Reporters: Bernadette Espiritu, Chantal Min

METALS AND ALLOYS

METALLURGY

The science and technology of metals including extraction of metals from ores, preparation of
metals for use and study of the relationship between structures and properties of metals

EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY is the subject which covers the refinement of pure metals from their
ores.

CLASSIFICATION OF METALLURGICAL PROCESSES

 Chemical Metallurgy is the branch that deals with the reduction of metals from their
minerals and the refining and alloying of those metals
 Physical Metallurgy is the branch that deals with the nature, structure, and physical
properties of metals and alloys.
 Mechanical Metallurgy is the branch that deals with the working and shaping of metals
and alloys, such as casting, forging, rolling, and drawing.

TERMINOLOGIES

 Alloying Elements - Chemical elements added for improving the properties of the finished
materials. Some alloying elements are: nickel, chromium, manganese, molydenum,
vanadium, silicon, copper.

 Annealing - The process of putting material in its softest condition for further processing.
This is normally done by heating material to a certain temperature, then cooling it under
controlled conditions.

 Brinell Hardness - A measurement of a metals hardness (or the ability to resist

penetration). A ball is pressed into a sample under a 3000 kilogram load. The diameter of
the depression is measured, and the hardness is the ratio of the load to the spherical area
of the impression.

 Camber - A bend in a plate or sheet which results because on edge or side is longer than
the other. Camber in flat products is often caused by rolls which are closer together at one
end than at the other, or by uneven temperatures in the slab. In rails and structural shapes,
the camber is the "up os down" curvature, a distinguished from the sideways curvature or
sweep.

 Case-Hardening is a process of hardening a ferrous alloy so that the surface layer or case is
made substantially harder than the interior or core. Typical case-hardening processes are
curburizing and quenching, cyaniding, carbonitriding, induction hardening and flame
hardening.
 Cold Rolling (Cold Finishing) - A forming process in which metal is rolled or drawn through
dies, usually at room temperature. This produces a product with certain advantages over
hot rolled steel, such as tighter tolerances, increased properties, improved finish and
straightness.

 Ductility - The property that permits permanent deformation before fracture by stress
tension.

 Elongation - The change in length of a tensile specimen expressed as a percent of the

varying loads.

 Fatigue Resistance - The ability of a metal to withstand repeated and varying loads.

 Finish - In the steel, aluminum industry, refers to the type of surface condition desired or
existing in the finished product. For cut plates, finish refers to the quality of an edge or
surface required for the part to be acceptable.

 Forging - A hot working operation generally involving plastic deformation of metal into
desired shapes with compressive force.

 Free Machining (Improved machining) - A term to describe a type of steel that has been
modified, usually by adding sulfur, lead, or selenium to increase its machinability.

 Galvanizing - The process of applying a coating of zinc to cold-reduced sheet, bar,

structural, or to fabricated parts made from steel. The coating is applied by hot dipping or
electrolytic deposition and is applied to make product more corrosive resistant.

 Hardness - The ability of a metal to resist penetration, defined in terms of the

measurement 9Brinell, Rockwell, etc.)

 Hardenability - The ability of a steel to harden deeply upon quenching.

 Heat Treatment - Any process involving heating metal to an elevated temperature to

obtain change in properties or metallurgical structure.

 Hot Rolled - Hot rolled products are those products that are rolled to finish at
temperatures above the recrystallation temperature.

 Pickle - Chemical or electrochemical removal of surface oxides (surface scale). Pickled

steels must be oiled or they will rust rapidly.

 Plastic – Deformed materials that have surpassed their elastic capability

 Quenching - A process of rapid cooling from an elevated temperature by contact with
liquids, gases or solids.

 Rockwell Hardness - A method of measuring the hardness of materials (resistance to

penetration). Rockwell measures the hardness by pressing an indentor into the surface of
the steel with a specific load, then measuring how far the indentor was able to penetrate.
There are a number of Rockwell tests the most common is Rockwell B.

 Scale - An oxide of iron which forms on he surface of hot rolled material.

 Stress Relieving - A process of reducing residual stresses in material by heating to a suitable

temperature and holding for a suffient time. this treatment may be applied to relieve
stresses inducted by casting, quenching, normalizing, machining, cold working or welding.

 Temper - A condition produced in a metal or alloy by mechanical or thermal treatment and

having characteristic structure and mechanical properties.

 Work Hardening - Increase in resistance to deformation (hardness) produced by cold

working.

ORES

An ore is a combination of materials, which can be profitably mined.

ACID ORES– ores which contain a predominance of silica or silicate in the gangue

BASIC ORES– ores which contain a predominance of limestone and magnesia

A GANGUE is a secondary mineral consisting of impurities of an earthly nature, such as rock,

sand and clay

PRIMARY METALS– metals directly produced from ores

SECONDARY METALS– metals that are reclaimed from scrap

METALS

A metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and

forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals.
In chemistry, a metal (from Greek "μέταλλον" - métallon, "mine”) is an element, compound,
or alloy characterized by high electrical conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to
form positive ions (cations). Those ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are
responsible for the conductivity. The solid thus produced is held by electrostatic interactions
between the ions and the electron cloud, which are called metallic bonds.
Metals account for about two thirds of all the elements and about 24% of the mass of the
planet. Metals have useful properties including strength, ductility, high melting points, thermal
and electrical conductivity, and toughness. From the periodic table, it can be seen that a large
number of the elements are classified as being a metal.

The key feature that distinguishes metals from non-metals is their bonding. Metallic materials
have free electrons that are free to move easily from one atom to the next. The existence of
these free electrons has a number of profound consequences for the properties of metallic
materials. For example, metallic materials tend to be good electrical conductors because the
free electrons can move around within the metal so freely.

PROPERTIES OF METALS

CHEMICAL – refers to the structure of a material and its formation from elements

 Electronegativity – refers to the ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself

PHYSICAL – refers to the interaction of materials with various forms of energy and with other
forms of matter

 Density – mass per unit volume

 Luster - visual property of something that shines with reflected light
 Malleability - property of something that can be worked, hammered or shaped without
breaking
 Melting Point – the point at which a material liquefies on heating or solidifies on cooling
 Reactivity – refers to the ability of matter to react / be reacted upon by its surroundings
 Thermal Conductivity - the rate of heat flow per unit time
 Thermal Expansion – the rate at which a material elongates when heated

ELECTRICAL – refers to the behavior of materials with regard to the flow of electrons

 Conductivity - the rate of electron flow per unit time

 Resistivity – the electrical resistance of a material per unit length and cross-sectional
area or per unit length and unit weight

MECHANICAL – refers to properties of a material that are displayed when a force is applied to it

 Elastic Deformation – deformation in which stress and strain are proportional

 Engineering Stress – force that produces strain on a physical body
 Engineering Strain – deformation of a physical body under the action of applied forces
 Hardness – a measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation
 Shear Stress - stress which is applied parallel or tangential to a face of a material, as
opposed to a normal stress which is applied perpendicularly
  Tensile Properties – indicate how the material will react to forces being applied in
tension
o Ductility – a measure of the degree of deformation that has been sustained at
fracture
o Resilience – the capacity of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically and upon unloading, to have this energy recovered
o Tensile Strength – maximum stress that can be sustained by a structure in
tension
o Toughness – a measure of the ability to absorb energy up to a fracture
o Yielding – the onset of plastic deformation
o Yield Strength – stress required to produce a very slight yet specified amount of
plastic strain
 Young’s Modulus – describes the length elasticity of a material. It is the ratio of the
stress to strain within the limit of proportionality

CATEGORIES OF METALS
 BASE METALS
o Chemistry: refers to a metal that oxidizes or corrodes relatively easily
o Alchemy: refers to common or inexpensive metal as opposed to precious metals
o Numismatics: coins used to derive their primary value primarily from the
precious metal content
 FERROUS METALS - metals that contain iron
 NOBLE METALS - metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation
 PRECIOUS METAL - rare metallic chemical element of high economic value

COMMON METALLIC MATERIALS

 Iron/Steel - Steel alloys are used for strength critical applications

 Aluminum - Aluminum and its alloys are used because they are easy to form, readily
available, inexpensive, and recyclable.
 Copper - Copper and copper alloys have a number of properties that make them useful,
including high electrical and thermal conductivity, high ductility, and good corrosion
resistance.
 Titanium - Titanium alloys are used for strength in higher temperature (~1000° F)
application, when component weight is a concern, or when good corrosion resistance is
required
 Nickel - Nickel alloys are used for still higher temperatures (~1500-2000° F) applications
or when good corrosion resistance is required.
 Uranium – The most common use of Uranium is in nuclear reactions that provide
electrical power in a nuclear power plant
  Cobalt – Use in treatments such as radiotherapy, sterilization of medical supplies and
medical waste, radiation treatment of foods for sterilization

ALLOYS

Alloys metallic materials made up of more than one chemical element, at least one of which
must be a metal. They are combined in such a way that they cannot be readily separated by
physical means. More than 90% of metals used are in the form of alloys .

Each alloy is distinct from its components, and the properties of each alloy are distinct. The
physical and chemical properties of an alloy can be modified by heat treatment and mechanical
working. Some alloys are made to impart magnetic or electrical properties, strength,
formability, etc.

Engineering Alloys may include the cast-irons and steels, aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys,
titanium alloys, nickel alloys, zinc alloys and copper alloys. For example, brass is an alloy of
copper and zinc.

CLASSIFICATIONS BASED ON COMPOSITION

 BINARY ALLOY – a mixture of only two types of atoms, not counting impurities
 TERNARY ALLY – a mixture of three types of atoms
 QUATERNARY ALLOY – an alloy with four constituents
 QUINARY ALLOY – an alloy with five constituents

BASE – refers to the primary metal found in an alloy

NOTE: Since the percentage of each constituent can be varied, with any mixture the entire
range of possible variations is called a system.

WHY DO ALLOYS EXIST?

 Alloying one metal with other metal(s) or non-metal(s) often enhances its properties.

PROPERTIES ENHANCED BY ALLOYING

 Physical
o Density
o Reactivity
o Young’s Modulus
o Electrical Conductivity
o Thermal Conductivity
 Engineering
 o Tensile Strength
o Shear Strength

NOTE: Engineering properties are more affected by alloying a metal.

 Unlike metals, alloys do not have a single melting point, but a melting range
 SOLIDUS - temperature at which melting begins
 LIQUIDUS - temperature when melting is just complete

EUTECTIC MIXTURE – a particular proportion of constituents in an alloy that gives it a

unique melting point

STEEL - an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon being restricted within certain
concentration limit

 ALLOY STEEL – steel that have significant addition of any element other than carbon
 CARBON STEEL –
o PLAIN CARBON STEEL – non-sulfurized carbon steels
 Low Carbon Steel
 Medium Carbon Steel
 High Carbon Steel
o FREE MACHINING STEEL – sulfurized carbon steels
o RESULFURIZED AND REPHOSPHORIZED STEEL
 STAINLESS STEEL – steel capable of resisting corrosion from many elements
 TOOL STEEL – steel capable of being hardened and tempered

CAST IRON - refers to the family of iron, carbon, and silicon alloys with carbon content greater
than can be accommodated in solid solution, a graphite or iron carbide is usually present.

 Gray Iron – a high-carbon, iron-carbon-silicon alloy. Most common among the cast iron
family and is usually colored gray.
 White Iron – a type of cast iron that has a hard as-cast structure and difficult to
machine. It has a white colored appearance.
 Malleable Iron – a type of cast iron with its structure altered by thermal treatments to
give it measure ductility and increase tensile strength
 Ductile Iron – similar to malleable iron in ductility but its ductility is achieved by ladle
additions. This type of cast iron contains nodular cast iron.
 Mottled Iron – contains both cementite and graphite and is between gray and white
irons in composition and performance.

EXAMPLES OF ALLOYS

 Pewter is an alloy of tin with minor amounts of antimony and copper;

 Copper with some zinc makes brass for a variety of fittings;
 Copper with tin forms bronze for plumbing fixtures;
 18-carat gold is 75% gold, with the balance made up of nickel, copper and zinc.
  Inconel -made from Nickel, Chromium, and small amounts of several other elements, is
designed to be able to operate at high temperatures. 
 Wood's metal - mixture of about 50 percent bismuth, 10 percent cadmium, 13 percent
tin, and 27 percent lead that melts at 70°C (160°F). 

HAZARDS OF METALS

Metals are the oldest toxin known to man. They are present in the rocks and ores. Rain water
dissolves them and distributes them in the environment. We get exposed to them because we
use them for various purposes. 

Health effects due to exposure to metals could range from skin lesions to cancer. Metals can be
classified into four different groups.

Major Toxic Metals

These are the most toxic metals, which produce multiple health effects in us. Listed below are
the more  important major toxic metals.

Metals Source of Exposure Health Effects

Acute Effects - Dypsnea, coughing, and
wheezing, skin burns, Nausea, vomiting,
Combustion of coal and crude
diarrhea.
oil, cement manufacturing,
Chromium
tanning industry, toner of
Chronic Effects -     Bronchitis, pneumonia,
copying machine.
asthma, nasal itching and soreness, human
carcinogen
 Acute Effects - nausea, diarrhea, abdominal
pain, headache.
Volcanoes, contaminated
drinking water ( leaching
Chronic Effects - irritation of the skin, dermatitis,
Arsenic from soil), defoliant, was used
skin lesion -         hyper pigmentation, and
as an insecticide,  and
Blackfoot disease (necrosis and gangrene).
herbicides.
Inhalation  causes lung cancer, ingestion causes
skin, bladder and liver cancer.

Acute Effects - headache, dizziness,

gastrointestinal symptoms, Death at high level
of exposure.
Leaded gasoline, food and
Lead soil, toys, battery
Chronic Effects - anemia in children,behavioral
manufacturing plants
and learning disabilities, spontaneous abortion
in pregnant women, low birth
weight, hyperactive,cancer-causing agent.

Freshwater fish caught from

tremors, inability to walk, convulsions, and even
contaminated waters,
Mercury death at high doses, emotional changes,
dental filling,fluorescent
delayed onset of walking and talking in children.
lights, and  thermometers,

Food,  nickel containing
Acute Effects - Headache, vertigo, nausea,
jewelry, cooking utensils,
vomiting, insomnia, and irritability
Nickel stainless steel kitchens, and
clothing fasteners,spark
Chronic Effects - lung and nasal cancers
plugs, batteries.

Essential Metals With Toxicity Potential

These are the metals which we need for our growth and development, but become toxic when
taken more than what is required.

Metals Source of Exposure Health Effects

 Acute Effects - Vomiting, and ulceration of GIT, liver
Mine, iron and steel damage and renal failure.
Iron workplace, during
medical use. Chronic - diabetes mellitus, affects liver functions and
cardiovascular effects.
Foodstuff, water,
and air, galvanized
cans and utensils,
and plastic pipes, Gastrointestinal distress and diarrhea, Inhalation could
Zinc
higher amount in cause fever, 
seafood, meat,
whole grains, dairy
products, and nuts.
Acute Effects - irritation of the mucous membranes of
lungs, pulmonary edema, severe bronchitis, and
Food, drinking water,
bronchial pneumonia.irritation of the mucous
metal industries,
membranes of nose and throat, producing coughing,
selenium-recovery
and nosebleeds, indigestion and nausea, headaches,
processes, plastics,
Selenium dizziness, and irritation of the eyes, nausea, vomiting,
paints, enamels,
diarrhea, aches, irritability, chills, and tremors.
inks, and rubber,
antidandruff
Chronic Effects - discoloration of the skin, deformation
shampoos.
and loss of nails, loss of hair, excessive tooth decay and
discoloration, and lack of mental alertness.  

Metals with Toxicity Related to Medical Therapy

These are the metals which are used to treat a number of human ills, but they produce toxic
effects when they accumulate in the body.

Metals Source of Exposure Health Effects

Irritated eyes, skin, irritates
the lung tissues and causes
Cooking utensils, used in pulmonary fibrosis
Aluminum
dialysis fluid, containers. producing restrictive and
obstructive lung diseases,
affects GIT.
Seawater, during medical use,
Gold Dermatitis,stomatitis
industrial use.
 

Minor Toxic Metals

Metals Source of Exposure Health Effects

Gastroenteritis, muscular
Paints, soap, paper, and
Barium paralysis, lungs and causes
rubber, water, X-rays
pneumoconiosis.

QUESTIONS

1. What is defined as an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon being restricted?
a. Steel b. Wrought Iron c. Cast Iron d. Pewter
2. Temperature at which alloys begin to melt.
a. Liquidus b. Annulus c. Solidus d. Melting point
3. An alloy with four constituents.
a. Quaternary b. Quarternary c. Tetraternary d. Quadternary
4. The branch that deals with the working and shaping of metals and alloys, such as casting,
forging, rolling, and drawing.
a. Physical Metallurgy b. Extractive Metallurgy
c. Chemical Metallurgy d. Mechanical Metallurgy
5. The subject which covers the refinement of pure metals from their ores.
 a. Physical Metallurgy b. Extractive Metallurgy
c. Chemical Metallurgy d. Mechanical Metallurgy
6. In the steel, aluminum industry, refers to the type of surface condition desired or existing in
the finished product.
a. Fatigue Resistance b. Pickle c. Finish d. Forging

7. A chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and

forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals.
a. Metals b. Steel c.Ores d.Alloys
8. metallic materials made up of more than one chemical element, at least one of which
must be a metal.
a. Metals b. Steel c.Ores d.Alloys
9. A particular proportion of constituents in an alloy that gives it a unique melting point
a.System b.Eutectic Mixture c. Carbon Steel d.Alloy Steel
10. Simply alloys of iron and carbon, with carbon being the major strengthening agent
a.System b.Eutectic Mixture c. Carbon Steel d.Alloy Steel

11. Refers to the family of iron, carbon, and silicon alloys with carbon content greater than can
be accommodated in solid solution, a graphite or iron carbide is usually present.

a. Cast Iron b.White Iron c.Ductile Iron d.Gray Iron

12. A high-carbon, iron-carbon-silicon alloy. Most common among the cast iron family and is
usually colored gray.

a. Cast Iron b.White Iron c.Ductile Iron d.Gray Iron

13. An alloy of tin with minor amounts of antimony and copper

a.Wood’s Metal b.Pewter c.Brass d.Bronze

14. An alloy of copper and zinc.

a.Wood’s Metal b.Pewter c.Brass d.Bronze

15. A process of rapid cooling from an elevated temperature by contact with liquids, gases or
solids

a.Quenching b.Finishing c.Forging d.Galvanizing