591
Chiang Rai 2.0 0.6 1.7 5.4 6.2 5.8 6,104 22,494 11,144 890 610
Mae Hong Son 4.7 2.1 4.6 5.0 5.0 5.0 5,604 15,062 8,033 588 524
Nakhon Sawan 2.0 1.0 2.1 5.0 6.8 5.9 4,444 22,492 8,543 790 555
Uthai Thani 3.6 1.3 3.1 4.7 4.7 4.7 5,455 17,513 8,993 680 504
Kamphaeng Phet 1.1 0.5 1.1 3.7 6.6 5.1 9,873 23,448 13,895 1,212 911
Tak 1.5 0.6 1.3 3.6 4.9 4.2 4,925 15,853 9,224 645 506
Sukhothai 3.9 1.5 3.4 5.3 5.9 5.6 4,743 21,260 9,944 749 547
Phitsanulok 4.1 1.7 3.6 5.4 4.7 5.1 3,274 15,535 7,241 635 463
Phichit 1.8 0.8 1.7 4.5 6.6 5.5 7,826 22,275 10,725 874 598
Phetchabun 2.9 1.5 3.0 4.1 5.1 4.6 11,283 29,335 14,461 1,408 869
Southern Region 1.9 0.9 1.9 3.1 3.4 3.3 3,982 15,620 8,292 659 501
Nakhon Si Thammarat 2.4 1.3 2.4 3.0 2.9 2.9 6,562 26,133 11,311 933 694
Krabi 1.2 0.6 1.3 3.5 3.9 3.7 7,285 22,711 8,979 774 657
Phang-nga 1.2 0.5 1.2 3.4 5.1 4.1 3,998 14,111 7,739 439 416
Phuket 0.9 0.5 1.0 2.4 3.2 2.8 1,700 10,853 4,703 406 284
Surat Thani 1.6 0.7 1.5 3.6 3.9 3.7 4,661 19,518 7,098 544 352
Ranong 2.8 1.1 2.6 3.7 2.9 3.3 4,357 15,446 6,796 484 396
Chumphon 3.3 1.2 2.9 4.0 3.3 3.7 5,215 21,572 8,955 673 399
Songkhla 2.6 1.0 2.2 3.5 2.9 3.2 1,738 7,576 7,621 504 378
Satun 0.5 0.3 0.5 2.4 3.5 3.0 5,472 16,096 8,292 724 748
Trang 1.4 0.8 1.5 2.9 3.5 3.2 4,976 16,272 6,544 707 513
Phatthalung 2.6 1.2 2.5 4.2 5.0 4.6 6,686 20,894 9,643 741 668
Pattani 1.7 0.8 1.7 2.9 3.5 3.2 7,903 21,801 10,036 993 766
Yala 2.1 0.9 2.0 2.4 2.2 2.3 3,479 12,175 6,169 557 497
Narathiwat 2.4 1.2 2.4 3.1 3.1 3.1 8,247 25,036 11,882 909 858

Mean years of schooling 2005 Population with no education 2005 Educational attainment of poplulation aged 15+ 2005
Male Female Total Male Female Total Less than Primary Lower Upper Diploma University
Location primary secondary secondary
(years) (years) (years) (number) (number) (number) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Kingdom 8.3 8.1 8.2 827,599 1,868,268 2,695,867 5.4 34.6 19.7 16.4 12.1 3.3 8.0
Bangkok 11.0 10.7 10.8 46,460 141,568 188,028 3.3 19.4 15.6 15.6 18.4 4.4 22.5
Bangkok Vicinity 9.8 9.6 9.7 28,742 72,557 101,299 2.7 22.7 16.4 19.3 19.1 5.9 12.4
Nakhon Pathom 8.5 8.3 8.4 9,587 16,414 26,000 3.5 33.0 19.5 18.1 15.2 3.7 7.0
Nonthaburi 11.0 10.8 10.9 6,600 19,486 26,086 2.7 17.8 13.7 16.3 19.6 6.6 21.4
Pathum Thani 10.3 10.0 10.2 2,787 6,698 9,485 1.6 21.8 11.6 21.0 23.9 8.0 11.8
Samut Prakan 10.0 9.8 9.9 2,574 16,830 19,404 1.9 19.6 16.2 22.3 21.3 6.2 11.2
Samut Sakhon 8.4 8.2 8.3 7,193 13,130 20,323 4.9 24.8 24.7 18.2 12.9 4.1 5.7
Central Region 8.3 7.9 8.1 24,955 79,852 104,807 4.3 38.1 15.9 17.3 12.8 4.5 7.1
Chai Nat 7.9 7.5 7.7 6,712 14,120 20,831 7.3 39.4 18.6 13.5 10.6 4.9 5.6
ANNEX II
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 8.6 8.3 8.5 3,624 13,651 17,275 3.0 36.7 14.3 18.8 14.4 3.6 9.3
Lop Buri 7.7 7.3 7.5 6,494 25,617 32,111 5.4 41.4 18.6 15.3 10.4 3.4 5.2
Saraburi 8.6 8.1 8.4 4,379 15,936 20,315 3.8 36.7 13.9 18.2 13.7 6.5 7.2
Sing Buri 8.8 8.5 8.7 1,602 4,438 6,041 3.1 34.7 14.2 19.1 14.8 4.9 9.1
Ang Thong 8.4 7.9 8.1 2,144 6,091 8,235 3.7 37.3 15.4 19.7 13.5 4.3 6.0
Eastern Region 8.2 8.0 8.1 43,124 118,211 161,335 4.7 33.9 18.3 17.9 12.4 4.4 6.7
Chanthaburi 7.8 7.7 7.8 2,798 13,228 16,025 3.9 38.1 20.4 16.0 12.4 2.5 6.5
Indices Data
Chachoengsao 8.1 8.0 8.1 6,049 20,317 26,365 5.1 36.2 16.9 19.5 12.4 2.9 6.7
Chon Buri 8.5 8.5 8.5 6,981 20,628 27,609 3.1 27.7 15.5 21.0 13.8 5.6 7.9
Trat 7.3 7.1 7.2 5,679 8,696 14,375 7.6 37.0 25.8 12.2 9.0 2.0 4.2
Nakhon Nayok 8.1 7.8 8.0 2,470 7,603 10,073 5.5 35.6 18.9 17.5 13.3 3.3 5.9
Prachin Buri 8.3 8.0 8.1 3,905 10,357 14,262 4.4 37.7 13.8 19.6 13.0 6.1 5.3
Rayong 9.1 8.5 8.8 4,684 12,353 17,037 4.1 30.0 18.5 15.4 12.9 8.2 9.4
Sa Kaeo 7.6 7.2 7.4 10,559 25,030 35,589 6.8 37.8 22.4 15.6 10.3 2.3 4.8
Western Region 7.7 7.4 7.6 49,090 135,080 184,170 6.5 38.7 19.6 16.6 10.1 2.9 5.4
Ratchaburi 7.8 7.5 7.6 8,143 29,858 38,001 5.7 40.1 16.2 18.4 10.3 2.8 6.0
Kanchanaburi 7.7 7.4 7.6 17,130 45,064 62,193 9.6 36.4 20.5 15.1 10.7 3.0 4.6
Suphan Buri 7.4 7.1 7.3 14,869 35,382 50,251 7.7 39.5 21.5 16.6 7.8 2.6 4.4
Samut Songkhram 8.2 7.8 8.0 2,344 4,485 6,829 4.8 33.0 23.5 18.2 10.7 3.1 6.6
Phetchaburi 8.2 7.8 8.0 1,569 7,072 8,641 2.5 40.7 17.0 15.9 12.6 3.5 7.8
Prachuap Khiri Khan 7.7 7.3 7.5 5,036 13,219 18,255 5.0 39.2 21.6 15.8 10.1 3.0 4.7
Northeastern Region 7.4 7.0 7.2 149,204 397,229 546,434 3.4 40.7 24.7 15.7 9.3 2.0 4.3
Nakhon Ratchasima 7.3 6.9 7.1 34,031 81,977 116,008 5.8 41.2 21.9 17.4 9.1 1.8 2.8
Buri Ram 6.9 6.8 6.9 11,277 62,710 73,987 6.3 42.0 23.7 15.5 8.1 0.7 3.7
Surin 7.4 6.9 7.2 17,462 40,812 58,274 5.3 41.9 22.6 14.5 8.9 1.8 5.0
Si Sa Ket 7.4 6.9 7.2 11,705 38,250 49,954 4.5 39.9 25.8 14.4 9.3 1.7 4.3
Ubon Ratchathani 7.2 6.9 7.0 10,413 21,890 32,303 2.6 41.5 26.3 16.2 8.5 1.1 3.8
Yasothon 7.1 6.3 6.7 126 1,310 1,436 0.4 47.1 28.2 12.1 6.9 2.2 3.1
Chaiyaphum 6.9 6.6 6.8 5,035 20,084 25,119 3.0 45.8 22.5 17.1 7.2 1.3 3.1
Amnat Charoen 7.5 7.1 7.3 1,444 1,308 2,752 0.7 41.0 24.4 17.1 10.3 2.0 4.4
Nong Bua Lam Phu 7.2 7.1 7.2 3,618 9,231 12,849 2.5 36.5 29.6 19.2 6.8 1.9 3.5
Khon Kaen 8.0 7.4 7.7 8,406 23,934 32,340 2.6 40.3 21.5 14.4 11.1 4.5 5.6
Udon Thani 7.5 7.3 7.4 7,169 14,613 21,782 2.0 37.4 26.6 17.4 10.6 1.7 4.0
Loei 7.1 6.9 7.0 7,119 16,362 23,481 4.7 42.7 25.2 13.4 8.1 1.3 4.4
Nong Khai 7.4 7.3 7.3 4,752 15,888 20,640 2.8 38.4 26.7 16.2 9.4 2.6 4.0
Maha Sarakham 7.6 6.9 7.3 1,789 9,950 11,739 1.8 41.9 25.2 14.5 8.9 2.6 5.1
Roi Et 7.7 7.3 7.5 1,212 9,664 10,876 1.1 42.3 21.5 14.4 12.5 1.6 6.6
Kalasin 7.7 7.1 7.4 3,002 3,054 6,056 0.8 39.4 27.4 15.0 9.9 2.5 5.1
Sakon Nakhon 7.6 7.3 7.4 7,405 8,699 16,105 2.0 37.1 29.6 15.0 9.3 1.8 5.3
Nakhon Phanom 7.7 7.1 7.4 10,927 8,050 18,977 4.5 36.8 27.3 15.1 10.0 2.8 3.6
Mukdahan 7.8 7.3 7.6 2,310 9,446 11,755 4.4 37.1 23.4 18.5 9.2 2.0 5.5
Northern Region 7.7 7.5 7.6 342,707 640,623 983,330 10.7 39.2 16.2 15.1 10.3 2.6 5.6
Chiang Mai 8.4 8.3 8.3 72,853 105,815 178,667 13.9 34.2 13.2 15.1 12.9 3.5 7.2
Lamphun 7.8 7.7 7.8 10,624 19,143 29,767 9.8 39.2 13.9 15.8 12.9 3.5 4.9
Lampang 7.8 7.4 7.6 25,161 42,371 67,532 10.7 40.0 14.8 16.1 9.2 3.4 5.8
Uttaradit 8.0 7.5 7.7 7,775 10,872 18,647 5.1 41.8 16.6 15.2 12.5 2.4 6.4
Phrae 7.6 7.9 7.8 4,631 9,129 13,760 3.9 44.2 12.2 18.2 11.2 4.3 6.0
Nan 8.2 8.0 8.1 16,656 21,906 38,562 10.6 33.9 15.2 18.3 13.3 3.8 4.9
Phayao 7.9 7.2 7.6 15,938 30,580 46,518 11.7 39.6 15.4 15.1 10.9 2.2 5.1
Chiang Rai 7.7 7.8 7.7 76,958 140,733 217,691 21.5 32.9 15.2 12.2 10.7 2.6 4.8
Mae Hong Son 7.4 8.2 7.7 29,574 26,517 56,092 33.4 18.2 25.0 12.3 7.0 1.2 2.9
Nakhon Sawan 7.3 7.2 7.3 8,220 47,466 55,686 7.1 44.7 17.5 14.0 8.9 2.2 5.6
Uthai Thani 7.5 7.3 7.4 4,916 11,673 16,589 7.1 42.1 18.0 15.6 9.1 2.7 5.4
Kamphaeng Phet 7.2 6.7 6.9 9,439 32,055 41,494 6.7 44.4 21.9 14.8 5.9 0.9 5.5
Tak 7.7 7.4 7.6 26,250 37,661 63,911 18.2 32.1 15.9 13.7 8.5 2.0 4.9
Sukhothai 7.1 6.6 6.8 3,496 17,825 21,321 4.5 48.0 19.5 14.4 8.5 1.3 3.8
Phitsanulok 7.9 8.3 8.1 10,353 20,784 31,137 5.1 38.6 16.1 15.1 13.8 3.7 7.6
Phichit 7.4 6.8 7.1 5,645 25,096 30,740 7.4 45.7 15.7 14.2 10.5 2.2 4.2
Phetchabun 7.3 7.0 7.1 14,220 40,996 55,216 6.9 42.9 17.6 18.5 7.6 1.6 4.9
Southern Region 8.4 8.5 8.4 143,316 283,146 426,463 6.6 30.2 20.0 17.7 12.9 4.2 7.7
Nakhon Si Thammarat 8.1 8.1 8.1 10,353 29,245 39,598 3.3 34.1 20.9 17.7 11.8 4.8 6.5
Krabi 8.2 8.3 8.2 4,272 9,381 13,654 4.7 31.0 23.5 17.3 11.9 4.8 6.8
Phang-nga 7.5 7.9 7.7 3,342 6,424 9,766 5.5 32.8 27.7 14.6 8.6 2.4 6.8
Phuket 10.0 10.1 10.0 3,213 4,529 7,741 3.4 19.8 12.1 19.6 18.2 7.0 15.8
Surat Thani 8.6 8.4 8.5 6,163 19,433 25,595 3.5 31.4 19.0 19.7 13.3 3.5 8.5
Ranong 7.4 7.4 7.4 6,198 11,228 17,426 12.6 34.3 17.7 18.0 9.5 2.6 3.3
Chumphon 8.5 8.2 8.4 3,792 4,723 8,515 2.3 32.6 19.0 19.4 14.1 3.5 7.7
Songkhla 9.4 9.6 9.5 17,278 38,151 55,429 5.6 25.2 17.0 18.4 16.5 5.6 11.8
Satun 8.2 8.0 8.1 3,983 8,732 12,715 6.3 30.9 22.0 19.8 11.5 3.0 6.0
Trang 8.0 8.0 8.0 5,876 13,017 18,893 4.0 35.3 20.4 17.8 12.9 3.5 6.1
Phatthalung 8.2 8.2 8.2 5,282 9,130 14,412 3.7 35.1 19.1 17.2 12.5 5.0 7.0
Pattani 8.2 8.4 8.3 23,760 34,842 58,602 15.0 27.7 18.8 16.4 10.7 3.6 7.0
Yala 8.3 8.5 8.4 18,640 35,103 53,743 15.6 24.8 22.7 14.2 13.1 3.1 6.5
Narathiwat 7.7 8.0 7.8 31,164 59,208 90,372 16.6 26.7 23.8 16.0 9.9 2.7 4.2

Table AII.2 Education (continued)
Gross enrolment 2005 Quality of education Students per
(average score) 2004 class room 2005
Primary (%) Lower secondary (%) Upper secondary Primary Lower Upper Primary Lower Upper
Location & vocational (%) secondary secondary secondary secondary
Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total (%) (%) (%) (number) (number) (number)
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Kingdom 104.4 103.5 104.0 92.8 95.5 94.1 57.2 68.4 62.7 42.2 37.4 40.3 23 36 46
Bangkok 110.3 109.5 109.9 97.0 99.3 98.1 94.6 106.6 100.5 51.8 44.5 52.4 36 42 36
Bangkok Vicinity 107.0 106.3 106.7 91.0 93.0 92.0 48.7 57.9 53.2 43.6 40.8 45.4 33 42 36
Nakhon Pathom 120.7 117.0 118.9 106.5 106.9 106.7 63.7 73.1 68.3 44.0 39.2 50.9 30 43 36
Nonthaburi 98.3 98.4 98.3 82.2 86.3 84.2 39.9 58.8 49.3 45.5 42.3 48.3 33 43 38
Pathum Thani 105.2 104.0 104.6 93.5 92.4 93.0 54.6 57.9 56.2 39.4 38.6 41.7 32 41 35
Samut Prakan 105.9 107.2 106.5 90.7 95.3 92.9 43.9 51.8 47.8 43.0 44.1 41.9 34 41 35
Samut Sakhon 106.7 105.2 106.0 77.0 78.5 77.7 39.8 43.6 41.7 46.3 39.7 44.4 32 40 36
Central Region 106.9 106.1 106.5 100.0 99.8 99.9 70.8 74.9 72.8 40.5 37.8 39.9 22 34 33
Chai Nat 95.9 94.9 95.4 90.6 91.4 91.0 79.4 61.2 70.7 35.8 36.8 38.0 18 32 43
ANNEX II
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 114.8 113.6 114.2 105.8 103.2 104.5 67.3 74.1 70.6 42.7 36.3 38.7 24 36 31
Lop Buri 102.1 102.2 102.1 100.5 104.7 102.5 72.3 84.3 78.2 40.4 41.2 43.1 22 36 34
Saraburi 106.2 106.1 106.2 92.5 93.9 93.2 69.0 70.9 69.9 40.8 38.0 39.9 23 35 36
Sing Buri 113.2 111.5 112.4 112.6 102.5 107.7 85.3 84.7 85.0 42.8 37.7 40.1 18 26 27
Ang Thong 107.5 104.7 106.1 102.3 99.2 100.8 59.3 68.2 63.5 40.8 36.8 39.3 20 33 29
Eastern Region 112.3 111.5 111.9 102.6 103.1 102.9 62.6 73.2 67.8 44.8 38.0 42.4 26 38 36
Chanthaburi 111.5 111.0 111.2 96.5 100.1 98.3 57.3 69.7 63.4 46.7 38.1 39.8 27 40 41
Chachoengsao 110.0 108.0 109.0 103.4 102.7 103.1 64.1 67.0 65.5 48.6 36.9 40.4 24 38 43
Indices Data
Chon Buri 119.4 119.1 119.3 110.0 108.9 109.5 78.4 90.2 84.1 45.1 40.9 45.7 32 42 38
Trat 113.1 112.4 112.8 93.5 98.9 96.1 51.1 62.1 56.5 49.3 37.7 40.0 21 30 27
Nakhon Nayok 107.2 106.4 106.8 105.9 102.7 104.3 52.7 69.6 60.3 45.0 39.5 53.8 20 33 30
Prachin Buri 106.9 106.2 106.5 104.1 103.4 103.7 63.9 78.2 70.9 40.5 36.2 41.1 21 36 34
Rayong 122.3 121.5 121.9 106.6 107.4 107.0 62.8 71.4 67.0 44.6 41.4 41.9 29 38 33
Sa Kaeo 97.0 95.8 96.4 89.2 91.6 90.4 42.9 54.1 48.4 38.7 33.3 36.1 23 36 35
Western Region 110.0 108.5 109.2 93.3 96.2 94.7 49.9 61.5 55.5 44.5 39.3 42.9 23 36 34
Ratchaburi 113.2 111.6 112.4 94.6 94.2 94.4 54.6 64.8 59.5 46.5 41.3 43.9 26 41 38
Kanchanaburi 116.5 114.4 115.5 92.1 95.9 94.0 41.2 52.0 46.5 41.1 37.8 40.2 22 33 32
Suphan Buri 101.7 100.7 101.2 87.4 91.1 89.2 47.5 61.6 54.3 45.6 37.2 42.0 21 36 33
Samut Songkhram 106.1 104.8 105.5 94.4 100.4 97.4 56.1 65.3 60.6 45.0 39.2 44.4 21 39 33
Phetchaburi 101.8 100.7 101.3 103.2 107.0 105.0 62.0 75.3 68.5 43.9 40.9 46.0 21 37 36
Prachuap Khiri Khan 116.4 114.8 115.6 93.3 97.2 95.2 47.7 57.9 52.6 45.0 39.5 40.9 24 33 28
Northeastern Region 98.3 97.7 98.0 92.6 94.9 93.7 51.3 63.3 57.1 39.5 34.7 36.1 21 34 35
Nakhon Ratchasima 101.1 100.1 100.6 94.1 95.9 95.0 53.4 66.3 59.7 37.7 33.8 37.8 22 35 37
Buri Ram 98.9 97.3 98.1 90.7 94.6 92.6 45.2 56.1 50.5 39.2 34.0 36.8 23 34 35
Surin 98.7 97.4 98.1 92.8 95.9 94.3 41.9 57.6 49.6 37.6 35.9 38.5 23 34 33
Si Sa Ket 99.3 98.0 98.7 92.7 96.6 94.6 53.4 66.5 59.8 37.4 34.6 36.1 22 36 38
Ubon Ratchathani 97.8 97.9 97.9 92.1 94.6 93.3 45.5 59.4 52.3 38.2 34.2 35.2 22 34 37
Yasothon 97.4 96.8 97.1 91.4 93.9 92.6 62.3 72.8 67.4 38.1 35.7 35.7 18 31 34
Chaiyaphum 94.5 94.2 94.4 89.4 90.4 89.9 40.2 54.2 47.0 37.1 31.9 34.2 18 34 35
Amnat Charoen 97.3 97.0 97.2 100.3 98.3 99.3 55.9 70.4 62.8 40.0 35.7 36.1 20 37 39
Nong Bua Lam Phu 97.7 96.6 97.2 84.1 88.5 86.3 39.5 52.0 45.5 36.6 32.5 32.8 21 34 39
Khon Kaen 101.3 101.4 101.3 99.2 98.2 98.7 69.3 78.9 74.0 42.0 34.2 37.2 21 34 36
Udon Thani 98.1 98.0 98.1 89.5 91.9 90.7 52.2 63.4 57.6 41.0 35.8 38.4 22 35 33
Loei 98.7 97.4 98.1 101.7 99.0 100.4 53.1 62.9 57.9 43.5 36.3 35.7 17 31 33
Nong Khai 96.8 96.6 96.7 90.6 91.8 91.2 49.8 58.0 53.8 38.2 34.2 36.2 22 35 34
Maha Sarakham 96.3 96.7 96.5 95.5 95.8 95.7 55.6 66.3 60.8 43.7 35.9 37.6 21 35 37
Roi Et 95.8 96.1 96.0 87.7 93.2 90.4 50.6 61.8 56.0 39.8 33.9 36.2 21 33 33
Kalasin 98.3 97.6 97.9 92.7 95.7 94.2 57.7 70.6 64.0 40.8 34.5 33.7 20 32 35
Sakon Nakhon 97.5 96.6 97.1 92.8 95.7 94.2 51.3 63.1 57.1 38.4 34.1 37.2 23 34 36
Nakhon Phanom 96.8 96.2 96.5 90.9 93.0 91.9 38.2 49.1 43.6 45.5 35.8 34.7 20 33 31
Mukdahan 99.1 97.5 98.3 93.1 100.8 96.9 56.8 69.1 62.8 35.7 36.2 35.5 20 32 32
Northern Region 105.8 105.0 105.4 90.4 91.6 91.0 57.1 64.2 60.5 42.2 37.4 40.6 20 34 35
Chiang Mai 119.1 119.6 119.4 105.0 101.8 103.4 71.8 77.4 74.6 40.0 37.6 43.8 22 37 39
Lamphun 108.3 108.0 108.1 102.5 98.6 100.6 70.7 75.4 73.0 42.0 37.2 42.2 16 31 29
Lampang 101.6 101.0 101.3 99.6 100.3 100.0 80.4 84.8 82.5 44.3 34.3 43.8 20 38 33
Uttaradit 97.2 96.0 96.6 94.7 95.6 95.1 71.9 78.7 75.2 39.4 37.4 41.6 17 34 38
Phrae 101.6 101.4 101.5 83.9 95.0 89.3 62.8 76.8 69.6 44.6 40.0 44.5 18 32 34
Nan 105.2 103.3 104.3 94.2 94.9 94.5 72.3 75.9 74.1 44.5 40.2 43.6 17 31 36
Phayao 101.5 100.5 101.0 98.4 99.1 98.8 69.2 78.4 73.6 48.2 39.7 41.9 20 33 33
Chiang Rai 118.5 118.9 118.7 99.1 103.1 101.0 60.3 67.3 63.8 42.4 38.0 42.3 21 35 36
Mae Hong Son 122.3 118.9 120.7 75.4 86.6 80.8 39.5 46.2 42.8 36.7 35.4 37.4 16 28 32
Nakhon Sawan 101.5 100.1 100.8 93.3 93.5 93.4 51.0 61.0 55.9 42.6 37.7 39.5 21 36 35
Uthai Thani 99.7 99.3 99.5 94.2 96.2 95.2 49.7 55.6 52.6 48.2 39.0 39.9 16 31 31
Kamphaeng Phet 100.7 99.3 100.1 82.0 87.1 84.5 40.3 48.8 44.4 43.4 37.0 38.6 21 32 30
Tak 113.3 111.2 112.3 77.2 79.8 78.5 43.5 48.1 45.7 39.8 37.9 41.0 24 34 35
Sukhothai 94.7 93.6 94.1 97.4 98.1 97.8 67.4 91.8 79.2 38.9 34.5 38.8 18 35 36
Phitsanulok 100.8 99.0 99.9 96.1 95.9 96.0 58.0 66.0 61.9 38.8 37.6 37.0 22 33 34
Phichit 96.9 95.8 96.4 90.5 91.7 91.1 44.8 53.7 49.1 43.5 36.8 37.6 19 32 31
Phetchabun 101.1 99.7 100.4 46.6 44.2 45.4 17.1 13.1 15.2 39.6 35.9 36.6 21 28 13
Southern Region 106.7 104.6 105.7 87.8 95.2 91.4 50.5 66.8 58.5 42.9 37.8 40.8 25 37 36
Nakhon Si Thammarat 104.4 103.5 103.9 93.0 96.7 94.8 54.3 70.5 62.1 43.8 38.8 41.7 22 33 31
Krabi 108.4 105.3 106.9 89.0 95.0 91.9 45.3 55.9 50.5 51.0 39.1 38.9 25 39 36
Phang-nga 107.4 105.9 106.7 89.5 93.6 91.5 51.8 57.6 54.6 45.4 37.3 41.0 21 34 35
Phuket 101.7 100.3 101.0 94.0 98.0 95.9 70.6 84.5 77.6 50.1 41.8 47.3 35 43 34
Surat Thani 110.9 109.6 110.3 93.9 100.6 97.2 50.7 63.4 56.9 43.4 37.1 39.7 23 34 33
Ranong 110.4 108.6 109.5 84.0 90.2 87.0 51.1 60.8 55.8 42.2 37.8 39.9 25 35 36
Chumphon 108.5 107.1 107.8 97.5 102.1 99.7 55.5 68.8 62.0 41.5 38.2 39.7 24 40 38
Songkhla 108.8 107.3 108.1 87.7 92.3 89.9 57.8 74.3 65.9 42.7 39.1 45.8 28 39 38
Satun 100.9 100.0 100.5 87.9 99.9 93.7 48.6 63.5 55.9 40.7 39.3 38.6 23 35 40
Trang 106.2 103.3 104.8 90.7 97.5 94.0 56.5 73.6 64.8 45.2 35.9 42.3 25 40 40
Phatthalung 102.6 101.7 102.2 89.7 93.0 91.3 61.7 71.9 66.7 40.1 34.3 42.2 22 32 31
Pattani 102.3 100.9 101.6 82.7 98.2 90.3 40.2 63.3 51.6 40.0 40.8 41.6 27 43 42
Yala 109.7 105.5 107.7 82.1 99.4 90.5 48.6 78.2 63.4 41.0 36.3 37.2 29 37 33
Narathiwat 108.4 102.8 105.7 69.0 79.9 74.3 26.0 44.6 35.2 33.9 33.9 35.1 29 38 37

Population 2005 Population aged 15+ 2005 Employment 2005
Male Female Total Male Female Total No. of current

Location labour force
number number number number number number Male Female

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Kingdom 31,865,483 33,018,562 64,884,045 24,262,092 25,742,188 50,004,280 19,760,126 17,038,069
Bangkok 3,208,035 3,592,808 6,800,843 2,607,378 3,026,315 5,633,692 2,055,100 1,894,315
Bangkok Vicinity 2,210,138 2,377,221 4,587,358 1,789,873 1,969,403 3,759,275 1,496,829 1,373,712
Nakhon Pathom 468,229 479,032 947,261 365,509 384,168 749,677 310,662 279,762
Nonthaburi 538,898 622,458 1,161,356 442,419 524,093 966,512 357,907 342,313
Pathum Thani 351,311 381,787 733,098 280,624 310,100 590,724 227,569 202,253
Samut Prakan 586,545 648,208 1,234,753 486,704 547,036 1,033,740 416,751 392,625
Samut Sakhon 265,155 245,736 510,891 214,617 204,006 418,623 183,939 156,760
Central Region 1,489,777 1,559,933 3,049,709 1,164,358 1,249,752 2,414,109 912,265 801,664
Chai Nat 174,140 185,403 359,543 136,144 148,703 284,847 105,914 100,739
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 343,584 388,239 731,823 268,640 311,273 579,913 201,309 181,373
ANNEX II
Lop Buri 374,792 375,887 750,679 292,866 300,821 593,687 233,730 199,489
Saraburi 331,760 349,692 681,452 259,183 279,866 539,049 210,136 184,620
Sing Buri 124,564 117,603 242,167 97,412 94,366 191,778 77,840 59,007
Ang Thong 140,937 143,109 284,046 110,113 114,723 224,836 83,336 76,436
Eastern Region 2,190,718 2,214,674 4,405,393 1,703,343 1,749,098 3,452,440 1,412,417 1,155,769
Chanthaburi 269,169 255,328 524,497 211,452 203,417 414,869 179,540 147,678
Chachoengsao 325,638 329,856 655,494 251,854 260,610 512,464 204,231 163,547
Indices Data
Chon Buri 513,935 585,079 1,099,014 412,855 475,954 888,809 340,069 302,892
Trat 131,248 113,661 244,909 101,794 87,955 189,749 86,599 57,874
Nakhon Nayok 126,402 110,525 236,927 97,297 87,402 184,699 77,818 54,635
Prachin Buri 209,914 207,530 417,444 160,888 162,422 323,310 132,308 116,036
Rayong 253,446 274,285 527,731 200,169 217,336 417,505 171,861 142,916
Sa Kaeo 360,967 338,411 699,378 267,034 254,002 521,036 219,991 170,191
Western Region 1,759,758 1,845,949 3,605,707 1,354,036 1,462,603 2,816,638 1,113,313 978,825
Ratchaburi 400,922 448,433 849,355 308,742 355,610 664,352 257,845 247,802
Kanchanaburi 439,803 396,897 836,700 337,622 313,536 651,158 281,194 214,144
Suphan Buri 397,024 438,332 835,356 305,815 347,766 653,581 249,996 224,555
Samut Songkhram 85,323 96,512 181,835 65,846 76,705 142,551 52,204 49,221
Phetchaburi 205,264 233,561 438,825 158,001 185,237 343,238 126,152 122,315
Prachuap Khiri Khan 231,422 232,215 463,637 178,010 183,749 361,759 145,923 120,789
Northeastern Region 10,891,255 11,019,070 21,910,325 8,008,553 8,270,872 16,279,425 6,526,760 5,456,757
Nakhon Ratchasima 1,253,458 1,414,669 2,668,127 934,382 1,082,598 2,016,980 748,294 693,212
Buri Ram 742,980 853,079 1,596,059 539,859 629,849 1,169,708 453,225 405,260
Surin 750,219 759,848 1,510,067 535,950 554,610 1,090,560 420,433 357,019
Si Sa Ket 770,719 745,836 1,516,555 551,733 547,401 1,099,134 493,388 420,071
Ubon Ratchathani 832,227 894,475 1,726,702 598,791 655,558 1,254,349 499,504 414,617
Yasothon 273,707 260,665 534,372 199,332 203,039 402,371 169,334 146,436
Chaiyaphum 573,702 530,886 1,104,588 428,698 404,879 833,577 356,645 270,852
Amnat Charoen 267,900 264,764 532,664 195,226 191,534 386,760 160,742 136,802
Nong Bua Lam Phu 363,088 325,253 688,341 264,225 250,957 515,182 224,563 172,960
Khon Kaen 827,946 827,501 1,655,447 628,040 635,938 1,263,978 477,871 382,950
Udon Thani 790,110 666,182 1,456,292 581,189 494,775 1,075,964 470,029 324,145
Loei 322,743 325,662 648,405 246,856 251,588 498,444 197,709 155,360
Nong Khai 517,838 491,224 1,009,062 381,021 365,315 746,336 303,764 223,894
Maha Sarakham 437,317 444,080 881,397 327,800 342,541 670,341 272,268 231,572
Roi Et 673,127 704,861 1,377,988 494,182 530,153 1,024,335 405,278 381,268
Kalasin 477,433 509,525 986,958 354,749 385,029 739,778 279,172 261,971
Sakon Nakhon 545,267 528,074 1,073,341 401,778 394,717 796,495 313,779 246,826
Nakhon Phanom 291,403 284,418 575,821 213,935 211,528 425,463 170,609 138,244
Mukdahan 180,072 188,070 368,142 130,808 138,864 269,672 110,151 93,298
Northern Region 5,770,250 5,958,845 11,729,095 4,464,127 4,691,692 9,155,819 3,609,239 3,143,774
Chiang Mai 775,837 825,399 1,601,236 615,327 665,504 1,280,831 485,740 469,464
Lamphun 186,156 184,005 370,161 150,338 152,552 302,890 124,642 113,964
Lampang 380,376 406,971 787,347 301,707 327,220 628,927 238,425 220,716
Uttaradit 222,419 235,739 458,158 174,957 189,766 364,723 140,825 116,634
Phrae 221,010 226,996 448,006 175,931 179,831 355,762 141,256 122,488
Nan 246,621 221,264 467,885 190,549 171,805 362,354 150,656 115,023
Phayao 251,647 253,428 505,075 197,547 201,177 398,724 155,513 131,133
Chiang Rai 639,589 662,067 1,301,656 494,939 517,613 1,012,552 401,524 343,570
Mae Hong Son 136,962 112,063 249,025 95,088 72,610 167,698 80,926 54,789
Nakhon Sawan 466,921 515,069 981,990 363,363 415,601 778,964 298,497 276,651
Uthai Thani 147,681 154,807 302,488 113,168 121,755 234,923 92,865 81,216
Kamphaeng Phet 390,866 425,391 816,257 291,625 324,587 616,212 244,495 216,035
Tak 235,150 248,044 483,194 170,213 179,993 350,206 142,725 127,331
Sukhothai 266,630 325,247 591,877 205,943 266,933 472,876 171,154 186,613
Phitsanulok 409,304 379,111 788,415 319,034 291,561 610,595 256,956 189,029
Phichit 256,789 273,052 529,841 196,521 217,358 413,879 155,627 136,485
Phetchabun 536,293 510,193 1,046,486 407,878 395,827 803,705 327,413 242,633
Southern Region 4,345,554 4,450,061 8,795,615 3,170,425 3,322,455 6,492,881 2,634,204 2,233,253
Nakhon Si Thammarat 760,117 872,447 1,632,564 559,437 656,143 1,215,580 467,496 472,961
Krabi 194,503 208,032 402,535 139,652 149,735 289,387 118,289 100,060
Phang-nga 119,982 116,615 236,597 88,912 88,394 177,306 74,675 57,032
Phuket 140,087 152,876 292,963 108,064 120,794 228,858 90,297 72,180
Surat Thani 478,619 482,639 961,258 360,357 369,393 729,750 304,558 244,418
Ranong 89,775 93,428 183,203 67,432 70,380 137,812 58,881 40,858
Chumphon 245,578 241,489 487,067 186,496 187,674 374,170 156,135 123,903
Songkhla 663,139 655,106 1,318,245 494,592 503,058 997,650 398,461 336,550
Satun 140,410 139,986 280,396 100,529 101,660 202,189 83,028 61,282
Trang 323,604 318,759 642,363 234,222 241,710 475,932 200,905 175,186
Phatthalung 251,856 263,409 515,265 186,142 200,085 386,227 156,033 150,115
Pattani 305,371 257,318 562,689 211,321 178,664 389,985 170,771 109,153
Yala 254,706 236,069 490,775 175,567 168,782 344,349 141,708 104,709
Narathiwat 377,808 411,889 789,697 257,703 285,984 543,687 212,967 184,847

Table AII.3 Employment (continued)
Employment 2005
No. of employed persons No. of unemployed persons Un- No. of underemployed persons Under-
employment employment
Location rate rate
Male Female Total Male Female Total (%) Male Female Total (%)
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Kingdom 19,470,270 16,832,090 36,302,360 289,856 205,979 495,835 1.3 342,545 260,240 602,785 1.7
Bangkok 2,017,185 1,858,556 3,875,741 37,915 35,760 73,675 1.9 919 1,559 2,478 0.1
Bangkok Vicinity 1,473,809 1,362,582 2,836,391 23,020 11,130 34,150 1.2 1,305 2,829 4,135 0.1
Nakhon Pathom 308,544 278,968 587,512 2,118 794 2,912 0.5 0 2,203 2,203 0.4
Nonthaburi 352,301 340,385 692,686 5,606 1,927 7,533 1.1 0 0 0 0.0
Pathum Thani 220,283 199,502 419,785 7,286 2,751 10,038 2.3 743 0 743 0.2
Samut Prakan 410,900 388,684 799,583 5,851 3,941 9,793 1.2 459 401 860 0.1
Samut Sakhon 181,781 155,044 336,825 2,158 1,716 3,874 1.1 102 225 328 0.1
Central Region 887,564 791,006 1,678,570 24,701 10,658 35,359 2.1 20,328 7,605 27,933 1.7
Chai Nat 103,153 98,760 201,913 2,761 1,979 4,740 2.3 5,329 1,353 6,683 3.3
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 195,494 179,755 375,249 5,815 1,618 7,433 1.9 169 184 353 0.1
ANNEX II
Lop Buri 227,738 197,306 425,045 5,991 2,182 8,174 1.9 11,551 4,169 15,720 3.7
Saraburi 206,022 181,174 387,196 4,114 3,446 7,560 1.9 350 630 980 0.3
Sing Buri 74,364 58,836 133,200 3,476 171 3,647 2.7 1,294 319 1,613 1.2
Ang Thong 80,793 75,174 155,967 2,543 1,262 3,805 2.4 1,634 949 2,584 1.7
Eastern Region 1,387,108 1,139,794 2,526,902 25,309 15,975 41,284 1.6 15,965 11,016 26,981 1.1
Chanthaburi 177,179 147,125 324,304 2,361 553 2,914 0.9 2,621 1,043 3,664 1.1
Chachoengsao 196,586 159,653 356,239 7,646 3,895 11,540 3.1 4,246 2,464 6,710 1.9
Indices Data
Chon Buri 336,615 297,895 634,510 3,455 4,997 8,451 1.3 0 300 300 0.0
Trat 84,964 56,553 141,516 1,635 1,322 2,957 2.0 2,873 1,322 4,195 3.0
Nakhon Nayok 77,732 54,293 132,025 86 342 428 0.3 837 283 1,119 0.8
Prachin Buri 131,025 114,787 245,812 1,282 1,249 2,531 1.0 844 376 1,220 0.5
Rayong 169,663 139,524 309,187 2,198 3,393 5,590 1.8 71 480 550 0.2
Sa Kaeo 213,344 169,964 383,309 6,647 227 6,874 1.8 4,473 4,749 9,223 2.4
Western Region 1,099,188 967,668 2,066,856 14,125 11,157 25,281 1.2 19,973 17,620 37,594 1.8
Ratchaburi 254,728 246,184 500,913 3,117 1,617 4,734 0.9 3,668 4,522 8,190 1.6
Kanchanaburi 279,165 211,059 490,224 2,029 3,085 5,114 1.0 8,760 9,889 18,650 3.8
Suphan Buri 244,764 220,098 464,863 5,231 4,456 9,687 2.0 3,338 448 3,787 0.8
Samut Songkhram 51,947 49,045 100,992 257 176 433 0.4 0 0 0 0.0
Phetchaburi 123,109 120,978 244,087 3,043 1,336 4,380 1.8 239 397 636 0.3
Prachuap Khiri Khan 145,475 120,303 265,778 448 486 934 0.3 3,968 2,363 6,332 2.4
Northeastern Region 6,443,364 5,405,860 11,849,224 83,396 50,896 134,293 1.1 129,841 103,814 233,656 2.0
Nakhon Ratchasima 740,969 685,537 1,426,506 7,324 7,675 14,999 1.0 8,237 13,701 21,939 1.5
Buri Ram 446,294 401,295 847,589 6,930 3,965 10,895 1.3 14,237 9,697 23,934 2.8
Surin 411,088 352,537 763,625 9,344 4,482 13,827 1.8 961 2,176 3,137 0.4
Si Sa Ket 490,698 415,323 906,021 2,690 4,748 7,438 0.8 39,536 31,121 70,657 7.8
Ubon Ratchathani 496,158 412,640 908,798 3,346 1,977 5,324 0.6 3,765 0 3,765 0.4
Yasothon 169,285 146,404 315,688 50 33 82 0.0 1,819 662 2,481 0.8
Chaiyaphum 354,450 269,870 624,319 2,195 983 3,178 0.5 4,686 5,155 9,841 1.6
Amnat Charoen 156,193 131,902 288,095 4,550 4,899 9,449 3.2 2,006 2,745 4,752 1.6
Nong Bua Lam Phu 221,894 169,945 391,838 2,670 3,015 5,685 1.4 1,486 1,422 2,909 0.7
Khon Kaen 456,171 378,453 834,624 21,700 4,496 26,197 3.0 17,227 3,348 20,575 2.5
Udon Thani 468,767 321,477 790,243 1,263 2,669 3,931 0.5 1,833 5,376 7,209 0.9
Loei 197,526 155,360 352,886 183 0 183 0.1 3,870 2,270 6,140 1.7
Nong Khai 298,005 223,088 521,093 5,760 806 6,566 1.2 5,711 1,305 7,016 1.3
Maha Sarakham 266,588 231,353 497,942 5,680 219 5,899 1.2 6,309 2,902 9,211 1.8
Roi Et 404,829 380,860 785,689 450 408 858 0.1 6,837 11,507 18,344 2.3
Kalasin 278,921 261,206 540,127 250 765 1,016 0.2 3,991 2,983 6,973 1.3
Sakon Nakhon 311,493 239,627 551,121 2,286 7,198 9,484 1.7 528 3,231 3,759 0.7
Nakhon Phanom 164,935 136,511 301,447 5,673 1,733 7,406 2.4 247 0 247 0.1
Mukdahan 109,099 92,473 201,572 1,051 825 1,876 0.9 6,556 4,211 10,767 5.3
Northern Region 3,563,603 3,106,879 6,670,482 45,635 36,895 82,530 1.2 74,957 57,596 132,553 2.0
Chiang Mai 479,726 457,286 937,013 6,014 12,177 18,191 1.9 13,400 8,218 21,619 2.3
Lamphun 122,986 113,279 236,265 1,656 685 2,341 1.0 1,703 2,998 4,701 2.0
Lampang 235,720 216,655 452,375 2,705 4,061 6,767 1.5 2,820 5,338 8,158 1.8
Uttaradit 138,714 115,435 254,149 2,111 1,200 3,310 1.3 1,169 692 1,860 0.7
Phrae 141,057 121,781 262,838 199 707 907 0.3 4,692 2,703 7,395 2.8
Nan 147,759 114,994 262,754 2,896 29 2,926 1.1 45 0 45 0.0
Phayao 154,740 129,876 284,615 773 1,257 2,030 0.7 557 789 1,346 0.5
Chiang Rai 396,139 340,651 736,790 5,385 2,919 8,304 1.1 15,808 11,265 27,073 3.7
Mae Hong Son 80,431 54,490 134,921 494 299 794 0.6 405 278 683 0.5
Nakhon Sawan 297,657 276,651 574,308 840 0 840 0.1 4,517 2,118 6,635 1.2
Uthai Thani 92,301 80,795 173,096 564 420 985 0.6 209 238 447 0.3
Kamphaeng Phet 238,799 213,790 452,589 5,696 2,244 7,940 1.7 9,059 8,320 17,379 3.8
Tak 140,219 126,380 266,599 2,506 952 3,458 1.3 3,788 4,241 8,029 3.0
Sukhothai 168,011 185,204 353,214 3,143 1,409 4,552 1.3 3,229 1,609 4,838 1.4
Phitsanulok 254,711 187,067 441,779 2,245 1,961 4,206 0.9 2,288 91 2,379 0.5
Phichit 151,709 134,490 286,200 3,918 1,994 5,912 2.0 1,631 618 2,249 0.8
Phetchabun 322,924 238,054 560,978 4,488 4,579 9,068 1.6 9,638 8,080 17,718 3.2
Southern Region 2,598,448 2,199,745 4,798,194 35,756 33,507 69,263 1.4 79,257 58,199 137,456 2.9
Nakhon Si Thammarat 460,028 463,639 923,668 7,468 9,321 16,789 1.8 19,789 18,433 38,222 4.1
Krabi 117,321 98,382 215,702 968 1,678 2,646 1.2 10,199 8,348 18,548 8.6
Phang-nga 74,340 56,166 130,506 335 866 1,201 0.9 13,264 9,463 22,726 17.4
Phuket 89,251 71,111 160,362 1,046 1,070 2,115 1.3 1,624 453 2,077 1.3
Surat Thani 303,245 241,985 545,230 1,313 2,433 3,745 0.7 4,048 2,834 6,882 1.3
Ranong 58,624 40,297 98,921 257 561 818 0.8 281 306 586 0.6
Chumphon 155,211 122,372 277,584 924 1,530 2,454 0.9 1,288 681 1,969 0.7
Songkhla 386,860 330,401 717,262 11,601 6,148 17,749 2.4 8,602 4,341 12,943 1.8
Satun 82,491 60,564 143,055 537 718 1,255 0.9 3,392 2,896 6,288 4.4
Trang 200,226 173,565 373,790 679 1,622 2,301 0.6 1,984 1,547 3,532 0.9
Phatthalung 155,419 147,436 302,855 614 2,679 3,293 1.1 4,675 4,865 9,540 3.2
Pattani 167,306 106,713 274,018 3,465 2,441 5,905 2.1 4,575 1,842 6,417 2.3
Yala 140,818 104,196 245,014 890 513 1,403 0.6 2,844 1,336 4,180 1.7
Narathiwat 207,308 182,919 390,227 5,659 1,929 7,587 1.9 2,691 854 3,545 0.9

Table AII.3 Employment (continued)
Occupational injuries 2005
Employed people having Workers covered Occupational Occupational

social security 2005 by Workers’ injuries injuries
Location Compensation Fund
(number) (%) (number) (number) per 1,000 workers

covered by WCF
20 21 22 23 24
Kingdom 8,467,336 23.0 7,384,703 214,235 29
Bangkok 2,953,563 74.8 2,677,665 58,878 22
Bangkok Vicinity 1,848,964 64.4 1,698,984 76,253 45
Nakhon Pathom 730,780 24.3 181,402 5,746 32
Nonthaburi 206,854 29.5 177,302 4,431 25
Pathum Thani 372,881 86.8 319,801 8,083 25
Samut Prakan 196,585 123.8 694,358 42,891 62
Samut Sakhon 341,864 100.3 326,121 15,102 46
Central Region 556,098 32.4 490,813 10,113 21
Chai Nat 14,122 6.8 10,714 248 23
ANNEX II
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 304,870 79.7 271,253 4,822 18

Lop Buri 62,222 14.4 52,049 810 16
Saraburi 145,878 37.0 132,543 3,649 28
Sing Buri 16,917 12.4 14,745 430 29
Ang Thong 12,089 7.6 9,509 154 16
Eastern Region 1,032,394 40.2 901,707 29,189 32
Chanthaburi 31,562 9.6 23,668 606 26
Indices Data
Chachoengsao 155,380 42.2 139,807 5,638 40

Chon Buri 455,836 70.9 403,945 14,292 35
Trat 10,983 7.6 8,458 153 18
Nakhon Nayok 13,807 10.4 11,725 329 28
Prachin Buri 102,046 41.1 93,096 1,846 20
Rayong 247,950 78.8 210,436 6,140 29
Sa Kaeo 14,830 3.8 10,572 185 17
Western Region 269,481 12.9 227,631 6,921 30
Ratchaburi 88,259 17.5 76,413 2,380 31
Kanchanaburi 43,044 8.7 35,372 877 25
Suphan Buri 35,825 7.5 28,627 896 31
Samut Songkhram 13,471 13.3 11,252 438 39
Phetchaburi 38,203 15.4 32,123 1,212 38
Prachuap Khiri Khan 50,679 19.0 43,844 1,118 25
Northeastern Region 629,278 5.3 455,286 9,146 20
Nakhon Ratchasima 198,053 13.7 164,829 4,747 29
Buri Ram 28,062 3.3 18,636 181 10
Surin 21,452 2.8 12,738 265 21
Si Sa Ket 16,343 1.8 8,294 93 11
Ubon Ratchathani 46,859 5.1 30,938 601 19
Yasothon 9,850 3.1 6,332 41 6
Chaiyaphum 23,414 3.7 15,463 133 9
Amnat Charoen 5,263 1.8 3,018 21 7
Nong Bua Lam Phu 6,899 1.7 3,703 29 8
Khon Kaen 98,981 11.5 77,467 1,049 14
Udon Thani 46,714 5.9 34,307 907 26
Loei 11,784 3.3 7,262 57 8
Nong Khai 15,369 2.9 9,207 185 20
Maha Sarakham 19,423 3.9 12,305 66 5
Roi Et 27,079 3.4 18,867 380 20
Kalasin 16,508 3.1 10,732 93 9
Sakon Nakhon 19,344 3.5 11,000 196 18
Nakhon Phanom 9,035 2.9 4,571 25 5
Mukdahan 8,846 4.3 5,617 77 14
Northern Region 603,897 8.9 456,611 10,852 24
Chiang Mai 177,087 18.5 133,451 3,405 26
Lamphun 75,522 31.7 67,314 902 13
Lampang 50,867 11.1 43,753 1,055 24
Uttaradit 14,549 5.7 9,671 244 25
Phrae 17,694 6.7 12,000 323 27
Nan 11,496 4.3 6,757 69 10
Phayao 14,434 5.0 9,362 130 14
Chiang Rai 43,644 5.9 29,198 427 15
Mae Hong Son 3,534 2.6 2,110 8 4
Nakhon Sawan 49,720 8.6 39,566 1,613 41
Uthai Thani 8,740 5.0 6,172 149 24
Kamphaeng Phet 18,301 4.0 12,237 328 27
Tak 16,322 6.0 11,096 192 17
Sukhothai 14,119 3.9 10,814 236 22
Phitsanulok 46,446 10.4 33,576 1,037 31
Phichit 17,571 6.0 11,930 307 26
Phetchabun 23,321 4.1 17,604 427 24
Southern Region 573,661 11.8 476,006 12,883 27
Nakhon Si Thammarat 48,887 5.2 37,408 906 24
Krabi 27,327 12.5 24,275 521 21
Phang-nga 11,626 8.8 7,177 622 87
Phuket 92,698 57.1 83,616 2,169 26
Surat Thani 79,424 14.5 65,414 1,524 23
Ranong 8,297 8.3 6,503 62 10
Chumphon 24,366 8.7 18,819 415 22
Songkhla 169,882 23.1 147,875 4,030 27
Satun 8,746 6.1 6,379 145 23
Trang 36,690 9.8 31,277 1,187 38
Phatthalung 11,292 3.7 7,450 131 18
Pattani 21,286 7.6 16,630 372 22
Yala 18,917 7.7 14,296 667 47
Narathiwat 14,223 3.6 8,887 132 15

Table AII.4 Income
Household income 2004 Household expenditure Household debt Poverty 2004
House House House
hold Male Female Household hold House House hold house Average Poverty Number Poverty
income headed headed income income hold hold expen- holds household incidence of poor line
2002 change expen- expen- diture with debt
2002- diture diture change debt
2004 2002 2004 2002- 2004
Location 2004
(Baht/ (Baht/ (Baht/ (Baht/ (%) (Baht/ (Baht/ (%) (% of (Bath) (%) (in 1,000) (Baht/
month) month) month) month) month) month) house person/
holds) month)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Kingdom 13,508 15,539 12,987 14,778 9.40 9,601 10,885 13.38 66.4 157,439 11.25 7,079.0 1,242
Bangkok 29,425 31,102 26,314 29,696 0.92 18,995 19,841 4.45 45.8 351,000 1.64 108.4 1,853
Bangkok Vicinity 21,490 21,847 19,846 21,215 -1.28 14,897 15,268 2.48 52.4 262,946 0.88 37.8 1,372
Nakhon Pathom 18,374 21,083 19,504 20,478 11.45 13,577 16,548 21.89 65.2 268,017 2.36 20.2 1,321
Nonthaburi 28,907 27,516 24,765 26,579 -8.05 19,707 17,970 -8.81 60.3 336,798 0.57 5.6 1,368
Pathum Thani 22,653 22,437 19,484 21,477 -5.19 15,916 15,543 -2.34 55.4 261,726 0.00 0.0 1,308
Samut Prakan 19,594 20,639 17,677 19,917 1.65 12,927 13,384 3.53 43.6 180,703 0.31 3.4 1,464
Samut Sakhon 16,360 15,592 14,486 15,281 -6.59 11,461 11,546 0.74 29.1 222,024 1.68 8.5 1,374
Central Region 12,412 16,320 13,269 15,153 22.08 9,044 11,037 22.04 62.5 147,122 6.36 185.1 1,321
ANNEX II
Chai Nat 10,464 12,318 13,851 12,920 23.47 8,436 10,725 27.13 68.5 136,973 10.74 38.3 1,321
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 13,164 16,428 12,781 14,893 13.14 9,981 9,818 -1.63 39.7 124,457 3.50 25.0 1,362
Lop Buri 10,829 16,788 11,189 14,968 38.22 7,899 11,788 49.22 79.7 177,771 8.60 61.8 1,278
Saraburi 14,656 19,078 17,803 18,634 27.14 9,634 12,627 31.06 65.1 153,458 4.32 26.8 1,321
Sing Buri 14,150 16,642 11,224 14,611 3.26 10,574 11,355 7.39 64.5 156,030 10.49 24.3 1,344
Ang Thong 11,651 13,581 12,039 12,811 9.95 8,034 9,052 12.67 60.1 72,598 3.28 8.9 1,313
Eastern Region 13,938 18,666 14,222 17,200 23.41 10,332 12,105 17.16 63.6 226,011 5.79 240.6 1,343
Indices Data
Chanthaburi 15,771 16,471 13,434 15,503 -1.70 11,602 12,377 6.67 71.0 259,489 4.14 21.2 1,347
Chachoengsao 14,725 17,265 15,714 16,718 13.53 12,023 13,645 13.50 66.5 134,537 3.18 20.4 1,304
Chon Buri 16,679 23,611 18,497 22,240 33.34 12,567 14,310 13.87 46.4 440,115 1.30 14.0 1,422
Trat 13,719 14,474 12,814 13,961 1.76 8,887 9,514 7.05 59.8 145,418 12.45 29.2 1,315
Nakhon Nayok 10,106 14,274 11,339 12,971 28.35 8,425 10,957 30.05 72.9 138,358 10.67 26.2 1,277
Prachin Buri 12,691 16,616 12,433 14,964 17.92 9,889 11,962 20.96 71.2 120,982 7.61 31.4 1,272
Rayong 13,252 24,286 15,062 21,472 62.03 9,000 13,070 45.23 66.0 205,189 5.60 29.4 1,364
Sa Kaeo 9,893 11,117 10,090 10,753 8.69 6,113 6,575 7.55 75.2 86,415 13.75 68.8 1,297
Western Region 13,823 16,500 12,475 14,962 8.25 9,255 11,195 20.96 64.3 145,614 8.28 293.8 1,309
Ratchaburi 14,471 22,264 14,798 19,425 34.23 11,595 13,852 19.47 65.9 161,821 5.55 44.0 1,334
Kanchanaburi 15,176 12,713 10,366 11,944 -21.30 8,321 9,577 15.08 63.2 99,368 16.94 134.8 1,276
Suphan Buri 12,943 17,761 12,600 15,496 19.73 8,281 11,628 40.41 68.7 196,868 5.79 50.1 1,278
Samut Songkhram 13,673 13,082 11,732 12,500 -8.58 10,589 9,566 -9.66 44.5 52,877 4.86 10.3 1,324
Phetchaburi 14,595 13,619 11,632 12,898 -11.62 8,687 9,498 9.34 68.9 119,161 5.17 22.5 1,342
Prachuap Khiri Khan 11,663 14,711 11,998 13,752 17.91 8,265 10,495 26.98 59.3 133,991 7.17 32.2 1,343
Northeastern Region 9,049 10,399 8,707 9,933 9.77 6,741 7,634 13.25 78.7 105,816 17.16 3,650.8 1,078
Nakhon Ratchasima 9,434 11,574 10,599 11,237 19.10 6,775 8,212 21.21 77.6 112,421 15.63 402.7 1,078
Buri Ram 7,691 8,566 8,118 8,436 9.69 5,847 6,947 18.81 83.7 104,697 21.69 327.7 1,065
Surin 6,485 7,960 7,351 7,777 19.91 5,392 6,195 14.88 82.7 105,908 33.97 458.6 1,057
Si Sa Ket 7,227 8,810 6,583 8,365 15.74 5,713 6,533 14.36 84.4 85,118 19.29 276.6 1,081
Ubon Ratchathani 12,062 11,864 9,275 11,333 -6.04 7,446 7,802 4.78 77.6 103,610 7.03 121.4 1,061
Yasothon 6,018 9,741 7,714 9,302 54.56 5,176 8,279 59.96 78.1 101,976 10.67 60.4 1,069
Chaiyaphum 8,248 9,351 8,159 8,981 8.89 6,380 6,455 1.17 79.0 99,183 22.57 251.7 1,077
Amnat Charoen 8,999 11,739 8,763 11,123 23.61 6,652 8,750 31.55 86.2 130,741 12.01 43.7 1,079
Nong Bua Lam Phu 6,943 8,472 7,338 8,198 18.07 5,270 6,354 20.56 79.3 126,854 29.46 145.2 1,074
Khon Kaen 11,295 13,826 8,553 12,734 12.74 6,942 9,454 36.19 78.2 125,749 9.03 159.5 1,108
Udon Thani 9,807 11,195 9,807 10,773 9.85 7,301 7,694 5.38 67.7 108,594 15.14 226.1 1,085
Loei 9,168 10,355 8,584 9,965 8.69 6,806 7,900 16.08 82.5 95,916 17.27 110.0 1,088
Nong Khai 10,680 12,502 8,514 11,218 5.03 7,963 9,048 13.62 73.8 122,390 10.78 98.4 1,089
Maha Sarakham 9,238 10,681 7,968 10,031 8.59 6,982 7,253 3.88 85.5 100,387 9.51 91.7 1,062
Roi Et 8,926 9,279 9,800 9,442 5.77 7,255 8,349 15.08 85.2 89,735 8.21 107.0 1,077
Kalasin 8,433 9,439 7,852 8,855 5.01 7,810 6,478 -17.06 75.0 87,317 15.36 147.9 1,102
Sakon Nakhon 9,989 8,911 8,537 8,823 -11.68 8,081 7,114 -11.97 70.7 107,266 30.16 322.6 1,064
Nakhon Phanom 7,202 8,479 7,331 8,080 12.18 6,290 7,754 23.28 72.8 117,548 32.27 224.5 1,069
Mukdahan 8,715 9,509 7,792 9,176 5.29 7,408 7,823 5.61 78.9 112,983 22.26 75.0 1,085
Northern Region 9,287 11,273 9,362 10,690 15.11 6,777 8,232 21.47 68.2 139,182 16.24 1,907.4 1,131
Chiang Mai 9,192 12,971 11,068 12,439 35.32 7,573 10,035 32.51 67.3 136,610 18.59 286.2 1,156
Lamphun 11,165 11,949 10,341 11,551 3.46 8,023 8,823 9.96 77.1 191,903 5.75 24.1 1,170
Lampang 9,738 10,591 10,414 10,539 8.23 6,006 7,594 26.44 61.8 115,921 16.54 129.8 1,152
Uttaradit 8,415 11,808 9,190 10,845 28.88 5,995 7,855 31.01 62.9 137,020 14.16 66.7 1,124
Phrae 9,778 11,687 8,428 10,982 12.31 6,602 7,867 19.16 68.0 133,673 5.01 24.8 1,142
Nan 7,903 11,310 7,955 10,454 32.27 6,274 9,146 45.78 75.1 162,455 19.33 91.8 1,133
Phayao 9,311 9,958 8,051 9,587 2.96 6,236 6,950 11.45 64.0 85,896 19.52 99.6 1,159
Chiang Rai 8,087 8,870 8,870 8,870 9.68 6,844 7,561 10.47 63.5 150,345 15.18 179.6 1,135
Mae Hong Son 6,681 8,534 8,663 8,564 28.19 5,379 6,810 26.60 70.0 83,112 33.95 84.9 1,090
Nakhon Sawan 9,419 10,253 9,289 9,877 4.85 6,765 7,028 3.89 66.4 123,604 17.06 183.2 1,151
Uthai Thani 6,407 10,274 8,211 9,631 50.33 5,157 7,052 36.74 74.7 113,770 21.62 66.4 1,099
Kamphaeng Phet 11,850 13,301 9,741 12,093 2.05 9,331 10,149 8.78 81.4 116,461 6.81 46.9 1,075
Tak 7,510 9,618 9,053 9,431 25.58 5,262 7,821 48.61 59.3 131,044 29.60 175.8 1,113
Sukhothai 8,201 12,274 8,970 11,267 37.39 5,490 7,495 36.52 66.9 110,258 14.53 87.0 1,140
Phitsanulok 10,467 13,400 11,358 12,612 20.49 7,643 9,867 29.09 65.7 232,869 11.96 94.9 1,134
Phichit 10,612 12,301 8,341 10,878 2.51 7,804 8,146 4.39 74.9 159,856 11.07 63.2 1,121
Phetchabun 9,461 10,635 7,003 9,363 -1.03 5,406 6,906 27.74 71.7 130,176 20.39 202.3 1,084
Southern Region 12,171 15,111 11,748 14,237 16.98 9,558 11,525 20.58 63.5 145,164 7.82 655.0 1,164
Nakhon Si Thammarat 11,363 14,203 11,993 13,628 19.93 10,128 11,383 12.38 72.6 144,303 13.04 201.8 1,147
Krabi 12,632 15,271 18,500 15,759 24.75 11,056 13,903 25.74 78.6 256,587 6.76 23.8 1,166
Phang-nga 12,208 18,087 12,920 16,791 37.55 8,911 9,962 11.80 48.3 98,705 0.55 1.3 1,160
Phuket 26,017 26,913 19,691 24,981 -3.98 17,002 18,146 6.73 61.9 115,457 0.21 0.6 1,176
Surat Thani 13,997 16,807 13,978 15,974 14.12 10,089 13,182 30.66 64.9 134,194 0 0 1,186
Ranong 10,733 14,955 11,553 14,229 32.57 8,609 11,709 36.00 69.6 117,529 5.42 9.4 1,173
Chumphon 10,883 11,718 10,594 11,478 5.47 7,662 9,304 21.43 67.1 134,408 5.60 25.6 1,201
Songkhla 13,993 16,823 11,680 15,354 9.72 10,316 13,174 27.71 45.8 127,924 2.61 33.7 1,239
Satun 12,701 12,590 8,387 11,807 -7.04 8,444 9,484 12.32 61.2 133,979 6.63 17.2 1,129
Trang 14,225 18,681 12,343 16,762 17.84 9,907 12,307 24.23 70.8 273,345 2.16 13.2 1,151
Phatthalung 10,487 15,760 11,691 14,759 40.74 8,521 10,476 22.94 69.7 129,078 3.34 16.9 1,190
Pattani 9,586 13,442 7,789 11,694 21.99 8,671 10,106 16.56 64.3 142,803 22.96 143.3 1,106
Yala 9,960 12,178 10,855 11,880 19.27 8,816 9,269 5.14 47.8 114,204 10.00 43.4 1,104
Narathiwat 7,597 9,738 7,524 9,214 21.28 6,800 8,493 24.89 66.7 58,884 18.15 124.8 1,100

Table AII.5 Housing and living environment
Housing 2004 Living condition 2004
Households Permanent Persons per Persons per Safe Clean Electricity Telephone Electric fan Refrigerator Cooking
owning building room sleeping sanitation drinking in dwelling in structure fuel gas or
Location house and material room water electric
land stove
(% hholds) (% hholds) (number) (number) (% hholds) (% hholds) (% hholds) (% hholds) (% hholds) (% hholds) (% hholds)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Kingdom 76.3 97.9 1.3 2.0 99.8 99.2 98.9 23.9 95.0 79.7 75.6
Bangkok 34.7 98.9 1.3 1.7 100 99.9 99.7 51.2 97.8 78.6 82.0
Bangkok Vicinity 44.1 98.5 1.3 1.9 100 99.3 99.8 43.0 99.2 82.8 86.5
Nakhon Pathom 61.2 99.1 1.2 1.9 100 98.5 99.9 37.3 99.3 90.4 91.4
Nonthaburi 41.5 97.7 1.2 1.8 100 99.8 100 54.9 98.5 85.3 88.4
Pathum Thani 50.4 99.7 1.4 1.8 100 98.0 99.5 50.6 99.6 87.8 89.9
Samut Prakan 30.1 99.3 1.4 2.0 100 100 99.7 43.2 99.5 75.5 79.5
Samut Sakhon 37.2 95.7 1.4 1.9 100 100 100 21.4 99.5 72.7 83.4
Central Region 79.9 97.5 1.6 2.2 99.9 98.0 98.8 30.3 97.3 87.3 83.8
Chai Nat 83.3 92.6 1.4 2.1 99.3 98.7 97.0 23.2 94.7 77.6 74.8
ANNEX II
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 78.2 99.3 1.7 2.2 100 98.7 99.9 35.3 98.9 92.2 86.8
Lop Buri 81.5 98.1 2.0 2.2 100 94.8 97.5 23.1 95.9 84.8 86.2
Saraburi 70.9 98.0 1.6 2.3 99.8 99.8 99.5 36.2 97.4 90.0 79.7
Sing Buri 82.6 96.8 1.2 1.9 100 98.4 99.8 39.0 98.5 88.7 87.8
Ang Thong 90.9 97.9 1.4 2.3 100 99.6 99.7 27.2 98.8 88.2 88.2
Eastern Region 67.2 99.0 1.6 2.1 99.9 99.6 99.0 26.5 97.2 85.5 87.2
Chanthaburi 72.1 99.7 1.3 1.9 99.7 98.7 97.8 26.1 94.3 82.5 88.7
Chachoengsao 65.7 98.7 1.7 2.1 99.5 100 99.0 26.9 97.3 79.2 85.3
Indices Data
Chon Buri 47.4 99.5 1.4 1.9 100 100 100 35.5 99.4 89.4 88.6
Trat 65.0 98.0 1.5 2.1 99.3 100 98.0 23.3 94.9 83.2 87.9
Nakhon Nayok 78.8 100 2.4 2.7 100 96.8 100 30.8 98.3 91.9 95.3
Prachin Buri 81.1 96.6 1.5 2.2 100 100 97.9 18.3 95.3 86.1 86.8
Rayong 67.3 99.7 2.0 2.2 100 100 100 30.4 100 91.0 96.7
Sa Kaeo 86.9 99.1 1.4 2.0 100 99.5 97.8 11.0 95.0 79.9 71.9
Western Region 77.3 95.7 1.4 2.0 99.9 99.4 98.6 25.0 96.2 86.6 86.8
Ratchaburi 70.4 96.6 1.3 1.8 100.0 100 99.0 30.9 96.8 88.4 83.1
Kanchanaburi 80.6 93.2 1.3 2.1 100.0 98.4 98.3 17.9 95.5 84.6 81.5
Suphan Buri 76.8 95.3 1.3 2.1 100 99.6 99.0 23.1 97.3 88.4 92.0
Samut Songkhram 64.8 98.9 1.4 2.0 100 99.6 100 36.9 98.0 84.1 89.6
Phetchaburi 90.3 97.0 1.7 2.2 99.7 99.6 99.4 30.1 96.2 88.0 89.7
Prachuap Khiri Khan 78.4 96.0 1.8 2.0 99.4 99.4 95.8 18.4 93.4 82.8 87.0
Northeastern Region 92.6 98.4 1.3 2.1 100.0 99.8 99.4 10.2 95.1 74.3 59.6
Nakhon Ratchasima 87.7 99.1 1.4 2.5 100 99.5 99.1 11.8 93.6 76.7 77.7
Buri Ram 93.9 99.5 1.7 2.3 100 99.5 99.4 6.2 96.0 67.9 56.8
Surin 95.0 97.2 1.7 2.4 99.6 99.6 100 9.7 90.4 60.5 49.0
Si Sa Ket 94.9 97.8 1.6 1.9 100 100.0 100 7.0 92.0 61.3 54.1
Ubon Ratchathani 94.0 97.6 1.3 2.1 100 100.0 99.0 12.9 92.3 70.2 43.0
Yasothon 96.8 93.8 1.5 2.0 100 99.9 99.3 9.4 97.7 78.6 42.8
Chaiyaphum 93.3 98.8 1.2 2.1 100 100 98.5 9.3 92.6 72.9 66.8
Amnat Charoen 91.5 100 1.3 2.0 100 100 99.9 11.8 98.5 76.3 48.6
Nong Bua Lam Phu 94.0 99.7 1.6 2.1 99.2 100 98.3 6.4 95.3 84.4 47.0
Khon Kaen 87.3 99.1 0.9 1.8 100 99.9 100 13.0 98.6 80.0 61.3
Udon Thani 94.3 99.9 1.5 2.0 100 99.9 99.3 14.2 98.1 84.5 67.9
Loei 93.7 96.8 1.5 1.9 100 99.9 99.4 8.5 95.0 76.5 72.0
Nong Khai 91.4 94.7 1.1 1.8 100 99.7 98.5 15.0 95.9 82.7 64.5
Maha Sarakham 93.1 99.4 1.1 2.1 100 99.3 100 10.0 96.5 73.7 60.0
Roi Et 96.8 97.3 1.3 2.1 100 99.8 100 7.5 97.7 73.7 59.7
Kalasin 91.7 99.2 1.2 2.0 100 100 99.4 7.5 98.3 80.2 66.0
Sakon Nakhon 93.5 99.0 1.7 2.1 100 99.9 99.6 7.0 93.9 74.9 55.3
Nakhon Phanom 94.4 99.3 1.3 2.0 100 100 100 9.7 97.0 80.1 46.2
Mukdahan 89.1 99.4 1.1 1.9 100 100 99.6 11.8 89.6 66.9 39.4
Northern Region 85.3 96.2 1.2 1.8 99.8 98.3 98.1 22.2 92.8 82.8 76.3
Chiang Mai 77.0 93.2 0.9 1.6 99.7 96.9 98.3 28.8 87.4 78.6 61.7
Lamphun 90.6 99.1 0.9 1.5 100 95.4 99.3 28.4 90.4 87.0 79.9
Lampang 90.2 98.2 1.2 1.7 100 99.8 99.4 26.8 94.3 90.8 85.3
Uttaradit 93.7 97.9 1.3 2.0 100 98.9 99.6 24.9 97.1 87.3 80.4
Phrae 91.8 99.9 1.6 1.9 100 100.0 99.5 27.7 95.9 93.9 81.0
Nan 88.7 99.0 0.8 1.4 99.5 95.9 99.5 20.4 92.6 83.7 78.5
Phayao 92.2 98.0 0.9 1.7 100 99.6 100 23.3 94.6 87.6 79.0
Chiang Rai 88.4 95.4 1.4 1.5 100 99.2 97.5 22.9 91.1 82.8 77.9
Mae Hong Son 62.2 92.7 1.2 1.9 99.2 66.5 70.9 15.7 61.4 46.8 39.7
Nakhon Sawan 77.4 99.4 1.0 1.7 100 100.0 100 20.7 98.0 84.2 86.8
Uthai Thani 86.2 96.2 1.5 2.2 99.9 100.0 97.6 17.0 95.4 78.5 76.0
Kamphaeng Phet 86.8 97.9 1.5 2.1 100 99.7 99.4 12.7 98.9 85.1 76.6
Tak 67.9 92.1 1.2 2.1 97.9 96.9 86.7 23.1 73.5 62.3 56.3
Sukhothai 91.8 99.2 1.6 2.3 100 100.0 98.1 14.3 94.9 85.9 83.0
Phitsanulok 86.8 96.3 1.4 1.9 100 99.6 100 21.5 96.5 85.1 80.9
Phichit 92.5 95.3 1.7 2.6 100 99.9 99.4 23.6 98.4 87.3 84.8
Phetchabun 86.2 90.2 1.3 2.0 100 100.0 99.6 15.7 95.6 77.9 73.7
Southern Region 80.4 98.4 1.3 2.0 99.2 98.3 97.9 20.9 91.0 79.3 88.8
Nakhon Si Thammarat 82.2 98.2 1.2 2.0 98.7 98.5 97.8 16.2 91.3 81.3 89.8
Krabi 77.7 98.2 1.4 2.3 98.9 99.5 97.0 11.1 91.9 78.9 84.0
Phang-nga 78.5 97.7 1.1 1.9 100 100 93.3 24.8 93.5 94.0 87.9
Phuket 47.4 98.3 1.2 1.9 100 100 99.1 40.3 97.4 86.6 88.7
Surat Thani 79.4 100.0 1.1 2.1 100 100 97.8 27.9 93.4 86.9 93.2
Ranong 67.3 97.6 1.2 2.1 98.6 98.3 90.8 23.9 84.5 75.2 58.7
Chumphon 85.3 98.8 1.3 1.8 99.5 99.8 98.0 13.1 94.0 83.1 88.3
Songkhla 72.5 97.0 1.2 1.7 99.7 98.0 99.0 28.1 95.0 84.8 89.8
Satun 84.3 99.2 1.2 2.2 98.9 98.3 98.6 17.5 90.1 80.4 89.8
Trang 85.8 97.9 1.3 1.9 99.9 100 97.1 22.5 90.7 77.9 87.0
Phatthalung 92.7 99.4 0.8 1.6 100 99.1 98.9 15.9 89.5 82.2 90.8
Pattani 85.3 98.7 2.1 2.7 98.6 99.9 99.0 19.9 82.9 61.5 85.8
Yala 80.7 97.7 1.5 2.5 98.9 88.0 98.6 20.6 90.2 72.1 90.6
Narathiwat 85.3 100 1.7 2.8 96.9 96.0 98.8 15.0 83.2 60.3 89.3

Table AII.5 Housing and living environment (continued)
Living environment
Population affected Population affected Population affected by flood Households

by flood 2004 by drought 2005 2004 and/or drought 2005 not affected
Location by pollution
2005
(number) (%) (number) (%) (number) (%) (% hholds)

12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Kingdom 1,239,390 2.0 11,147,627 17.9 12,387,017 19.8 95.3
Bangkok na na na na
Bangkok Vicinity 6,612 0.2 34,916 0.8 41,528 1.0 94.9
Nakhon Pathom 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 95.8
Nonthaburi 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 97.5
Pathum Thani 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 95.9
Samut Prakan 6,612 0.6 34,916 3.2 41,528 3.9 94.9
Samut Sakhon 0.0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 87.5
Central Region 3,600 0.1 191,424 6.5 195,024 6.6 95.2
Chai Nat 0.0 0.0 49,129 14.4 49,129 14.4 96.8
ANNEX II
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 3,600 0.5 14,404 1.9 18,004 2.4 95.6
Lop Buri 0.0 0.0 109,856 14.6 109,856 14.6 97.0
Saraburi 0.0 0.0 12,800 2.1 12,800 2.1 88.8
Sing Buri 0.0 0.0 2,685 1.2 2,685 1.2 97.4
Ang Thong 0.0 0.0 2,550 0.9 2,550 0.9 96.1
Eastern Region 63,468 1.5 579,217 13.4 642,685 14.8 95.2
Chanthaburi 0.0 0.0 41,681 8.4 41,681 8.4 93.7
Chachoengsao 1,250 0.2 239,664 37.0 240,914 37.2 96.2
Indices Data
Chon Buri 0.0 0.0 41,322 3.5 41,322 3.5 95.0
Trat 3,600 1.6 44,192 20.2 47,792 21.8 94.1
Nakhon Nayok 18,942 7.6 29,610 11.8 48,552 19.4 94.1
Prachin Buri 35,604 7.9 8,751 1.9 44,355 9.9 97.9
Rayong 792 0.1 8,089 1.4 8,881 1.6 91.8
Sa Kaeo 3,280 0.6 165,908 30.9 169,188 31.5 96.7
Western Region 5,660 0.2 532,840 14.7 538,500 14.8 95.2
Ratchaburi 2,500 0.3 128,840 15.6 131,340 15.9 94.5
Kanchanaburi 600 0.1 97,886 11.8 98,486 11.9 94.8
Suphan Buri 0.0 0.0 161,613 19.2 161,613 19.2 95.0
Samut Songkhram 0.0 0.0 15,729 8.1 15,729 8.1 99.4
Phetchaburi 2,560 0.6 119,794 26.4 122,354 27.0 97.8
Prachuap Khiri Khan 0.0 0.0 8,978 1.8 8,978 1.8 92.9
Northeastern Region 876,990 4.1 5,649,061 26.5 6,526,051 30.6 97.3
Nakhon Ratchasima 2,637 0.1 144,694 5.7 147,331 5.8 97.6
Buri Ram 0.0 0.0 215,025 14.0 215,025 14.0 100.0
Surin 18,039 1.3 892,961 65.0 911,000 66.3 97.4
Si Sa Ket 20,480 1.4 83,737 5.8 104,217 7.2 97.3
Ubon Ratchathani 74,080 4.2 397,543 22.4 471,623 26.6 97.5
Yasothon 84,380 15.6 36,779 6.8 121,159 22.4 99.3
Chaiyaphum 8,617 0.8 306,306 27.4 314,923 28.2 96.0
Amnat Charoen 3,765 1.0 68,403 18.5 72,168 19.6 99.0
Nong Bua Lam Phu 88,820 17.9 57,140 11.5 145,960 29.4 96.2
Khon Kaen 28,650 1.6 491,571 28.1 520,221 29.8 97.3
Udon Thani 0.0 0.0 879,620 57.7 879,620 57.7 96.4
Loei 2,200 0.4 145,095 23.7 147,295 24.1 96.7
Nong Khai 0.0 0.0 724,119 80.8 724,119 80.8 94.5
Maha Sarakham 0.0 0.0 246,800 26.3 246,800 26.3 98.0
Roi Et 240,600 18.4 246,690 18.8 487,290 37.2 99.1
Kalasin 207,372 21.3 244,967 25.2 452,339 46.5 97.6
Sakon Nakhon 10,250 0.9 171,682 15.5 181,932 16.5 93.9
Nakhon Phanom 87,100 12.6 253,259 36.5 340,359 49.1 97.1
Mukdahan 0.0 0.0 42,670 12.8 42,670 12.8 97.8
Northern Region 247,677 2.1 2,534,306 21.3 2,781,983 23.4 93.1
Chiang Mai 3,650 0.2 59,658 3.6 63,308 3.8 91.2
Lamphun 0.0 0.0 14,817 3.7 14,817 3.7 96.5
Lampang 3,500 0.5 125,430 16.1 128,930 16.6 96.9
Uttaradit 2,650 0.6 94,937 20.2 97,587 20.8 95.4
Phrae 119,529 25.4 152,162 32.3 271,691 57.6 97.2
Nan 12,540 2.6 73,267 15.3 85,807 17.9 96.1
Phayao 480 0.1 109,095 22.4 109,575 22.5 95.0
Chiang Rai 15,269 1.2 272,900 22.3 288,169 23.5 94.6
Mae Hong Son 100 0.0 125,627 49.5 125,727 49.6 93.4
Nakhon Sawan 5,692 0.5 178,775 16.6 184,467 17.1 91.1
Uthai Thani 0.0 0.0 93,328 28.6 93,328 28.6 95.6
Kamphaeng Phet 1,508 0.2 185,248 25.4 186,756 25.6 82.2
Tak 13,813 2.6 123,546 23.7 137,359 26.3 94.9
Sukhothai 16,582 2.7 320,457 52.5 337,039 55.2 92.5
Phitsanulok 18,950 2.3 156,529 18.6 175,479 20.9 90.5
Phichit 19,854 3.6 208,238 37.3 228,092 40.8 90.8
Phetchabun 13,560 1.4 240,292 24.0 253,852 25.3 94.8
Southern Region 35,383 0.4 1,625,863 19.1 1,661,246 19.5 93.3
Nakhon Si Thammarat 14,444 1.0 296,243 19.7 310,687 20.7 91.6
Krabi 0.0 0.0 101,519 25.7 101,519 25.7 90.2
Phang-nga 1,500 0.6 71,073 29.4 72,573 30.1 96.5
Phuket 1,200 0.4 52,356 17.9 53,556 18.3 99.3
Surat Thani 1,962 0.2 137,206 14.5 139,168 14.7 86.6
Ranong 3,247 1.8 189,481 106.4 192,728 108.2 97.6
Chumphon 9,980 2.1 165,347 34.8 175,327 36.9 91.4
Songkhla 0.0 0.0 417,095 32.0 417,095 32.0 96.6
Satun 2,900 1.0 58,690 21.1 61,590 22.2 91.4
Trang 150 0.0 23,983 4.0 24,133 4.0 94.6
Phatthalung 0.0 0.0 36,855 7.4 36,855 7.4 89.2
Pattani 0.0 0.0 8,544 1.3 8,544 1.3 97.3
Yala 0.0 0.0 16,817 3.6 16,817 3.6 97.0
Narathiwat 0.0 0.0 50,654 7.2 50,654 7.2 98.8

Table AII.6 Family and community life
Family life
Female headed Elderly headed households 2005 Single headed households 2005
households 2005
Location
(number) (%) Male Female Total % of total Male Female Total % total
hholds hholds
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Kingdom 5,336,751 29.6 2,423,219 1,496,680 3,919,899 21.7 721,269 2,372,242 3,093,510 17.2
Bangkok 679,766 33.1 182,122 134,511 316,634 15.4 71,836 222,386 294,222 14.3
Bangkok Vicinity 455,295 32.0 105,557 86,171 191,727 13.5 39,926 143,452 183,378 12.9
Nakhon Pathom 89,733 34.2 26,906 27,102 54,008 20.6 9,461 38,733 48,194 18.3
Nonthaburi 132,323 36.9 27,502 27,016 54,517 15.2 11,518 38,846 50,364 14.1
Pathum Thani 61,102 29.3 16,052 8,023 24,075 11.6 4,287 17,218 21,505 10.3
Samut Prakan 125,706 30.0 21,836 16,945 38,781 9.3 10,627 34,427 45,054 10.7
Samut Sakhon 46,431 27.0 13,261 7,085 20,346 11.8 4,032 14,229 18,261 10.6
Central Region 325,932 37.6 126,858 105,678 232,536 26.8 45,192 147,730 192,921 22.3
Chai Nat 39,111 37.8 15,722 12,159 27,880 26.9 3,873 17,015 20,888 20.2
ANNEX II
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 88,980 43.1 29,096 29,637 58,733 28.4 10,412 34,286 44,698 21.6
Lop Buri 71,126 32.8 33,382 26,160 59,543 27.5 13,210 40,746 53,956 24.9
Saraburi 70,895 35.6 28,564 23,377 51,941 26.1 10,281 33,475 43,757 22.0
Sing Buri 25,977 36.5 7,791 4,566 12,357 17.4 2,898 9,379 12,277 17.3
Ang Thong 29,843 42.7 12,302 9,779 22,081 31.6 4,517 12,829 17,345 24.8
Eastern Region 411,278 31.7 155,255 100,363 255,618 19.7 58,723 180,244 238,967 18.4
Chanthaburi 42,993 28.0 18,179 11,661 29,840 19.4 6,480 18,765 25,245 16.4
Indices Data
Chachoengsao 56,829 31.5 24,987 16,105 41,092 22.8 6,871 25,320 32,191 17.8
Chon Buri 127,812 37.2 28,212 23,330 51,542 15.0 15,026 54,600 69,626 20.3
Trat 22,126 29.1 10,752 5,636 16,389 21.5 4,917 9,235 14,152 18.6
Nakhon Nayok 23,587 35.6 11,837 7,952 19,789 29.8 3,586 11,582 15,168 22.9
Prachin Buri 39,709 32.1 17,787 12,578 30,364 24.5 8,182 20,558 28,740 23.2
Rayong 42,879 29.3 14,838 8,846 23,684 16.2 5,963 18,873 24,837 17.0
Sa Kaeo 55,344 26.8 28,664 14,254 42,918 20.8 7,697 21,311 29,008 14.1
Western Region 342,689 34.7 148,245 109,079 257,325 26.1 53,064 164,091 217,155 22.0
Ratchaburi 99,073 40.2 34,166 32,717 66,883 27.1 13,415 50,055 63,470 25.7
Kanchanaburi 62,584 27.0 38,453 19,765 58,218 25.1 11,162 34,688 45,850 19.8
Suphan Buri 76,413 36.1 33,420 22,033 55,454 26.2 13,833 30,697 44,531 21.0
Samut Songkhram 18,308 39.0 5,574 4,633 10,207 21.7 2,299 6,961 9,260 19.7
Phetchaburi 45,927 39.0 17,943 15,502 33,445 28.4 5,266 20,632 25,898 22.0
Prachuap Khiri Khan 40,385 30.4 18,688 14,430 33,118 24.9 7,088 21,058 28,147 21.2
Northeastern Region 1,536,694 27.2 819,467 470,360 1,289,828 22.8 212,031 738,995 951,025 16.8
Nakhon Ratchasima 253,790 35.2 93,670 83,345 177,015 24.5 33,439 109,274 142,713 19.8
Buri Ram 128,867 32.4 59,260 40,583 99,843 25.1 15,181 52,804 67,985 17.1
Surin 124,574 31.6 64,774 45,131 109,905 27.9 15,599 59,461 75,060 19.0
Si Sa Ket 95,316 24.2 41,954 12,992 54,946 14.0 6,523 32,919 39,443 10.0
Ubon Ratchathani 72,418 16.9 63,525 20,379 83,905 19.6 14,405 38,751 53,156 12.4
Yasothon 35,772 26.0 22,959 13,593 36,551 26.6 4,137 23,201 27,338 19.9
Chaiyaphum 74,288 23.5 54,313 25,923 80,236 25.3 13,496 37,168 50,664 16.0
Amnat Charoen 26,298 20.1 23,990 12,841 36,831 28.2 6,704 17,679 24,383 18.6
Nong Bua Lam Phu 43,340 25.8 23,429 9,166 32,595 19.4 3,441 18,015 21,456 12.8
Khon Kaen 107,270 23.9 69,796 32,616 102,412 22.8 15,122 63,986 79,108 17.6
Udon Thani 85,363 23.8 53,619 23,800 77,419 21.6 20,172 41,428 61,600 17.2
Loei 46,648 28.0 28,586 14,865 43,450 26.1 3,263 22,214 25,477 15.3
Nong Khai 75,259 30.0 35,360 23,292 58,652 23.4 8,049 33,374 41,423 16.5
Maha Sarakham 61,050 27.5 34,583 25,250 59,834 26.9 9,241 39,398 48,640 21.9
Roi Et 102,918 29.1 53,008 30,246 83,255 23.5 16,702 51,266 67,968 19.2
Kalasin 64,394 27.5 29,194 14,659 43,853 18.8 6,084 31,979 38,064 16.3
Sakon Nakhon 75,673 26.8 36,275 21,955 58,230 20.6 12,587 35,706 48,294 17.1
Nakhon Phanom 43,951 29.3 20,780 15,073 35,853 23.9 5,239 22,099 27,338 18.2
Mukdahan 19,506 20.4 10,392 4,651 15,043 15.7 2,648 8,272 10,919 11.4
Northern Region 958,946 27.8 560,266 294,893 855,159 24.8 172,290 460,735 633,025 18.3
Chiang Mai 126,931 25.9 80,562 39,331 119,893 24.4 38,314 70,149 108,463 22.1
Lamphun 25,780 21.6 23,270 9,733 33,003 27.6 6,883 16,230 23,114 19.4
Lampang 58,169 26.0 39,035 22,665 61,700 27.6 14,763 32,976 47,739 21.3
Uttaradit 42,065 30.6 22,701 11,657 34,359 25.0 5,267 17,716 22,982 16.7
Phrae 28,900 21.3 32,981 10,350 43,331 32.0 6,841 17,609 24,450 18.0
Nan 26,804 20.6 22,318 7,286 29,603 22.8 3,977 13,006 16,983 13.1
Phayao 38,357 25.0 26,247 14,429 40,677 26.5 9,258 23,677 32,935 21.5
Chiang Rai 96,539 25.5 63,743 28,285 92,028 24.3 16,385 46,131 62,516 16.5
Mae Hong Son 10,825 17.3 9,274 3,097 12,371 19.8 3,724 5,796 9,520 15.2
Nakhon Sawan 111,662 36.1 35,730 24,484 60,215 19.5 12,929 36,504 49,433 16.0
Uthai Thani 31,944 36.2 14,147 8,802 22,949 26.0 3,922 12,881 16,803 19.0
Kamphaeng Phet 49,835 23.2 35,522 21,892 57,414 26.7 9,849 30,080 39,929 18.6
Tak 36,917 27.8 16,435 7,979 24,414 18.4 5,600 16,678 22,278 16.8
Sukhothai 71,574 40.1 23,586 24,585 48,171 27.0 8,277 30,829 39,106 21.9
Phitsanulok 67,794 27.0 40,238 16,631 56,870 22.7 9,081 23,886 32,967 13.1
Phichit 61,060 38.7 27,711 21,204 48,914 31.0 7,029 29,041 36,071 22.9
Phetchabun 73,791 25.6 46,766 22,481 69,248 24.0 10,192 37,546 47,738 16.6
Southern Region 626,150 27.1 325,449 195,625 521,074 22.6 68,207 314,609 382,816 16.6
Nakhon Si Thammarat 122,744 28.7 66,624 40,870 107,493 25.1 4,785 67,710 72,496 16.9
Krabi 20,568 21.0 12,540 6,615 19,155 19.6 1,769 10,787 12,555 12.8
Phang-nga 17,021 27.2 9,575 5,820 15,394 24.6 2,759 7,377 10,136 16.2
Phuket 28,498 31.9 9,776 5,667 15,443 17.3 2,896 10,024 12,919 14.5
Surat Thani 74,926 28.1 34,448 22,821 57,269 21.5 8,342 36,739 45,081 16.9
Ranong 12,226 23.3 5,677 3,185 8,862 16.9 1,934 7,340 9,275 17.7
Chumphon 44,073 32.3 17,176 14,017 31,193 22.9 6,601 17,322 23,922 17.5
Songkhla 101,380 28.6 48,233 28,383 76,616 21.6 13,468 46,235 59,703 16.8
Satun 11,242 17.0 10,066 2,842 12,908 19.5 2,168 6,401 8,569 13.0
Trang 52,297 31.0 24,606 13,712 38,318 22.7 7,212 22,646 29,858 17.7
Phatthalung 37,759 26.8 21,261 14,697 35,959 25.5 3,405 17,208 20,613 14.6
Pattani 34,041 26.4 22,213 12,242 34,455 26.7 4,548 18,368 22,916 17.8
Yala 27,421 21.4 17,752 7,508 25,259 19.7 3,248 16,076 19,324 15.1
Narathiwat 41,955 22.5 25,502 17,247 42,748 22.9 5,073 30,378 35,450 19.0

Table AII.6 Family and community life (continued)
Family life Safety 2005
Elderly living alone 2002 Orphans, Children aged 15-17 2005 Violent Drug-
homeless/ crimes related
abandoned reported crimes
children and arrested
children
Location affected by
AIDS 2005
(number) % of total per 1,000 pop Total Working % working per 100,000 per 100,000
elderly pop pop
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Kingdom 373,515 6.26 2.5 3,140,098 581,127 18.5 16 170
Bangkok 23,671 3.82 na. 237,103 46,549 18.0 32 534
Bangkok Vicinity 12,040 3.74 0.3 175,205 44,230 25.2 24 302
Nakhon Pathom 5,639 6.40 0.5 41,834 12,261 29.3 24 236
Nonthaburi 2,035 2.70 0.1 39,995 7,002 17.5 23 212
Pathum Thani 874 1.83 0.1 27,644 3,369 12.2 23 253
Samut Prakan 1,905 2.52 0.4 44,512 11,980 26.9 17 477
Samut Sakhon 1,587 4.49 0.1 21,220 9,618 45.3 41 283
Central Region 30,663 7.57 1.1 137,110 25,975 18.9 14 173
Chai Nat 3,762 7.11 0.9 16,091 2,376 14.8 10 56
ANNEX II
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 9,101 7.73 0.6 32,887 4,145 12.6 18 244
Lop Buri 5,737 6.55 2.1 33,812 8,748 25.9 11 119
Saraburi 4,598 7.48 0.8 30,624 6,732 22.0 17 139
Sing Buri 3,646 9.14 0.2 10,902 1,627 14.9 13 143
Ang Thong 3,819 8.34 0.7 12,794 2,347 18.3 10 360
Eastern Region 24,943 6.03 1.4 206,159 46,815 22.7 18 321
Chanthaburi 2,334 5.41 1.2 24,377 7,070 29.0 11 150
Indices Data
Chachoengsao 4,510 5.61 0.8 31,608 6,254 19.8 15 169
Chon Buri 4,914 4.96 0.3 49,254 15,484 31.4 28 673
Trat 1,127 6.85 2.6 11,733 2,359 20.1 9 96
Nakhon Nayok 3,855 10.08 1.3 11,068 1,521 13.7 8 104
Prachin Buri 4,121 9.08 1.6 19,833 2,336 11.8 16 157
Rayong 1,878 3.80 2.3 23,509 6,907 29.4 27 318
Sa Kaeo 2,203 5.26 2.3 34,777 4,884 14.0 6 225
Western Region 27,043 6.93 0.8 178,612 49,987 28.0 16 168
Ratchaburi 6,032 6.02 0.8 41,991 15,698 37.4 17 130
Kanchanaburi 3,952 6.82 1.1 41,800 8,996 21.5 13 219
Suphan Buri 8,108 7.44 0.4 41,186 11,838 28.7 17 181
Samut Songkhram 2,000 6.43 0.6 8,959 1,935 21.6 32 268
Phetchaburi 4,403 8.40 0.7 21,679 4,427 20.4 8 69
Prachuap Khiri Khan 2,547 6.41 1.1 22,997 7,093 30.8 19 174
Northeastern Region 95,624 5.24 2.8 1,154,144 168,443 14.6 5 56
Nakhon Ratchasima 13,841 5.24 2.3 136,725 19,307 14.1 6 58
Buri Ram 5,115 3.95 3.7 85,258 12,181 14.3 3 28
Surin 3,790 2.89 3.2 81,430 10,703 13.1 3 18
Si Sa Ket 9,842 7.87 4.7 79,409 11,870 14.9 3 38
Ubon Ratchathani 12,885 8.25 2.1 91,856 21,212 23.1 5 99
Yasothon 1,437 2.66 3.1 26,485 3,633 13.7 1 72
Chaiyaphum 7,188 6.72 2.8 54,801 12,966 23.7 4 52
Amnat Charoen 1,715 5.35 4.7 27,923 5,385 19.3 3 154
Nong Bua Lam Phu 1,044 3.04 2.3 37,583 7,359 19.6 4 49
Khon Kaen 4,704 2.97 2.3 86,299 7,792 9.0 7 43
Udon Thani 2,617 2.56 2.1 77,551 14,824 19.1 6 38
Loei 1,440 2.83 2.2 32,254 4,885 15.1 8 81
Nong Khai 4,320 6.23 2.7 55,087 5,288 9.6 5 75
Maha Sarakham 4,807 6.10 2.8 42,979 2,846 6.6 3 44
Roi Et 5,855 5.57 2.5 69,388 3,223 4.6 3 39
Kalasin 4,726 6.71 2.8 53,659 7,802 14.5 5 68
Sakon Nakhon 4,555 6.10 2.5 62,365 7,838 12.6 2 67
Nakhon Phanom 4,208 7.24 2.4 32,044 6,363 19.9 4 74
Mukdahan 1,536 6.70 2.7 21,048 2,966 14.1 8 100
Northern Region 111,038 8.83 4.0 569,478 103,101 18.1 10 134
Chiang Mai 14,965 7.90 5.8 78,896 13,735 17.4 11 155
Lamphun 7,155 11.73 3.3 16,469 1,798 10.9 6 93
Lampang 5,197 5.23 4.6 34,236 4,142 12.1 8 57
Uttaradit 5,491 10.19 2.5 20,639 3,904 18.9 9 75
Phrae 5,458 9.22 1.7 19,997 1,083 5.4 6 77
Nan 3,379 7.23 3.8 24,235 2,462 10.2 8 192
Phayao 4,350 8.08 10.0 24,686 2,150 8.7 7 75
Chiang Rai 13,131 11.07 9.8 66,324 10,843 16.3 11 411
Mae Hong Son 630 4.21 2.2 16,022 7,983 49.8 5 58
Nakhon Sawan 11,967 9.33 1.5 44,812 6,108 13.6 14 75
Uthai Thani 4,127 11.16 1.9 14,677 3,177 21.6 11 41
Kamphaeng Phet 5,521 9.12 2.1 39,424 8,867 22.5 10 102
Tak 3,602 11.76 1.6 26,681 3,899 14.6 13 294
Sukhothai 6,055 9.43 2.6 25,339 8,366 33.0 8 95
Phitsanulok 7,548 9.36 2.6 39,896 7,412 18.6 16 104
Phichit 7,484 10.42 1.3 23,391 5,289 22.6 7 53
Phetchabun 4,978 5.71 2.1 53,754 11,883 22.1 10 45
Southern Region 48,494 6.59 2.0 482,287 99,858 20.7 37 124
Nakhon Si Thammarat 9,920 6.15 1.5 93,713 22,977 24.5 22 78
Krabi 1,163 5.47 1.6 23,292 3,916 16.8 29 90
Phang-nga 615 2.98 0.9 12,127 4,191 34.6 15 104
Phuket 567 3.79 0.7 12,884 1,253 9.7 31 335
Surat Thani 6,712 8.17 1.4 50,850 10,591 20.8 38 154
Ranong 310 3.71 1.7 9,322 2,689 28.8 24 117
Chumphon 3,878 8.97 1.6 23,573 2,627 11.1 22 124
Songkhla 5,006 4.06 0.5 70,911 8,868 12.5 30 132
Satun 934 5.14 1.4 16,493 3,809 23.1 26 109
Trang 4,457 8.04 0.8 35,475 8,882 25.0 32 78
Phatthalung 4,916 10.02 2.9 28,226 3,119 11.1 83 49
Pattani 2,967 5.00 4.6 31,467 6,652 21.1 56 115
Yala 2,082 7.20 3.0 26,804 6,863 25.6 56 167
Narathiwat 4,967 9.86 5.4 47,150 13,421 28.5 54 191

Table AII.7 Transport and communication
Transportation Communication
Villages Villages with Vehicle registration 2005 Road length 2003 Land traffic Households Households Population Population
2005 all-season accidents with TV with radio with mobile with Internet
main roads reported 2004 2004 phone 2005 access 2005
Location 2005 2003
(number) (%) (number) per 1,000 (km) km/provin- per 100,000 (%) (%) (%) (%)
pop cial area pop
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Kingdom 69,110 45.0 24,317,110 390 78,449 0.15 148 93.0 63.6 36.7 12.0
Bangkok na. na. 6,107,860 1,079 1,175 0.75 395 93.3 79.4 59.3 25.9
Bangkok Vicinity 2,162 76.4 812,760 197 2,065 0.33 256 94.4 75.4 54.8 17.8
Nakhon Pathom 866 74.0 315,828 390 593 0.27 210 95.3 76.3 47.6 12.6
Nonthaburi 300 77.7 148,647 153 294 0.47 155 93.9 75.2 61.2 24.1
Pathum Thani 430 76.5 94,639 116 577 0.38 175 95.0 80.5 56.2 16.6
Samut Prakan 323 79.9 81,714 76 299 0.30 313 93.8 70.7 56.8 20.7
Samut Sakhon 243 78.2 171,932 380 302 0.35 546 94.2 76.3 46.9 7.4
Central Region 4,310 59.2 1,176,650 400 4,462 0.27 160 93.9 70.1 39.5 9.4
Chai Nat 491 53.0 121,545 357 675 0.27 125 88.1 59.8 36.0 12.1
ANNEX II
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 1,135 62.7 254,830 341 798 0.31 151 98.5 81.3 39.4 7.1
Lop Buri 1,064 51.2 278,205 370 1,478 0.24 180 91.3 64.7 37.9 9.1
Saraburi 884 60.0 285,319 474 818 0.23 137 93.6 63.6 43.2 10.3
Sing Buri 305 68.2 115,074 528 366 0.44 148 95.1 72.1 41.0 12.6
Ang Thong 431 68.7 121,677 429 328 0.34 230 96.5 82.0 38.6 7.7
Eastern Region 4,501 42.8 2,046,528 472 5,842 0.16 104 94.5 61.6 43.2 10.2
Chanthaburi 659 40.4 251,121 504 108 0.02 211 92.2 53.2 41.1 13.1
Indices Data
Chachoengsao 837 45.5 226,172 349 909 0.17 85 93.5 58.5 40.7 7.8
Chon Buri 558 46.4 741,283 632 1,046 0.24 62 95.5 80.6 53.6 11.2
Trat 241 49.8 82,460 376 612 0.22 60 93.1 44.5 37.2 10.0
Nakhon Nayok 404 50.5 96,630 385 360 0.17 157 95.5 74.1 37.0 7.9
Prachin Buri 694 34.6 164,984 367 701 0.15 181 94.2 44.8 40.8 11.2
Rayong 408 54.2 358,366 641 767 0.22 49 97.0 82.0 47.9 14.8
Sa Kaeo 700 33.9 125,512 234 1,338 0.19 102 94.1 30.7 32.7 5.2
Western Region 3,926 51.9 1,460,766 403 5,981 0.14 125 93.9 59.9 37.4 8.4
Ratchaburi 832 54.6 368,721 448 1,027 0.20 67 94.8 60.9 37.6 9.3
Kanchanaburi 878 46.2 265,106 321 1,481 0.08 185 93.3 66.3 40.1 9.8
Suphan Buri 957 47.4 332,624 395 1,357 0.25 69 93.4 54.9 33.9 6.2
Samut Songkhram 270 64.8 62,687 321 186 0.45 103 94.0 64.8 37.9 10.2
Phetchaburi 585 63.9 215,620 475 827 0.13 219 94.9 56.8 35.9 10.7
Prachuap Khiri Khan 404 42.8 216,008 444 1,102 0.17 142 93.8 59.1 39.6 5.8
Northeastern Region 30,862 38.8 4,746,178 223 24,700 0.15 69 93.8 56.7 26.9 8.4
Nakhon Ratchasima 3,519 40.5 742,938 292 2,670 0.13 93 93.1 57.4 28.3 6.0
Buri Ram 2,361 31.6 299,340 195 1,411 0.14 28 94.4 60.8 23.5 8.1
Surin 2,064 28.5 261,987 191 1,528 0.19 95 88.7 43.3 24.3 10.1
Si Sa Ket 2,532 35.0 233,148 161 1,552 0.18 69 90.4 47.2 21.0 7.7
Ubon Ratchathani 2,561 36.8 398,288 224 2,082 0.13 53 90.6 60.6 25.8 7.2
Yasothon 850 40.0 152,248 281 740 0.18 66 95.4 48.9 22.6 7.2
Chaiyaphum 1,507 41.0 217,951 195 1,157 0.09 66 93.9 48.3 24.5 6.3
Amnat Charoen 569 36.6 82,605 224 478 0.15 63 97.4 69.9 23.9 7.3
Nong Bua Lam Phu 572 38.8 79,692 160 532 0.14 37 94.4 58.6 28.0 6.6
Khon Kaen 2,129 40.8 487,813 279 1,519 0.14 36 97.1 61.8 32.6 14.0
Udon Thani 1,628 40.3 359,903 236 1,713 0.15 90 97.3 57.9 28.3 6.9
Loei 863 51.8 158,621 259 1,623 0.14 84 96.1 63.1 26.3 7.5
Nong Khai 1,192 47.5 174,935 195 1,143 0.16 57 94.7 69.0 31.4 9.6
Maha Sarakham 1,883 40.9 191,210 204 1,184 0.22 123 97.2 60.4 30.0 7.2
Roi Et 2,292 35.9 260,726 199 1,418 0.17 72 92.8 55.3 31.0 12.7
Kalasin 1,359 35.8 179,170 184 988 0.14 65 93.9 56.2 27.4 8.5
Sakon Nakhon 1,433 39.8 237,959 216 1,455 0.15 52 95.3 55.3 25.2 6.0
Nakhon Phanom 1,040 53.5 141,901 205 860 0.16 91 94.7 62.2 26.9 9.1
Mukdahan 508 51.4 85,743 257 647 0.15 86 88.8 49.8 22.5 14.6
Northern Region 15,133 43.9 4,490,255 378 22,049 0.13 141 91.7 64.6 32.8 11.9
Chiang Mai 1,825 45.0 789,212 478 2,623 0.13 319 85.7 71.3 33.0 14.9
Lamphun 466 60.7 231,269 571 838 0.19 90 94.0 72.4 34.5 11.5
Lampang 822 57.4 346,363 446 1,178 0.09 102 94.2 71.5 31.7 14.5
Uttaradit 569 57.3 181,338 386 1,249 0.16 136 93.0 59.9 32.9 12.5
Phrae 598 67.4 190,905 405 938 0.14 200 95.6 83.5 34.1 18.2
Nan 844 54.3 147,372 308 1,452 0.13 91 91.1 73.3 32.0 11.6
Phayao 673 50.5 191,856 394 939 0.15 130 94.1 65.2 29.0 11.7
Chiang Rai 1,576 41.8 451,334 368 1,685 0.14 131 93.4 73.2 34.7 15.0
Mae Hong Son 406 32.5 34,406 136 1,168 0.09 40 62.3 75.1 11.0 6.2
Nakhon Sawan 1,360 33.7 397,479 369 1,450 0.15 133 96.3 48.6 35.1 9.1
Uthai Thani 580 34.8 134,573 412 813 0.12 172 89.7 53.4 33.4 7.7
Kamphaeng Phet 927 30.3 226,484 311 1,220 0.14 46 95.1 62.4 33.0 9.4
Tak 513 37.6 150,106 287 1,304 0.08 140 77.5 50.9 28.6 12.2
Sukhothai 775 42.5 178,027 292 1,235 0.19 120 94.4 64.5 30.9 6.3
Phitsanulok 987 41.0 314,188 374 1,167 0.11 85 93.8 75.1 39.3 12.1
Phichit 851 40.7 231,902 415 1,054 0.23 116 93.8 66.7 35.1 7.6
Phetchabun 1,361 39.8 293,441 293 1,737 0.14 99 94.0 37.5 31.5 11.0
Southern Region 8,216 52.6 3,476,113 408 12,176 0.17 165 90.3 58.4 34.2 10.2
Nakhon Si Thammarat 1,509 42.3 435,299 289 2,032 0.20 199 91.8 48.3 32.8 7.2
Krabi 382 56.0 178,533 451 856 0.18 463 92.5 52.1 35.6 6.3
Phang-nga 317 69.1 91,928 381 525 0.13 205 97.5 61.3 34.0 4.5
Phuket 90 93.3 291,145 996 277 0.51 817 96.2 50.3 55.4 20.0
Surat Thani 937 39.8 428,722 453 1,743 0.14 85 94.6 63.9 41.2 10.6
Ranong 167 58.7 56,331 316 420 0.13 80 83.2 70.2 30.6 8.7
Chumphon 695 36.1 210,041 441 819 0.14 134 95.7 73.9 37.8 8.5
Songkhla 962 63.1 545,464 419 1,187 0.16 115 93.6 55.1 41.6 16.7
Satun 267 55.1 101,278 364 374 0.15 386 89.2 40.3 28.3 7.8
Trang 712 61.7 319,478 531 970 0.20 142 89.0 53.2 33.0 13.8
Phatthalung 654 45.6 187,354 374 772 0.23 116 93.8 43.9 31.4 10.3
Pattani 608 66.1 175,517 277 601 0.31 51 75.0 67.5 25.6 9.0
Yala 350 56.0 237,911 513 770 0.17 93 82.3 80.1 25.0 11.4
Narathiwat 566 62.9 217,112 310 830 0.19 19 82.0 76.4 22.5 4.1

Political participation Civil society participation
Eligible voters Voter turnout Community Households Hours in social services and unpaid
2005 2005 groups 2005 participating services to other households 2004
Location in local
groups 2005 Male Female Total
(number) (%) per 100,000 pop (%) (hrs/day) (hrs/day) (hrs/day)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Kingdom 44,572,101 72.56 68 94.1 1.9 1.7 1.8
Bangkok 4,126,922 72.37 8 n.a. 2.7 2.3 2.4
Bangkok Vicinity 2,911,962 75.44 12 84.3 1.4 1.6 1.5
Nakhon Pathom 575,192 80.82 20 90.6 2.0 2.0 2.0
Nonthaburi 697,383 74.96 4 84.3 1.1 0.8 0.9
Pathum Thani 560,620 76.05 13 77.6 0.8 1.9 1.8
Samut Prakan 761,886 71.96 12 89.7 1.2 1.0 1.1
Samut Sakhon 316,881 74.02 13 73.6 1.2 2.4 1.6
Central Region 2,186,282 76.97 32 93.5 1.6 2.2 1.9
Chai Nat 262,236 75.67 57 93.7 2.2 2.5 2.3
Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya 561,125 76.48 9 93.6 2.3 2.7 2.5
ANNEX II
Lop Buri 558,660 74.34 41 94.3 1.2 2.3 1.8
Saraburi 421,254 80.99 27 89.9 1.1 2.0 1.7
Sing Buri 168,703 78.26 49 93.6 2.3 1.7 1.8
Ang Thong 214,304 77.77 36 97.2 1.3 1.3 1.3
Eastern Region 3,088,263 75.50 74 89.6 1.7 1.7 1.7
Chanthaburi 361,706 79.59 48 89.9 1.4 1.4 1.4
Chachoengsao 469,671 76.36 119 91.9 1.7 1.5 1.6
Indices Data
Chon Buri 820,208 73.61 8 82.5 1.8 1.3 1.7
Trat 152,120 74.47 245 89.1 1.0 1.5 1.2
Nakhon Nayok 186,273 77.21 205 89.4 1.9 2.6 2.0
Prachin Buri 325,172 76.38 40 96.0 1.8 1.7 1.7
Rayong 392,172 77.51 25 87.2 2.4 1.7 2.1
Sa Kaeo 380,941 71.40 132 96.6 1.7 2.6 1.9
Western Region 2,599,240 76.80 54 92.1 1.6 1.9 1.8
Ratchaburi 598,088 78.45 107 91.1 0.8 2.8 1.7
Kanchanaburi 540,180 74.60 38 92.5 1.3 1.0 1.2
Suphan Buri 626,989 76.92 20 92.5 2.3 2.0 2.2
Samut Songkhram 149,950 76.04 119 93.1 2.1 1.3 1.8
Phetchaburi 336,787 79.96 31 98.0 1.7 1.3 1.5
Prachuap Khiri Khan 347,246 74.43 42 85.9 1.4 1.9 1.6
Northeastern Region 15,227,466 67.66 89 97.8 2.1 1.6 1.9
Nakhon Ratchasima 1,851,362 72.16 64 95.8 3.4 1.9 2.4
Buri Ram 1,057,748 70.19 48 97.1 2.7 1.5 2.3
Surin 973,654 62.91 75 98.0 1.8 1.3 1.6
Si Sa Ket 1,027,438 65.22 64 98.7 1.2 1.4 1.3
Ubon Ratchathani 1,234,661 67.89 81 98.8 2.1 1.3 1.7
Yasothon 396,420 65.99 64 99.5 1.6 1.1 1.4
Chaiyaphum 820,371 68.44 64 97.0 1.6 2.0 1.7
Amnat Charoen 260,248 68.02 428 99.4 1.5 1.2 1.3
Nong Bua Lam Phu 346,850 62.63 107 98.6 2.1 2.0 2.0
Khon Kaen 1,260,540 70.98 56 98.1 1.8 1.7 1.8
Udon Thani 1,088,909 64.94 46 97.8 1.9 1.5 1.7
Loei 446,675 73.51 128 98.0 3.2 1.2 2.1
Nong Khai 624,542 62.55 53 96.8 3.0 1.8 2.4
Maha Sarakham 685,516 69.40 341 99.1 1.9 1.7 1.8
Roi Et 951,358 66.02 92 99.4 1.4 1.4 1.4
Kalasin 693,985 70.18 79 98.8 1.4 2.6 1.9
Sakon Nakhon 781,791 63.37 56 95.7 2.5 2.2 2.4
Nakhon Phanom 489,555 63.88 66 97.7 1.9 1.5 1.8
Mukdahan 235,843 70.43 277 98.2 1.4 2.0 1.6
Northern Region 8,610,876 74.37 81 93.9 1.8 1.9 1.9
Chiang Mai 1,141,118 82.66 71 91.8 1.6 1.9 1.7
Lamphun 313,379 86.56 93 96.9 2.3 3.0 2.6
Lampang 592,835 78.77 46 97.4 2.0 2.4 2.2
Uttaradit 353,628 71.92 78 96.4 1.1 2.1 1.6
Phrae 364,260 77.51 61 98.6 1.7 2.4 2.1
Nan 351,746 74.03 178 97.5 1.5 2.2 2.0
Phayao 372,550 74.30 96 98.1 2.1 3.4 2.7
Chiang Rai 825,346 74.33 128 96.8 2.7 1.6 2.1
Mae Hong Son 144,150 77.24 48 80.7 2.3 4.0 3.2
Nakhon Sawan 810,668 71.70 54 91.5 1.7 1.2 1.4
Uthai Thani 241,097 74.26 63 96.4 1.7 1.9 1.8
Kamphaeng Phet 533,473 67.65 62 91.0 0.8 1.2 1.0
Tak 308,968 73.88 42 81.8 2.5 2.1 2.3
Sukhothai 463,407 69.99 56 96.2 2.0 1.8 1.9
Phitsanulok 631,596 70.01 64 90.7 1.4 0.9 1.2
Phichit 425,670 68.83 212 92.8 1.3 1.5 1.5
Phetchabun 736,985 69.87 47 94.0 1.9 1.5 1.8
Southern Region 5,821,090 76.28 84 89.6 2.0 1.5 1.8
Nakhon Si Thammarat 1,074,904 70.67 52 87.5 2.3 1.4 1.9
Krabi 260,394 82.41 106 87.7 1.5 1.5 1.5
Phang-nga 171,301 79.92 233 91.7 1.8 3.7 2.4
Phuket 194,541 78.86 26 92.7 3.9 2.8 3.2
Surat Thani 659,745 76.65 35 87.6 1.4 0.9 1.2
Ranong 110,234 74.70 105 92.3 1.9 1.9 1.9
Chumphon 341,793 79.18 223 89.7 1.8 3.6 2.4
Songkhla 895,194 78.37 90 97.8 2.1 1.5 1.9
Satun 182,685 82.94 79 81.9 2.0 3.3 2.2
Trang 427,591 78.57 54 90.2 1.5 1.6 1.6
Phatthalung 363,263 78.66 100 92.4 2.0 1.2 1.7
Pattani 403,976 72.96 59 91.9 1.2 0.7 0.9
Yala 289,265 75.87 53 84.2 1.4 1.5 1.4
Narathiwat 446,204 73.59 122 82.7 0.8 1.0 0.9

ANNEX III
Data Sources
Table AII.0 Basic Data
Columns 1-3 Key Registration Statistics 2005, Registration Administration Bureau,
Department of Local Administration, Ministry of Interior, December 31, 2004.
Columns 4-5 Household Socioeconomic Survey 2004, National Statistical Office.
Columns 6-7 Gross Domestic Product and Per Capital Income by Region and Province,
National Account Division, Office of the National Economic and Social
Development Board, 2004. (GPP at current prices)
Column 8 Royal Thai Survey Department, Royal Thai Army, 2004.
Column 9 Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Ministry of Natural Resources and
the Environment.
Notes: 1. Forest area in 2004 is an estimate from satellite image (LANDSAT-5)
taken during 2003-2004, at the scale of 1: 50,000.
2. Forest area here means forest of all types such as evergreen, pine,
mangrove, mixed deciduous, dry dipterocarp, scrub, swamp,
mangrove and beach forest, either in the national forest reserves,
ANNEX III
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, forest working plan with an area

of 5 hectares (3.125 rai) or more with tree taller than 5 metres or
more and with canopy covering more than 10% of the ground area.
Column 10 Agriculture Census 2003, National Statistical Office. (625 rai = 1 sq.km)
Data Sources
Column 11 Unclassified land = total land - forest land and farm holding land.
Column 12 Calculated from data on total population and provincial areas.
Table AII.1 Health

Column 1 Population mid year 2005 from Bureau of Policy and Strategy,
Ministry of Public Health (http://203.157.19.191/)
Column 2 Bureau of Policy and Strategy, Ministry of Public Health
Note: 1. Underweight birth means a newborn weighing less than 2,500 gm.
Column 3 Bureau of Policy and Strategy, Ministry of Public Health
Note: 1. Crude death rate per 1,000 population 2005 = (number of deaths
in 2005/population mid year 2005) *1,000.
Columns 4-5 Maternal and Children Health Report, October 2003-September 2004,
Department of Health (data from 71 provincial health offices)
Notes: 1. Infant Mortality = (number of deaths of infants less than 1 year old/
number of live births)*1,000.
2. Maternal Mortality = deaths of pregnant women or mothers within
42 days after the end of the pregnancy that are related to the
pregnancy or delivery.
3. Maternal Mortality Rate = (number of maternal deaths/number of
live births)*100,000.
Columns 6-7 Department of Health, Ministry of Public Health.
Notes: 1. Sexually transmitted diseases includes syphilis, gonorrhea,
chaneroid, lymphogranuloma venereum, non-gonococcal urethritis.
2. Data coverage was 80.59% in 2004; some provinces failed to report
the data.
3. Calculation of STD per 100,000 population is based on population
mid year 2004 from Bureau of Policy and Strategy, Ministry of
Public Health.

Columns 8-10 Reported cases per 100,000 by province, September 1984 - July 31, 2004,
Department of Disease Control, Ministry of Public Health.
(http://epid.moph.go.th/epi31.html)
Notes: 1. Total number of AIDS patients from 1984 to 2004 not excluding
patients who passed away.
2. Calculation of AIDS incidence is based on population mid year 2004
from Bureau of Policy and Strategy, Ministry of Public Health.
Columns 11-13 Health and Welfare Survey 2005, National Statistical Office
Note: 1. Interviewees were asked whether they had any illness or were sick
during the one-month period prior to the interview.
Column 14 Department of Mental Health, Ministry of Public Health
(http://www.dmh.go.th/report/population/province.asp?field24=2548)
Notes: 1. Mental illness includes cases of schizophrenia, anxiety, depression,
mental retardness, epilepsy, drug-addiction, other mental illnesses,
attempted suicide.
2. Data include only those who seek health care.
ANNEX III
3. Population by province from Registration Administration Bureau,
Department of Local Administration, Ministry of Interior.
Columns 15-23 Cigarette Smoking and Alcohol Drinking Behaviour Survey 2004,
National Statistical Office.
Data Sources
Notes: 1. The survey covers population aged 11 and over.
2. Smokers include regular smokers and occasional smokers.
3. Alcohol drinkers include those who drink every day, 3-4 times/week,
1-2 times/week, 1-2 times/month, and occasionally.
Columns 24-29 Disability Survey 2002, National Statistical Office.
Notes: 1. The survey covers 31 categories of disability.
2. The survey covers population aged 13 and over.
3. Impairment and chronic illness extends over a six-month period.
Columns 30-34 Health Resources Report 2004, Bureau of Policy and Strategy,
Ministry of Public Health. (http://203.157.19.191/)
Note: 1. Includes all public and private health personnel and resources.

Columns 1-3 Calculated from Labor Force Survey, Quarter 3/2005, National Statistical Office.
Columns 4-13 Calculated from Labor Force Survey, Quarter 3/2005, National Statistical Office
Notes: 1. Upper secondary level includes general education, vocational/
technical and teacher training.
2. Diploma level includes academic education, higher vocational/
technical education and teacher training.
3. University level includes academic education, higher vocational/
technical education and teacher training.
Columns 14-22 Education Information Center, Office of Permanent Secretary,
Ministry of Education
Notes: 1. Number of students includes total number of students under
various authorities, education year 2005 (data compilation on
12 July 2006).
2. Population by age group, sex, and province as of December 2005 is
from Department of Local Administration, Ministry of Interior
(http//www.dopa.go.th/hpstat9/people2htm).

Columns 23-25 National Assessment Test 2004 , Office of the Basic Education Commission,
Ministry of Education.
Notes: 1. The national assessment test for primary level in 2004 includes Thai,
mathematics, science, English.
2. The national assessment test for lower secondary level in 2004
includes Thai, mathematics, social studies, science, English.
3. The national assessment test for upper secondary level in 2004
includes Thai, mathematics, social studies, physics and biology,
English.
Columns 26-28 Education Information Center, Office of Permanent Secretary,
Ministry of Education, 2005
Note: 1. Figures for upper secondary education exclude vocational/technical
students.

Columns 1-19 Labor Force Survey, Q3/2005, National Statistical Office.
ANNEX III
Notes: 1. The survey covers population aged 15 years and over.

2. Current labor force =employment + unemployment.
3. Unemployment rate = (unemployment/current labor force)*100.
Data Sources
4. Underemployment rate = (underemployment/employment)*100.

Columns 20-21 Insured persons by provinces as of December 2005 from the Research
and Development Division, Office of the Social Security Fund
(www.sso.go.th/knowledge/link/statisticsmid9.html)
Note: 1. Percentage of insured workers = number of total insured workers/
current labor force calculated from the Labor Force Survey, Q3/2005.
Columns 22-24 Occupational injuries by provinces from the Office of the Workmen’s
Compensation Fund, 2005, the Social Security Office.
Note: 1. Occupational injuries per 1,000 workers covered by Workmen’s
Compensation Fund.
Table AII.4 Income

Columns 1-10 Household Socioeconomic Survey 2002 and 2004, National Statistical Office.
Note: 1. Household income changes not adjusted by inflation rate.
Columns 11-13 Calculated by the Office of the National Economic and Social Development
Board from Household Socioeconomic Survey 2004.
Table AII.5 Housing and Living Environment

Columns 1-11 Household Socioeconomic Survey 2004, National Statistical Office
Notes: 1. Housing security is defined as living in one’s own house
and on one’s own land.
2. Safe sanitation comprises of private or shared flush latrine,
private or shared molded latrine-private.
Columns 12, 14 Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Ministry of Interior.
Columns 13, 15 Calculation is based on population at 31 December 2005 from Registration
Administration Bureau, Department of Local Administration,
Ministry of Interior.
Columns 16-17 Calculated by combining the percentages in columns 13 and 15.
Column 18 Basic Minimum Needs (BMN) 2005, Community Development Department,

Table AII.6 Family and Community Life
Columns 1-10 Labour Force Survey, Q3/2005, National Statistical Office.
Notes: 1. Elderly is defined as a person aged 60 and over.
2. Single headed household means that the status of the household
head is either widow, divorced or separated.
Columns 11-12 Elderly Survey 2002, National Statistical Office.
Notes: 1. Elderly is defined as a person aged 60 and over.
Column 13 National Rural Development 2C (Khor Chor Chor 2 Khor), 2005,
Community Development Department, Ministry of Interior.
Columns 14-16 Labor Force Survey, Q3/2005, National Statistical Office.
Note: 1. Working children are children aged 15-17 not attending school.
They may be employed, unemployed, seasonally unemployed or
assigned to do homework.
Columns 17-18 Crime Statistics of Thailand 2005, Royal Thai Police. (www.police.go.th)
ANNEX III
Notes: 1. Calculation is based on population at 31 December 2005,
Registration Administration Bureau, Department of Local
Administration, Ministry of Interior.
Table AII.7 Transport and Communication
Data Sources
Columns 1-2 National Rural Development 2C (Khor Chor Chor 2 Khor), 2005, Community
Development Department, Ministry of Interior.
Note: 1. Figures in column 1 represents number of villages covered by the
data collection.
Columns 3-4 Land Transport Management Bureau, Department of Land Transport
Notes: 1. Vehicle means all types of vehicles under the Motor Vehicle Act
(not including buses and trucks and non-motorized vehicles).
2. Calculation is based on population at 31 December 2005 from
the Registration Administration Bureau, Department of Local
Columns 5-6 Department of Disaster Prevention and Mitigation, Ministry of Interior and
Bangkok Metropolitan Authority
Notes: 1. Includes highways and rural roads.
2. The figure for Bangkok is for 2006 and does not include those
under the supervision of the Bangkok Metropolitan Authority
(www.bmn.go.th/yota).
Column 7 Bureau of Research and International Cooperation, Department of Disaster
Prevention and Mitigation, citing the Royal Thai Police.
Columns 8-9 Household Socioeconomic Survey 2004, National Statistical Office
Columns 10-11 ICT Survey (Household), Q3/2005
Note: 1. The survey covers population aged 6 years and over.

Columns 1-2 Result of General Election for Members of House of Representatives,
6 February 2005, Election Commission of Thailand, 2005.
Note: 1. Including only party list candidates.
Column 3 Community Organization Development Institute.
Notes: 1. Community groups include community business, occupational,
cultural/local wisdom, community welfare, environmental, financial,
community media, social network and partnership groups.
2. Calculation is based on population at 31 December 2005 from the
Registration Administration Bureau, Department of Local
Column 4 Basic Minimum Needs (BMN) 2005, Community Development Department,
Columns 5-7 Time Use Survey 2004, National Statistical Office.
Note: 1. Time spent by population aged 10 years and over on community
ANNEX III
service and unpaid service provided to other households.

Data Sources

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Thailand Human Development Report 2007

Sufficiency Economy and

United Nations Development Programme

United Nations Development Programme

His Excellency General Surayud Chulanont (Ret.)

Thailand is no exception. The previous national human development report on Thailand,

Principal writer and editor

Design and layout

1 The State of Human Development in Thailand 2

2 Thinking out the Sufficiency Economy 20

4 Sufficiency Economy Going Forward 70

GDP Gross Domestic Product

The Sufficiency Economy is an innovative approach to development designed for practical

His Majesty’s ‘Sufficiency Economy’ philosophy … is of great relevance to communities

Plan of the Report

Chapter 1: The State of Human Development in Thailand

Chapter 3: Sufficiency Economy in Action

Chapter 4: Sufficiency Economy Going Forward

Six key messages emerge from this Report.

Assessing human development

2 Thailand Human Development Report 2007

The State of Human Development in Thailand

4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, Already achieved

9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country Potentially

11. By 2020 to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of Likely

Source: UNDP, Thailand Millennium Development Goals Report 2004, 2004.

Sufficiency Economy and Human Development 3

4 Thailand Human Development Report 2007

The State of Human Development in Thailand

1. Phuket (South) 67. Nong Bua Lam Phu (Northeast)

2. Bangkok 68. Phetchabun (North)

3. Pathum Thani (Bangkok Vicinity) 69. Nakhon Phanom (Northeast)

4. Ayutthaya (Centre) 70. Chaiyaphum (Northeast)

5. Nonthaburi (Bangkok Vicinity) 71. Narathiwat (South)

6. Songkhla (South) 72. Si Sa Ket (Northeast)

7. Sing Buri (Centre) 73. Kamphaeng Phet (North)

8. Nakhon Pathom (Bangkok Vicinity) 74. Surin (Northeast)

9. Rayong (East) 75. Tak (North)

Sufficiency Economy and Human Development 5

Box 1.1 HAI Health Index

Top Five Provinces Bottom Five Provinces

1. Yala (South) 72. Kamphaeng Phet (North)

2. Pathum Thani (Bangkok Vicinity) 73. Chaiyaphum (Northeast)

3. Pattani (South) 74. Khon Kaen (Northeast)

4. Phang-nga (South) 75. Lamphun (North)

5. Satun (South) 76. Chiang Rai (North)

6 Thailand Human Development Report 2007

The State of Human Development in Thailand

Box 1.2 HAI Education Index

Top Five Provinces Bottom Five Provinces

1. Bangkok 72. Sa Kaeo (East)

2. Sing Buri (Centre) 73. Nong Bua Lam Phu (Northeast)

3. Nan (North) 74. Chaiyaphum (Northeast)

4. Phuket (South) 75. Narathiwat (South)

5. Chonburi (East) 76. Phetchabun (North)

Sufficiency Economy and Human Development 7

Box 1.3 HAI Employment Index

Top Five Provinces Bottom Five Provinces

1. Samut Prakan (Bangkok Vicinity) 72. Nakhon Si Thammarat (South)