Before and After Superflat

Yoshitomo Nara, Harmless Kitty (1994)

Before and After Superflat

Contemporary Art 1990 - 2011

A Short History of Japanese
Talk of Japanese contemporary art and everyone inevitably thinks of the pop culture fantasies of
Takashi Murakami, along with Yoshitomo Nara and others connected to Murakami’s “Superflat”
movement. Meanwhile, Japan has stumbled through a series of economic, social and ecological
crises since the collapse of its “Bubble” economy in the early 1990s. How did Murakami, Nara and
“Superflat” rise to become the dominant artistic vision of Japan today? What lies behind their image A Short History of
of a childish and decadent society unable to face up to reality? Before and After Superflat tells the Japanese Contemporary Art
1990-2011
true story of the Japanese art world since 1990, its struggle to find a voice amidst Japan’s decline and
the rise of China, and the responses of other artists, less well known outside, who offer alternative
visions of its troubled present and future.
Adrian Favell
Adrian Favell is a Professor of Sociology at Sciences Po, Paris. He has also
taught at UCLA, Aarhus University and the University of Sussex. In 2007
he was invited to Tokyo as a Japan Foundation Abe Fellow, and has since

Adrian Favell
then been closely involved as an observer, writer and occasional curator on
the Japanese contemporary art scene, both home and abroad. He writes a
popular blog for the online Japanese magazine ART-iT, as well as catalogue
essays, reviews and contributions to magazines such as Art Forum and Art
in America. He was born in England and lives in Paris.
Adrian Favell

Front cover: Makoto Aida, Azemichi (1991)

Before and After Superflat
A Short History of
Japanese Contemporary Art
1990-2011

Adrian Favell
 Published by Blue Kingfisher Limited
19A Entertainment Building
30 Queen’s Road Central
Hong Kong

e-mail: [email protected]
www.timezone8.com

Copyright © 2011 by Author and Blue Kingfisher Limited

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced

ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher. All works of art copyright the artists, their heirs and
assigns.

ISBN: 978-988-15064-1-2

Author: Adrian Favell

Cover:
Makoto Aida, Azemichi [A Path Between Rice Fields] (1991)
panel, Japanese paper and mineral pigment, acrylic
73 x 52 cm
© AIDA Makoto
Collection of Toyota Municipal Museum of Art
Courtesy of Mizuma Art Gallery and Toyota Municipal Museum of Art

Back Cover:
Yoshitomo Nara, Harmless Kitty (1994)
acrylic on canvas
150 x 140cm
Courtesy of Tomio Koyama Gallery

Printed in China.
 Contents

PROLOGUE
Tourists in the Japanese Pavilion........................................................................................... 7

PART ONE
Little Boys and Tokyo Girls: The Rise of Superflat
Artist in Wonderland: Takashi Murakami............................................................................ 15
The Little Prince: Yoshitomo Nara...................................................................................... 23
Tokyo Girls Bravo! Kaikai Kiki and Mariko Mori.............................................................. 31
Utsukushii Kuni: Yokoso Japan!.......................................................................................... 41

PART TWO
How to be A-Zillionaire: Commerce, Design and Art in the Superflat World
The Art Entrepreneurship Theory........................................................................................ 49
Nara as Businessman........................................................................................................... 56
The World is Flat.................................................................................................................. 63
The Creative Surplus............................................................................................................ 69

PART THREE
Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? The Tokyo Art World in the 1990s
Tokyo 1991-1995: The Birth of the Cool............................................................................. 79
Ginza Days, Omori Nights: The Birth of a Contemporary Art Scene................................. 86
Art and Money: The Birth of a Contemporary Art Market................................................ 101
When Will Aida Be Famous? Before and After Zero Japan............................................. 109
PART FOUR
Art & The City: How Art Replaced God at the Heart of Neo-Tokyo
The Tower of Power: The Mori Story................................................................................ 139
Yokohama: From Triennial to Debacle.............................................................................. 154
What are Contemporary Art Museums in Japan Really For?............................................ 163
Echigo-Tsumari and Rural Art Festivals: Rise of the Northern River............................... 174

PART FIVE
After the Gold Rush: The New Japanese Art Scene in the 2000s
China Mania....................................................................................................................... 185
The Zero Zero Generation................................................................................................. 191
Aida’s Children.................................................................................................................. 201
Space for Our Future.......................................................................................................... 209

EPILOGUE
After the Tsunami............................................................................................................... 221

Sources and Acknowledgements..................................................................................... 231

Cast of Characters / Index............................................................................................... 237

 PROLOGUE

Tourists in the Japanese Pavilion

What image should Japan present to the world? The Japanese worry a lot
about this question. Every year, in fact, the Japanese Foreign Ministry, Japan
Foundation and Agency for Cultural Affairs (Bunka-cho) spend millions of
yen trying to answer it. Among the many fields of culture they cover, contem-
porary art is one of the central pillars of their mission. Although it is a small
and specialized field, contemporary art is the cultural lingua franca of some
of the world’s most cosmopolitan and influential elites. In major cities around
the globe, it is what can be seen at top museums, in the fanciest auction hous-
es, and on the walls of the richest millionaires.

With the symbolic importance of art in mind, the Japan Foundation organizes
the Japanese Pavilion at the Venice Biennale once every two years. This is the
world’s biggest festival of global contemporary art. At any World Expo like
this, with so many wonderful countries on show, strong images are needed to

7
pull in the viewers. Many will often overlook or forget the Japanese Pavilion.
But, although it was not the official selection in the Pavilion that year, at Ven-
ice in 2009 a contemporary Japanese artist certainly gave the world something
“Japanese” it could remember.

The sun was shining, and the famous old city was full of rich and beautiful
tourists. High on their list of things to see was the newly reopened customs
house on the Grand Canal. On display here were the works of a global art col-
lector, François Pinault, the multi-millionaire owner of Gucci and Christie’s
auction house. He had engaged the Japanese architect Tadao Ando to renovate
this spectacular waterside building at the entrance to the city. There are many
famous American, German and British names in Pinault’s collection. But at
Venice there was also something Japanese. Near the centre of the show, in a
big white room, stood a monstrous eight foot high plastic sculpture. It seemed
like something straight off the pages of a disturbing adult comic book. A na-
ked cartoon boy with a big grin, enormous eyes and crazy hair stood there
masturbating, a wild lasso of plastic semen filling the air around him.

The sculpture was Takashi Murakami’s My Lonesome Cowboy. Sold to Pinault

by the auction house Sotheby’s of New York in May 2008 for a reported $15
million, Murakami’s provocative “little boy” stands as the most successful
piece of Japanese art ever. It was one of the last big trophy acquisitions of the
global art elite, before the collapse later that same year of the world economy
and the global bubble in art prices of the mid 2000s. As a result of his success,
Murakami represented during those years most of what anybody in the West
knew about Japanese contemporary art. He called this distinctively Japanese
style art “Superflat”. It was inspired by the country’s animation and comic cul-
tures, and it seemed to be everywhere. ©MURAKAMI, a major world tour and
retrospective of the artist’s works during 2008 and 2009, took his vision from
Los Angeles, via New York, to Europe and the Guggenheim Museum in Bil-
bao. In 2008 he was listed by Time magazine among the 100 most influential
persons of the year – the only fine artist in the list – and in 2009 was ranked

8 P RO L O G U E
by the magazine Art Review as no.17 of the 100 most important persons in the
global art world today – the only Japanese in the list, one of only three Asian
names, and one of only about 20 artists. In the autumn of 2009, London tour-
ists packed into to the Tate Modern to see Murakami bookend a retrospective
history of contemporary art after Andy Warhol, with a huge mural of Akihaba-
ra, the electronics and video game epicentre of Tokyo, and a video featuring
Hollywood actress Kirsten Dunst singing “I’m turning Japanese”, an old punk
rock song also about masturbation. In the autumn of 2010, Murakami’s giant
and colourful installations found a home in the Palais de Versailles in Paris,
en route for an even bigger show for the Qatar royal family in 2012. It all con-
firmed “Takaaashi” – as he is known to his American friends – as Japan’s most
visible international art superstar. He alone was able to rub shoulders with
global art superstars, such as Jeff Koons and Damien Hirst.

There are many other Japanese artists, but few in the 1990s and 2000s had
anything like the kind of recognition Murakami enjoyed in terms of interna-
tional sales and consistent museum visibility. The cult illustrator, Yoshitomo
Nara, was one. Nara was a worthy partner to Murakami, with his childlike
paintings, toys, playroom installations – and big sales. He too fitted the idea
of superflat art. Nara spent much of the 2000s on a world tour of his own,
rounding up an impressive decade with a large new catalogue and retrospec-
tive show in New York in the autumn of 2010 which celebrated his alternative
status. Behind his international success, Murakami was also able to cultivate
the careers of a number of young girl artists, employees at his Kaikai Kiki
corporation which produces all his art works and spin off products in a related
style. This obviously adolescent art appealed to a Western sense of what they
thought Japanese youth culture must be like. Then there was, for a while at
least, Mariko Mori, with her fantasy girl photos and space age machines.

Takashi Murakami, Yoshitomo Nara and Mariko Mori were successful inter-
nationally for a simple reason. Each made an art that confirmed, reproduced
and sold to the West a certain vision of Japan that reigned until March 2011.

9
This was “Cool Japan”: a kind of neo-Japonisme, which worked as an updated
version of the historical Western fascination for classical Japanese culture
known as Japonisme. It was the hip high-end tourist’s Japan that everybody
wanted. Countless books, magazines, travel guides and websites for interna-
tional tourists celebrated this image. Japan, for this kind of consumer, was a
land which during the 1990s and 2000s became a cartoon: full of cute-yet-
seductive schoolgirls, super-nerds with weird fetishes, and a warped, decadent
pop culture. Young people in North America and Europe rushed to learn the
words to describe this Asian wonderland. It was the land of otaku (obsessive
nerds), of manga (comics) and anime (cartoons), of all things kawaii (cute)
and moé (a word expressing an otaku nerd’s adoration of a cute young girl).
It was also a Japan whose capital was a futuristic techno-scape called “Neo-
Tokyo”, overlooked by the gleaming towers of Tokyo’s high rise city centres,
Roppongi Hills and Shinjuku, and full of the sensory overload and neon-pos-
sibilities of its commercial hubs, Akihabara and Shibuya. Where once Japan
had an exotic culture of geisha (entertainment women), tea ceremonies and
zen gardens, and an art of subtle wood block prints and ukiyo-e (Edo period
pictures of the floating world), it now became a Cool Japan of maid cafes,
outrageous teen street fashion, and infinite lines of plastic collectible prod-
ucts. The art of Murakami, Nara and Mori somehow succeeded in packaging
this mostly youth and teen oriented pop culture for the elite, adult, and very
rich global art world. Like the Young British Artists – a parallel generation
who managed to re-invent London and “Cool Britannia” with a dramatic and
often shocking pop art in the 1990s – this group of Japanese otaku style artists
found international acclaim by presenting Japan and its capital city, as the art-
ists in London had, as uninhibited “Sensation”.

To say the least, this superflat vision of Japan seems history now. The inter-
national image of Japan may have changed forever. Cool Japan is over. Japan
is no longer seen as the leader of high tech modernity or the world’s Asian
future. And for weeks in 2011, all the world saw on 24 hour news channels

10 P RO L O G U E
and YouTube were images of buildings shaking and the sea smashing into a
vulnerable coastline. It watched in horror as nuclear reactors exploded, and
numerous cities and towns were laid waste. For years the world had known
that Japan had a stagnant economy, and even more stagnant politics. It had an
ageing population and a desperately low birth rate. It had too many suicides,
and a massive gap between urban growth and rural decline. It was being sup-
planted industrially and financially by China. But at least it had culture. For a
decade, Cool Japan provided an alternative vision. It was government policy,
and the first line in all the tourist guidebooks. Then, all of a sudden, the long
distance air flights were nearly empty. Cool Japan became history, the bad
memory of another “lost decade”. Internationally, Japan nearly dropped off
the world map.

In the Japanese contemporary art world, the problem with Murakami and as-
sociates was already visible a long time before 2011. The easy eye candy of
superflat art was, to anyone that knew anything about the place, a blatant carica-
ture and distortion of modern Japan. For a decade, it became practically the only
Japanese contemporary art ever seen internationally. In fact, the success of their
otaku style art stood as the stunning exception to the dismal failure of much
Japanese contemporary art to match the international impact of Japan’s other
creative industries. As a result, aside from Murakami and co., contemporary
art from Japan was much less globally appreciated than its anime and manga
artists, its character and toy producers, its architects and fashion designers, or
even its cooks and novelists. The Japanese art scene in reality languished for
over a decade in the shadow of a far bigger Chinese art boom. Its turnover was
a miniscule part of the global art market, and its many expensive museums and
ambitious art festivals were largely overlooked by foreigners. Tokyo’s lively but
small art world has never been anything but a minor outpost on the global map.
Successive waves of home grown artists and creators articulated a variety of
original and alternative visions to Murakami, Nara or Mori. But in the shadow
of Cool Japan, they struggled to attract much attention or sales.

11
Meanwhile, Takashi Murakami’s heady cocktail – written down in his 2001
manifesto for the Western art market, Superflat, that blended oriental stereo-
types, deviant sexuality, corporate branding, and promiscuous pop culture ico-
nography – was channelled into a bigger entrepreneurial mission back home.
He successfully promoted himself as the guru of the kuriieita (creator) gen-
eration, the young adults of Japan’s two “lost decades” of the 1990s and 2000s
who grew up in a society in decline, but who dreamt of the freedom to travel
and to express themselves creatively. To these followers in Japan, he declared
he was on a mission to fool the West and smash the Japanese art system. Yo-
shitomo Nara meanwhile pursued a no less successful path to independence.
He built on smart collaborative ventures across Asia, drawing on the help of
thousands of internet fans. He also tapped into an outpouring of regional de-
velopment aid from his native region, putting on touring shows that fronted
his own multi-million yen book, toy and merchandise franchise.

The essays in this book retell the story of these two remarkable artist-entrepre-
neurs, as well as others close to them – both in terms of what they achieved and
what their success prevented during their two decade long rise. They portray the
social and cultural milieu out of which they came, and get inside the Japanese
contemporary art world to explain its rare successes – and more frequent fail-
ures – on the international stage during these years. Based on over five years of
interviews, documentary research and participant observation as a visiting writ-
er on the Tokyo art scene as well as its outposts in Asia, America and Europe, it
is a sociologist’s account of the Japanese contemporary art world today. Placing
art in context this way is in fact one way of narrating the dramatic social and
generational change of Japan since its own economic “Bubble”. This was when
Japan’s incredible post-war boom years came to an end at the beginning of the
1990s, and it entered a period of long, slow decline that has continued through
to the new shattering disasters of 2011.

Takashi Murakami and Yoshitomo Nara did it “their way”, but not by them-
selves. They joined forces with a new generation of art world entrepreneurs –

12 P RO L O G U E
leading gallerists, impresarios and writers in Tokyo, as well as foreign dealers
and curators. Together these people invented an international art scene, with
new networks of museums and curators, and a new contemporary art market
in Japan. Japanese government and corporations ignored this until it became
something they too could use. Artists, curators and entrepreneurs tapped into
an extraordinary creative boom of crisis-stricken Japan in the mid 1990s. They
invented ideas, attitudes and imagery that were later made successful on a
global scale. Yet along the way, an essentially radical and transformative cul-
tural movement was hooked to much more powerful conservative forces of ur-
ban development and political nationalism. Big financial interests such as the
Mori Building Co., and big political concerns, such as Tokyo Governor Shin-
taro Ishihara’s Olympics-driven vision for Tokyo, were able to appropriate the
creative surge to their own ends. So did bureaucrats and ambitious leaders of
Japan’s conservative Liberal Democratic Party, desperate to find a new image
for Japan internationally, using Cool Japan to boost its “soft power”.

As part of the global Cool Japan mania, superflat art came to dominate the
world’s view of Japanese contemporary art, monopolizing spaces and oppor-
tunities where other visions might have been seen. It offered false promises
to young artists who thought they could follow the path of these older art-
ists, leading many astray. Meanwhile, the world grew tired of Murakami and
Nara’s pop production lines in the international art world, with nothing emerg-
ing to take its place. It was already clear by the end of 2010 that there would
be a terrible void in Japanese contemporary art the day that Cool Japan ended.
The Western art world was already getting bored with images of Akihabara
and cute cartoon characters. Its interest had long since moved on to other, hot-
ter, Asian destinations such as China and India.

Still, something important started in the difficult years before March 2011. A
younger generation of artists, now in their late 20s and 30s, absorbed the busi-
ness lessons and international ambitions of Takashi Murakami and Yoshitomo
Nara, while rejecting their aesthetic stylings and obsessions. Others initiated

13
distinct forms of creativity under the influence of various less well recognized
figures from the early 90s wonder years. More idealistic entrepreneurs in the
art world inspired extraordinarily ambitious festivals and redevelopment proj-
ects that brought in art and architecture to some of the most declining regions
and urban neighbourhoods in the country. And the disasters of 2011 inspired a
new kind of community engagement from artists looking for a redefined role
in a troubled society. After the rise and fall of Superflat, there was still hope
for a fresh and more sustainable vision for Japanese art.

14 P RO L O G U E
 PART ONE

Little Boys and Tokyo Girls:

The Rise of Superflat

Artist in Wonderland: Takashi Murakami

Cool Japan was a fantasy, and it always sounded silly to many ordinary Japanese.
But it certainly existed. Not really in the glossy tourist brochures and leaden
policy plans of bureaucrats trying to revive the sorry fortunes of the nation with
the idea of “soft power”: the export of Japanese popular culture and contempo-
rary aesthetics that was supposed to replace its former manufacturing and finance
might lost after the Bubble of the 1980s. But it did exist in the heads of the many
trendy young and affluent international tourists who came to Tokyo during those
years looking for the wonderland promised in their urban city guides.

Welcome to Neo-Tokyo. Neo-Tokyo was not only the name of the city
reborn in the aftermath of nuclear war in Akira (1988) – the first Japa-

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 15

nese anime to breakthrough into the international market. It was also the
concept promoted by these guides as the ultimate allure of this amazing
metropolis. The best place to see Neo-Tokyo was, and still is, from Rop-
pongi Hills, Tokyo developer Minoru Mori’s famous “city within a city”.
Roppongi Hills Mori Tower is the central icon of this wonderland, repre-
senting the attempt by the most powerful urban developer in Japan to wipe
out the complex fabric and underbelly of old Tokyo beneath. It took Mori
17 years to buy up all the ramshackle houses, junk stores, cheap ryokan
hotels, and seedy dining bars that used to cover the area – in the name of
his shiny new urban philosophy.

Before taking the elevator to the 52nd floor, it is best to wait until dark. Usually
it is impossible anyway to get a glimpse of Japan’s oldest icon of all, Fuji san
(Mount Fuji), way out across the city. But at dusk, Neo-Tokyo comes alive: an
immense, infinite urban sprawl, kinetic flows and neon light in all directions,
red beacons twinkling over the black void. Safe behind the glass, it can feel like
being God in the clouds. Neo-Tokyo from up here is remote, breathtaking, and
magnificent. The lighting was a little subdued after March 2011, but the experi-
ence has not changed much.

Next there can be a visit to the 53rd floor Mori

Art Museum. Or there are amazing fish to see
in an aquarium while taking tea at the café.
But when the tourists exit, the elevator down
spills them out in one place, unavoidably: the
art-shop on the third floor. Exit through the gift
shop. During the 2000s, this shop was the per-
fect place for Cool Japan souvenirs. Only the
hippest J-art and J-design. Lots of collectible
images of Roppongi Hills itself, and all kinds Roppongi Hills rising up. Photo by Ann-
Christina Lauring Knudsen.
of toys, posters, books and goodies. There was
also art on sale here but it was all pop-art. Art NEO-TOKYO

16 PART ONE
 that came from
the same country
that turns every-
thing into colour
cartoons and cute
characters. These
were the Japanese
artists the tourists
would discover
here. There would
be something by
View from roof top of Mori Tower at night. Photo by author. the iconic, veteran
pop artist, Yayoi
NEO-TOKYO
Kusama, for sure;
some of the old 1960s hippy favourites like Keiichi Tanaami or Tadanori Yo-
koo; some kids’ friendly stuff by a cult illustrator called Yoshitomo Nara, and
glamour fashion photos by a female photographer called Mika Ninagawa; and
a few girly artists with the typically colourful Japanese teenage-style doodles.
But above all, there would always be lots and lots of work by one particular
artist: Takashi Murakami.

For years, the table in the shop entrance was stuffed full of Murakami’s co-
lourful superflat Kaikai Kiki products. It was an art store installation, in fact.
A uniformed guard was even posted at all times to prevent any photos of this
magnificent haul. A few books and postcards, a calendar with cartoon girls,
some collectible looking objects that might be “art”. But above all, lots of his
signature style products: tons of daft happy flowers, furry mushrooms, wonky
dinosaurs, t-shirts and badges, a football, even a Roppongi Hills Tokyo Mo-
nopoly game, all with the same distinctive imagery. All designed and branded
by the maestro himself, ©MURAKAMI. The Monopoly game was particu-
larly amusing. The grey steel monolith that wiped out several popular neigh-

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 17

bourhoods over the protests of residents and anti-development groups became,
with Murakami’s branding, a kawaii super-cute tower of smiley flowers. This
was the art approved by Mr Mori as the image of Neo-Tokyo delivered by
the Roppongi Hills experience. The museum in the clouds was the shrine,
but down here in the souvenir shop you saw the art that everyone would re-
member. During the 2000s, the Mori corporation effectively subsidized and
promoted a certain kind of young Japanese artist, the ones that conformed to
the image of Neo-Tokyo – one of which, was Mr Mori’s niece Mariko – as the
key to this sublime experience.

But it was Takashi Murakami – a goateed, perpetually cheerful art-guru – who

internationally became the most famous face of Cool Japan. His rise to promi-
nence is a fabulous story: the kind of rare global success that, in the 2000s,
nourished a Japan that had grown used to disillusionment and decline since
the 1990s.

Murakami was born in 1962. Growing up in Saitama, north of Tokyo, he be-

came familiar with the ominous sounds of American military planes reminding
Japan of its foreign domination. His mother even told him that he would not
be alive had the Americans gone ahead with their plans for the second nuclear
bomb and bombed Kokura near Fukuoka, where she lived, instead of Nagasaki.
Murakami grew up with the 60s generation’s love of manga, anime and cult
sci-fi television series. He became an artist himself – an intellectual and con-
ceptualist – but was always most inspired, he says, by the masters of Japanese
anime such as Hayao Miyazaki, as well as the cult TV obsessions of his youth.

Murakami was not an outsider in Tokyo art terms. He was, rather, a graduate
of the elite national Tokyo University of the Arts (known as Geidai for short).
Indeed, he trained in classical nihonga (traditional Japanese art), becoming the
first ever PhD in this old department. But he was, famously, the son of a To-
kyo taxi driver, from the wrong side of the tracks. At Geidai, from the late 80s
on, he became a core member of a gang of brilliant young art students who

18 PART ONE
were all about to seize the day. These included a prolific art-organizer called
Masato Nakamura, his closest partner; Min Nishihara, a young woman writer
and close friend; Murakami’s gallerist-to-be Tomio Koyama; two would-be
curators, Yuko Hasegawa and Shin Kurosawa; and a couple of livewire young-
er artists, Makoto Aida and Tsuyoshi Ozawa, who would become founding
members of an art group, Showa 40 nen kai (“The Group 1965”, i.e., they
were born in the 40th year of Emperor Hirohito). These artists and future art
world leaders would leave art school and come to maturity during the creative
ferment of the immediate post-Bubble chaos of the early 90s. An innovative
alternative art space, the Röntgen Institute, founded in an old industrial ware-
house by an iconoclastic gallerist of the same generation, Tsutomu Ikeuchi,
was one key platform for these new young artists. Other influential creators,
critics and intellectuals circulated in this world, and Murakami’s early work
was associated with the theories of “neo-pop”, a term coined by the art maga-
zine Bijutsu Techo’s editor Kiyoshi Kusumi, and promoted by another editor
friend of the gang, Noi Sawaragi. Sawaragi wrote for fashionable magazines
and had a new spin on the idea of Japanese postmodernism developed by the
popular philosopher Akira Asada. With American pop art as its antecedent,
Sawaragi’s idea was that Japanese “neo-pop” parodied the infantilism of post-
war Japanese consumer culture, making art by “sampling” and “remixing” the
endless array of consumer junk with which Japanese filled their passified US-
dependent lives.

Murakami’s art was arch and conceptual in this early period; it was explicitly
political and a provocative reaction to older Japanese avant garde art move-
ments of the 50s and 60s. But while he became a key figure on the burgeoning
new Tokyo art scene, which was a whirl of parties and art events, he struggled
to sell much or retain value on his work. Yet, already by 1992, he had invented
his brand image: the DOB character – a kind of perverted cartoon Mickey
Mouse in the shape of a basketball – an image that would become a signature.
DOB was debuted at a solo show in 1994 at a beautiful new gallery in the his-

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 19

toric Yanaka neighbourhood, called SCAI The Bathhouse, that was founded
by an internationally minded art entrepreneur, Masami Shiraishi. Murakami
then took a crucial sojourn in New York in 1994/5, encountering the financial
core of the Western art world, and getting a first hand taste of the world of Jeff
Koons, Keith Haring and the legacy of Andy Warhol, his biggest hero. The
American pop influence, and Koons’ brash, factory-made sexual sculptures in
particular, turned out to be what he was looking for. He came back to Tokyo
armed with an idea of turning the character figurines collected by Akihabara
otaku nerds – a group he identified with but was not really part of – into mas-
sive pop art installations. Out of this, in 1997 and 1998, came the eight foot
high plastic sculptures of Miss Ko², a sexy Japanese waitress, Hiropon, a girl
with huge breasts spraying milk, and then My Lonesome Cowboy: his best
works, a brilliant, succinct and technically perfect marrying of idea and form,
that was simple yet distinctive enough to break into the global art world. It
was not yet an overnight sensation: otaku themselves didn’t like the work, and
Japan was not yet ready for it. But the American connections on the East and
West Coast continued to develop, with small shows and a few press articles.
Murakami set up a production company, Hiropon, to produce his increasingly
ambitious lifesize models and computer based art. He was also, throughout, a
prolific and innovative curator of others’ work in Tokyo. This eventually led to
putting on a show called “Super Flat” in 2000 of related otaku and pop culture
inspired work by a whole generation of artists like him: at the very high pro-
file location of the Parco department store in Tokyo. Shortly after, plans were
made to take the show to the US and France. Murakami’s trajectory started to
go global…

This is where I enter the story. One sunny day in early 2001, I was driving up
La Brea in Los Angeles, when I started to notice rows of cute, colourful char-
acters smiling blankly down at me from streetlamp billboards. These were
“Chappies”, a Japanese design brand, advertizing a show at LA’s Museum of
Contemporary Art (MOCA) on contemporary Japanese art called, in a now

20 PART ONE
more streamlined title, Superflat. I had always had a latent “thing” about Ja-
pan; this looked great, so I immediately went to the “great blue whale” in West
Hollywood (the Pacific Design Center), where the show was taking place. It
was a typical Western seduction: I had never been to Japan at this point. Over
two floors, the show was a sensory overload of childish art, dream characters
and pachinko style lights and colour. It offered that familiar promise of an
alternative Asian modernity which first time visitors looking for Neo-Tokyo
always experience. There was also a lot of sex in the show (although not so
much in the catalogue), and no end of images of young Japanese girls. But it
was all cartoonish, colourful and fun, albeit a little weird. It was something
like being teleported unprepared in the middle of Akihabara on a busy Sunday
afternoon, with curator Murakami as the laughing otaku guide. I totally loved
the show, and my thoroughly enchanted ideas of Japan, like Roland Barthes,
were thus cemented well before I ever travelled there.

I was only one viewer among nearly 100,000 that saw the show in this small
annexe of MOCA. But this was a select crowd and the show became the talk
of the town. LA loved Murakami. Masterminded by his LA gallerists, Blum
and Poe, and Tomio Koyama – who was like Jay Jopling to Murakami’s
Damien Hirst – he started making serious sales to the pop art collectors in the
hills, as well as serious waves over in the East Coast art media. In Europe,
Murakami was represented by another young gallerist he had known since the
early 90s in Tokyo, Emmanuel Perrotin, who will go on to broker his bigger
deals to elite European contemporary art collectors, such as François Pinault.
Moreover, back home in Japan, the general public started to take notice of a
new Japanese star rising in the West. Superflat toured in the US then went to
Paris (as Coloriage/Kawaii!! Summer Vacation, 2002), to similar acclaim. The
American media, meanwhile, had noticed, and the fashion world started to
show interest in this new whiff of Tokyo cool. Also in 2002, Marc Jacobs of-
fered him the job of re-designing the Louis Vuitton handbag, “Takashi-style”.
The bag became a smash hit: a must have item on Omotesando (the most chic

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 21

street in Tokyo), 5th Avenue and, most importantly, at the Venice Biennale. In
early 2003, Roppongi Hills then hired him to brand the about-to-open towers.
Around this time, Murakami’s works started selling for over a half a million
dollars. Marc Jacobs’ favourite model Sofia Coppola made Lost in Transla-
tion, the film starring Bill Murray that seemed to capture the essense of the
new American fascination for Japan that was exploding. The New York Times
had begun its serial obsession with all that is cool in Tokyo; the Japan Society
kept sending an endless stream of over-excited American journalists paid to
go and write about the secrets of the creative new Japan. By 2005, Murakami
was back in New York persuading the Japan Society and big Manhattan cor-
porations to foot the bill for the show Little Boy, an even grander re-run ver-
sion of Superflat. Murakami, who himself had put cartoon balloons and an hi-
larious “Mr Pointy” installation outside the Rockefeller Centre in 2003, would
now put paedophile images on pristine New York museum walls and plastic
elephants and dung in Central Park, giving birth to an elegant catalogue that
was practically a DIY sociology of post-war Japan written through the eyes
of 1960s and 70s nerds. Murakami was now the talk of the town here too, cel-
ebrated alongside all things truly “Japanese” by hip New Yorkers, along with
their vintage sake bars and dragon roll sushi.

Even all this was only a preamble to an even more triumphant 2006 and 2007.
One work hit one and half million dollars at Art Basel, the world’s most im-
portant art fair. Murakami dumped his (small) New York gallerist, Marianne
Boesky, and joined Gagosian, the most powerful gallerist in New York and
the man behind the Warhol phenomenon. Kanye West – a black American hip
hop artist with a fascination for Japanese pop culture – commissioned him to
do all the art and visuals for his new album. The record hit number one in the
US and the UK in late 2007. Back in LA, his most committed American cura-
tor, Paul Schimmel, was hard at work on his first big retrospective, the show
that was going to cement his place in art history. The MOCA show was slated
for Brooklyn, New York, Frankfurt, and the Guggenheim in Bilbao. With big

22 PART ONE
shows in London, Paris and the Middle East also in the pipeline, the Mu-
rakami juggernaut, that had been showing work like this since 1994, was now
going to be on the road well into 2012.

Late October 2008, ©MURAKAMI opened in triumph in LA, with a massive

oversized and overpriced catalogue, a Vuitton boutique in the museum, an
anime premier by the maestro himself, and a Hollywood VIP style opening
gala fit for a movie star. The show was dominated by a massive silver smiling
Oval Buddha self portrait weaving mystical elements – and more irony – into
the heady brew. May 2008, Takashi Murakami broke with convention, sitting
smiling at the back at Sotheby’s as he watched the sale of My Lonesome Cow-
boy. As the hammer came down $13.6 million (plus commission), he shouted
“Banzai!” as the sale took him into the superstar league.

This is a good moment to pause. May 2008 was surely a historical moment
for Japanese Art, as much as for Murakami. Thousands of years of Japanese
art history, with its exquisite and refined aesthetic sensibility, as well as the
most dramatic surge of post war urban development and cultural change
seen anywhere in the twentieth century, had somehow all been concentrated
into this: an eight foot high plastic figurine jerking off in front of a crowd of
applauding executive class magnates and catwalk stars in the heart of New
York City. His hero Andy Warhol would have been proud. But what did
this moment really say about modern Japan in the world? And from where
did the power and fascination of Takashi Murakami, this laughing Japanese
Wizard of Oz, really come?

The Little Prince: Yoshitomo Nara

Takashi Murakami was not alone. Not quite. Internationally speaking, the
grand ladies of the 1960s – pop artist Yayoi Kusama and conceptualist Yoko
Ono – are always remembered and still hugely influential. There are also a
number of other Japanese names whose breakthrough dates back to 1980s –

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 23

Hiroshi Sugimoto, Yasumasa Morimura, Tatsuo Miyajima, or Tadashi Kawa-
mata – who are also sometimes mentioned in rarefied circles. There have been
some younger artists who might one day make it to this level: names such
as Tabaimo, Miwa Yanagi, Motohiko Odani or Kohei Nawa. But the glossy
Taschen Art Now round up for the new millenium in the mid 2000s told its
own story. In the 81 names listed in the book as the rising leaders of global
art, only three Japanese were mentioned: Takashi Murakami, Yoshitomo Nara
and Mariko Mori.

Nara has been, in many ways, Murakami’s only real peer. In 1998, they were
both teaching at UCLA, as visiting professors. They shared an apartment, and
at first were suspicious. But as they became friends, they started to plot a “new
pop revolution”, as they christened it. In the 1990s and 2000s, Murakami was
like the Pokemon franchise of the contemporary art world – a multi headed
monster spinning off lines of new products from his factories in Tokyo and
New York, that morphed into high art and low pop. Yoshitomo Nara, on the
other hand, was like Hello Kitty, his trademark sad and lonely little kids mass
produced into instantly recognisable, heartwarming images, adorning emi-
nently affordable lines of postcards, t-shirts, badges, bags and art toy collect-
ibles. The two were both businessmen as much as artists. But their public im-
age could not be more different. Murakami, passionate, aggressive and loud,
upsets everyone where he goes. Nara, meanwhile, shambling, shy and mono-
syllabic, still comes off as the casual punk rock artist, chain smoking with the
cool haircut. Now well past 50, he still plays the boyish loner, while heading
up massive collaborative projects that have drawn on the talents of many close
associates, as well as sometimes thousands of volunteers. Yet in sales, Nara
has matched Murakami through the sheer quantity of his inventory, and the
obsession with which some collectors have chased it. And, in terms of com-
mercial spin offs, his works during the 2000s if anything grew into an even
bigger franchise operation, targeted at a mass global public audience rather
than art world elites like Murakami.

24 PART ONE
 Artist Yoshitomo Nara. Photo by Mie Morimoto. Courtesy of Tomio Koyama Gallery.

Yoshitomo Nara is a self-styled country boy, from Aomori, the North, born in
1959. The Nara story is always told in teenage romantic form, always as a se-
cret diary written for a fan, as in his art autobiography, Little Star Dweller. The
aesthetic is just like the famous children’s classic by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry,
The Little Prince. He too remembers nothing but the drone of American mili-
tary bases, and the music and fashion it brought. He spent his childhood as
the latch key kid on the block, playing by himself, or off cycling with friends.
He imagined he was a girl – his parents lost a daughter before him, her spirit
passed into him, he says. He dreamt away his time listening to American and
British rock bands. He went to Tokyo then Nagoya to study, picked up odd jobs
as an art tutor, and eventually left in his mid twenties for Europe, to Germany.
He had heard that the state there would pay for his scholarship – so he could
continue being a student for ever. This was the dream life of the young interna-
tional free floater, a lifestyle sometimes rather naively associated with the term

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 25

freeter (free arbeiter, or flexible worker, which can have more exploitative con-
notations). It is something that thousands of young Japanese in the 1990s and
2000s would later turn into a whole way of life in cities around the globe. They
followed their jibun sagashi (self discovery) as free spirits and kuriieita (cre-
ators) on the road, soaking up experiences in foreign lands. In Germany, cities
are good to artists and they tend to like Japanese. There were a lot of fans of
Japanese movies and comics; people were starting to discover sushi and sake.
Nara studied in Düsseldorf, then moved to Cologne, making friends with an in-
ternational group, and starting to work as an artist. But it was remote and cold
Northern Europe. He started to paint little childish figures that were maybe
boys, maybe girls. His breakthrough moment came in 1991, when he started to
directly translate his lost and alienated feelings onto the canvas, leaving off the
elaborate backdrops and landscapes, and just painting the figures lost against a
blank sky and meaningless language. They were cute figures, a little deformed
maybe. Like cartoon characters, only something different. Nara says they were
all self portraits. There was a hint of something violent, maybe sexual, under-
neath. The children looked angry; sometimes they carried a knife or swore.
One little boy was riding a Mitsubishi Zero. Others looked sad against a night
sky, or played punk rock guitar like rebellious teenagers. Nara travelled around
remote parts of Europe – the Balkans, the Mediterranean – taking scrappy pho-
tos of dogs and funny looking kids.

Nara was a late starter. He was 30 before anything much happened in his
career. But then it moved fast. His slogan was always: “Never forget your be-
ginner’s spirit”. He scrawled it on the walls of his studios, which looked like
children’s playhouses full of toys and sketches, with all his obsessive collec-
tions, as well as empty bottles and ashtrays. This was who he was; my world
is my studio, he seemed to say. Nara preserved this ingenuous self-image,
even as the sophistication of the presentation grew. The images never really
changed, but they morphed easily into all kinds of other things. He started
making models of the kids, setting them up as characters in strange shed-like

26 PART ONE
installations. He also started making model dogs as sculptures, and then as
toys and little story books. There was always an almost haiku (Japanese po-
etry) like simplicity of form in Nara’s work. Just a few strokes of the brush on
an empty canvas. Hello Kitty needs only twelve strokes of the pen; an average
Nara not much more. A lot of Nara’s collectible works have just been doodles
sketched on bits of paper and turned into litho prints. The solo art shows start-
ed in Japan and Germany in the late 1980s, and the US from 1995. At first, he
stayed based in Germany, but with frequent flights to Japan and the US. Like
Takashi Murakami, he hooked up with Tomio Koyama, who was working for
Masami Shiraishi at SCAI, then establishing itself as a premier location of the
new contemporary art in Tokyo. They put on his first important Tokyo show in
1995, In the Deepest Puddle. Koyama had an eye for the commercial childish
art that Nara was producing, even though in Japan all the trends at the time
were against painting and against such personal expressionism in art. Nara
simply painted and expressed himself as he felt. Koyama took Murakami and
Nara with him and founded his own gallery.

The early shows in Los Angeles were organized by the same gallery that rep-
resented Murakami: Blum and Poe. They had an immediate impact and good
media coverage. In particular, Midori Matsui, a very articulate and ambitious
literature PhD turned art writer, picked up Nara and started to promote his
work in both the Japanese and US art press. Matsui had studied at Princeton
but was also around the Tokyo scene in the early 1990s. Tomio Koyama
meanwhile found he could sell small Nara collectibles to curious LA collec-
tors. Some of them bought the strange images or figurines as presents for their
grandchildren. Nara finally published the catalogue of that first Tokyo show –
In the Deepest Puddle – as a book in 1997. The works themselves started to
sell in Japan, but only modestly; it was his books that became cult items first.
In 1998, he went to UCLA, getting to know Takashi Murakami. Nara was
amazed by the West Coast pop culture: he bought a battered car, and drove
round the city visiting old record stores, collecting stuff.

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 27

 Nara dog outside Yoshii Brickhouse brewery, Hirosaki. Photo by author.

Banner for Yoshitomo Nara exhibition, Nobody's Fool at Asia Society, New
York (2010). Photo by author.

YOSHITOMO NARA

28 PART ONE
Nara’s moment was now arriving. He was about to return definitively to Ja-
pan, and put together a new book of paintings and poems, Slash With a Knife.
It was a word of mouth smash hit, especially among students and teenagers.
Nara was then persuaded by Murakami to join his Superflat show in 2000, and
became one of its signature images. He was, by this stage, becoming like a
pop star in Japan because of the book, mobbed at signings by fans, especially
girls. But he was not so popular with the authorities in Germany, who basi-
cally kicked him out of the country. One day, Nara discovered a fan internet
site called “Happy Hour” run by a fan called “naoko.” and started to write
blogs for it. Plans were being laid for a first major solo show in Yokohama
(2001) by a visionary curator Taro Amano, at the same time as Murakami
would have his first big Tokyo show at the Museum of Contemporary Art. Us-
ing the blog, Nara decided to invite fans to make toys in his style for the show,
that will be called I Don’t Mind If You Forget Me. Expecting a few, they were
overwhelmed by the hundreds of hand made stuffed toys of his characters that
arrived by post in Yokohama. The toys were just put into the show, which be-
came a huge hit, with nearly 100,000 visitors, a record for a contemporary art
show in Japan at that time.

Being back in Japan suited Nara. He had friends, connections, and a fan base
to draw on. He said he liked being back a country where they eat rice, think
communally, and speak his language. It was a country now where he only
needed to make an announcement on the internet and thousands of young fans
from around Japan – but also Korea, China and Germany – would help him
re-build his little teenage den over and over again, or send him stuff for the
show. Also he was able to use his links with his home region – Aomori and
the city of Hirosaki – where officials were not slow to realize the potential of
a local artist in regional development efforts and tourism. Plans were laid for
the first of three large collaborative shows in the old Yoshii brickhouse brew-
ery, Hirosaki. Amazingly, a total of over 3000 volunteers showed up to help
build this show for him. With a team of carpenters from Osaka called graf,

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 29

led by an old friend Hideki Toyoshima, he then developed a style of installa-
tion based on the ramshackle sheds and small rooms they would build to show
off the endless line of Nara images, toys, books, and collectibles – as well as
the fan copies of them. Nara says fixing up galleries and old buildings with
his friends like this was just like playing as kids on an empty lot. The shows
were another huge success raising large profits that were turned into a local
NPO organization. The city got a big cute white doggy in the empty lot out-
side the abandoned building, and the new Aomori Museum set up a special
Nara collection. The show itself then became A to Z, a global touring show
that travelled the world from 2005 onwards – a vital lifeline for his New York
gallerist, Marianne Boesky, who had lost Murakami. At his first big retrospec-
tive in Korea in 2005, there were lines around the block. But it’s the same at
any Nara show. There are always thousands of visitors. He was so successful
in Seoul that Nara decided to just donate the museum there his work, which
became permanent.

Yoshitomo Nara, then, is an artist of the people. But it has been a popularity
also plotted on the art market. His work throughout has sold well, especially
on the Asian market. A mark of success was that there have been many fakes
in circulation, as well as small and giveaway works of which Nara and his
gallerists have lost track. As plans were being laid for a big retrospective style
show in New York at the Asia Society in 2010 titled Nobody’s Fool, it was
also the moment to bring together a major catalogue raisonné that sought to
document the whereabouts of all his work. During these years, you could see
the little Nara houses everywhere – his sheds, part studio, part hikikomori
(obsessive recluse) bedroom. A DVD film documented his life and work as a
happy-go-lucky artist – mostly it’s just him and his friends hanging out. Nara
breezed through 50, getting arrested in New York for two nights after doodling
on a subway wall and getting into a fight with the police. Then he decided to
get married, to a younger woman who worked in a gallery. It must have been
a day as sad for young Japanese and Korean girls as it was for English girls

30 PART ONE
the day Paul McCartney married Linda in 1969. But the 2010 show in New
York didn’t suggest any change in lifestyle – or any approaching maturity. It
was like the installation permanently placed in Nara’s honour in a room in the
back of Hara Museum in Tokyo, which is a reconstruction of his old studio
from Germany in the usual style. Nara’s art and life seemed to be locked in
a permanent, sweet and nostalgic, adolescence. His fans and the Japanese art
world have only loved him all the more for it.

Tokyo Girls Bravo! Kaikai Kiki and Mariko Mori

During the years of Cool Japan, the artists might have might have been middle
aged men but the images that Western audiences remembered about Japanese
contemporary art were always girls. As has been well analysed by writers such
as anthropologist Laura Miller and sociologist Sharon Kinsella, girls and girls’
culture have been at the heart of everything that is most striking about Japa-
nese contemporary culture. The otaku mentality referenced by Superflat artists
channelled above all the idea of hopeless, ageing, obsessive dame (loser) guys
longing day and night for their unattainable, cute, and dangerously young girl
idoru (idols). Intellectualized, it was presented as the core gender dynamic of
an infantilized consumer society trapped in endless, introverted fantasy and
escape. More basically, it was a vision of Japanese society and culture suppos-
edly straight out of the closed bedrooms of the original generation of ageing
male nerds born in the 1950s and 60s. They were a population that could be
seen in droves on the streets of Akihabara: a generation who, it was thought,
had never held a proper job, never had to deal with a real relationship, lived
with its parents, and sat day and night at home poring over its obsessively
catalogued collections. Murakami celebrated this culture in Little Boy; Nara’s
fixations and iconography embodied it.

The pervasive images in Superflat were clear enough. The show was full of
pretty girls’ faces and crude, repetitive boys’ cartoons of their fantasy objects.
But the catalogue’s essays put the accent on serious art history, drawing parallels

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 31

between traditional Japanese art and postmodern theory. Little Boy, however,
was full of explicit otaku talk and things from otaku bedrooms. While still taste-
fully packaged, and always kept on the right side of real scandal, the book of the
show marked a shift in Murakami’s thinking from the influence of Noi Sawaragi
to Midori Matsui. Sawaragi’s writings are relatively unknown and inaccessible
outside of Japan, whereas the fluent English speaker Matsui rose with Nara and
Murakami to become almost the only serious recognized commentator on Japa-
nese contemporary art known in the West. The reception and understanding of
Nara and Murakami’s work was significantly filtered through Matsui’s reading,
as she came to monopolize much international communication.

Midori Matsui left behind the obsession with war and boys’ sci-fi that per-
meated Sawaragi and Murakami’s early formulations. She focused instead
on the centrality of teenage girls’ culture in Japan, as well as the warped
perceptions of the middle aged otaku consumers that are so fascinated by
it. She was most concerned with the inner world of the bedroom: the intro-
verted, small scale and almost invisible “minor” creative reactions shown
by the younger generations to the harsh and adult world outside. Matsui
generalized this form of creativity as a “political” response to the condition
of Japanese contemporary society. Nara was the godfather of this move-
ment, which Matsui called “Micropop”. But his self-obsessed expressionist
sensibility passed on most obviously to the legions of girl fans he inspired.
Matsui then explored what was unleashed when this culture was brought out
into the street.

Takashi Murakami – neither a true otaku or hikikomori – nevertheless always

understood the explosive power of presenting this particular, odd dynamic
of Japanese society in a gallery context. For example, he put Hiromix’s face
and photos all over Superflat. Hiromix was the pretty young star of the brief
late 90s boom in “girly photography” (onna no ko shashin) in which the art
and photo world in Japan was wowed by a provocative glimpse of the inner
bedroom worlds and outer street life of teenage girls, in photos taken by the

32 PART ONE
girls themselves. Other male svengali in the 90s, such as the photographer
behind Egg magazine, Yasumasa Yonehara, had already found ways to put
teenage girl talento and their obsessive self-centred photo stories into success-
ful books and gallery shows. The strange relationship here was like the fragile
conspiracy of the schoolgirl and oyaji (middle aged) man who takes her out
and buys her clothes. Or, as sociologist Sharon Kinsella suggests, it was the
“rejuvenation fantasy” of the ageing man, of being close to his object of af-
fection, or even (secretly) of wanting to become her. Hiromix was already a
star when Murakami selected her, but he also cultivated girls of his own. Ever
since he played with the idea of a fake boys’ band called Kase TaishuU in the
early 90s, he had been tempted by the role of impresario and star-maker: the
power he could exercise by plucking unknown young artists out of school for
his company and productions.

Superflat thus established with a wider audience the work of Murakami’s

earliest and most talented girl protégés: Aya Takano and Chiho Aoshima. The
work of these two artists was full of the delicate and pretty iconography of
the teenage girl’s bedroom, and typical of “Micropop”. They pictured cartoon
girls self-absorbed in adolescent sci-fi and dreams of a future paradise. It was
mixed in with androgynous romance, naïve sexuality, and full of images of
injured doll girls and submission fantasies. It was all sweet, colourful, girly
– but a little disturbing. The appeal of Takano and Aoshima was the appeal
of ordinary but strange girls next door, clutching their overflowing notebooks
full of introverted ideas: perfect otaku boy fantasy objects. There was noth-
ing at all unusual in their iconography. If you look through any teenage girls’
magazine, manga or photo book, you see all the same images. They have been
the staple of Japanese teenage girls since the 1980s, with even older roots in
historical girls’ (shojo) visual cultural. But it was some of the easiest imagery
to market internationally in the alternate context of contemporary commercial
art. Western audiences were fascinated by the strangeness, and only too ready
to buy this kind of thrilling fantasy of Japan. Both girl artists thus became

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 33

very successful internationally under Murakami’s tutelage, with their own ma-
jor shows, sales and design commissions. In the US, they were represented by
the same gallery who worked with Murakami and Nara: Blum and Poe. They
also played an important role as employees in Kaikai Kiki, especially Aoshi-
ma, who introduced the computer illiterate Murakami to illustrator technology
and oversaw part of the technical production of his work.

American audiences loved this part of Superflat, and Murakami clearly saw
the larger potential of using girl artists to broaden the appeal of his Kaikai Kiki
products. Tokyo Girls Bravo, which had its first showing in Tokyo and then
LA in 1999, became a parallel albeit smaller touring show, in which he played
impresario to around ten young girl artists, including Takano and Aoshima,
selected out of nowhere design schools or through DIY art competitions. The
catalogue pictured them as naïve teenagers, even though the oldest, Aoshima,
was nearly 30 at the time. In the photos, the girls were raw and fresh faced,
accumulating art in their bedrooms as a private reaction to the sprawling deca-
dence of Tokyo all around them. The book was cute and colourful throughout,
but the bio stories included speak of psychological anguish, perverted ideas,
and underlying violence. Murakami’s introduction celebrated his juicy otaku
vision of decadent Neo-Tokyo through their eyes, with the inner life of girls the
perfect metaphor for his fantasies: “The Tokyo of the 21 st Century has finally
passed through its maturity, and is only now getting good and decaying. Like
horse meat is best a little past its time, ‘Tokyo’ and its residents are just now
getting tasty. This is the ‘Tokyo’ where these girls live: overripe but still with a
smell of bright red blood, sweet and wholesome, coming from somewhere. Let
us applaud them as we take a tour into their very hearts, with these pages as a
guidebook”. Nothing of course was more universally marketable than a group
of pretty young girls like this, especially when hitched to a weird subplot.

Murakami continued to recruit for his team throughout the 2000s, always with
the same idea. As the talent wore thin, the presentation became increasingly
provocative. After Aya Takano and Chiho Aoshima, his – and Midori Matsui’s

34 PART ONE
– most visible prodigy was the overweight, supposedly bulimic, Mahomi
Kunikata, who made directly graphic and disturbing art out of her psychologi-
cal anguish and troubled sexuality as a child. The paintings were an overload
of psychiatric confession: a brother who died young, predatory adults, girls
who hurt themselves with knives, or dressed up like car wreck victims. Ex-
ecuted on large canvasses with poster paint colours and cartoony drawing
techniques, they could only be presented as straightforwardly amateur works
in the outsider art tradition. But it is what happened when this and other simi-
lar work was presented internationally that was most interesting. On the road,
Murakami and Matsui were able to package Kunikata as the best of Japanese
contemporary art. So, by the time Kaikai Kiki arrived at Art Basel Miami
Beach in 2007, Kunikata was selling miniature pornographic sushi for the
gleeful western shoppers, dressed up in the booth as a waitress. This was the
kind of Japanese contemporary art seen during the 2000s at the world’s top art
venues. Irasshaimase! Superflat shop girls could be bought everywhere over
the counter: at art fairs and museum shops the world over.

Looking back, the simple binary of girls’ imagery and male fascination has al-
ways been there in Japanese contemporary art. Japan’s most famous photogra-
pher, Nobuyoshi Araki, made a career out of these kinds of obsessions. In the
late 80s and early 90s, artists such as Chiezo Taro and Ryoichi Majima were
pursuing similar ideas and imagery. Downstream, the photographer Miwa
Yanagi made her first international breakthrough using a similar brew, par-
ticularly her very successful picture series of mannequin-like shop assistants,
Elevator Girls (1994-9); although her later work such as My Grandmothers –
in which a series of young women imagine themselves when they are old and
grey (1999-) – or the tempestuous and huge scale Windswept Women (2009)
offered very different representations of women. And the idea of building art
out of the provocation of the lolikon (lolita complex) of the otaku, owed most
to another 90s Geidai artist, Makoto Aida, who took the ideas further than
anyone that decade. But its clearest success commercially in the West was

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 35

 Artist Mariko Mori. Photo by David Sims. Courtesy of
SCAI The Bathhouse.

Artist Miwa Yanagi. Courtesy of Yoshiko Isshiki Office.

WOMEN’S ART

36 PART ONE
through the sharp rise in the mid 90s of Mariko Mori. As a forerunner of what
would eventually happen to Cool Japan, it is a salutary tale.

Mariko Mori is younger than Takashi Murakami and Yoshitomo Nara, and came
from a completely different background. She was born in metropolitan Tokyo
in 1968 into one of Japan’s richest families. She was never a conventional art
student in Tokyo, which accounts for some of the diffidence with which she has
always been received back home in Japan. After studying fashion at the height
of the Tokyo bubble in the prestigious Bunka Fashion College, she left at 21 (in
1989) to study art in London. Fashion continued to be a key part of her work,
and she dabbled in modelling and fashion photography, using herself as the
mannequin for the clothes designs that would become an integral part of the
work. Her early London work reflected an experience of the cosmopolitan city
around her. There was, for example, some clumsy satire on Lady Diana and an
obsession with Vivienne Westwood, more than ten years after punk rock. After
London, she moved on to follow an independent study programme at the Whit-
ney Museum in New York. There she absorbed a much harder edge of critical
art theory, filtered through the characteristically “political” New York sensibility
of post colonialism, identity and gender in art. This was the early 1990s, and in
photography the work of Cindy Sherman was everywhere. It was the moment
that commercial photography boomed, with the emergence of new video and
computer based art using manipulated photographic images. Mori positioned
herself here – as the Japanese glamour girl artist in New York.　

This all sounds like the dream of the international freeter life – a female Nara.
Except Mariko Mori of course had the curse of being incredibly well con-
nected and financially privileged from the outset. As the niece of the chair of
the board of the Mori Art Museum and the CEO of Tokyo’s most powerful
development corporation – her aunt and uncle respectively – she had from the
start connections, financial possibilities, and opportunities of which others
could only dream. There was not much comparison between Yoshitomo Nara
and his friends living as so-called “survival artists” in Germany, and Mariko

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 37

Mori’s fluid, frequent flying, first class existence between London, New York
and Tokyo. In one famous anecdote, she arrived at a London gallery in a
scruffy neighbourhood looking every inch the New York catwalk model lost in
the wrong part of town. They asked, where were her bags? Mori laughed and
said she only ever carried a credit card.

In New York, she found the collaborators through art world and family connec-
tions to put together the signature images and high tech know how that were
to make her career. But she also experienced the kind of stereotyping typical
in the Western world: the pretty Asian women in the Western gaze. Her early,
most famous work reflected this. As signature images of Cool Japan, there
were no better visualization of the Western fantasy of Neo-Tokyo, or indeed
the image of the internationally mobile Japanese girl as an object of West-
ern desire – all executed some five or six years before Murakami’s Superflat.
Her famous breakthrough photographs of 1994/5 pictured her as a schoolgirl
plaything in a love hotel; a robot doll outside an Akihabara otaku shop; a pli-
ant mechanical woman serving tea to irritated salary men; a mermaid sitting
on an artificial beach; an anxious cyborg on a busy commuter train. Play With
Me, she said. These images remained staples of the Western media and tourist
fantasy of Neo-Tokyo. There was costume play, transformed identity, elements
of performance and weird sex tourism, as well as the self-conscious “neo-pop”
reflection on Japanese culture. It was work that exposed openly the male gaze
and sex drive that was behind the (limited) appreciation of much Japanese con-
temporary art, as well as capturing the mid-1990s “post-human” moment.

Mori’s breakthrough work was simple, one dimensional, and suitably sensa-
tional. It didn’t hurt that she was herself a pretty girl, or that the works were
executed as impeccable glossy fashion magazine shoots. In their original
presentation, they also took on the traditional Japoniste trappings of nihonga
screens, while plugging into hip New York art trends as accompanying live
performances. The business dynamic behind the success was also essentially
a classic Japanese-New York story. The hugely influential New York galler-

38 PART ONE
ist, Jeffrey Deitch was, in the mid 1990s, looking for a Japanese girl artist he
could market. Initially, he picked up Emiko Kasahara, reckoned at the time
by some as potentially the most important Japanese woman artist of the 90s,
although she languishes in obscurity now. Kasahara was photogenic enough –
Murakami had a crush on her while he was in New York. But her installations,
which created orifices and wombs in strange tactile materials – a kind of ear-
lier female version of Ernesto Neto – were visceral and uncompromising. No
such problem with Mariko Mori. This was seductive, self-orientalizing, “Made
in Japan” pop art that Deitch could easily sell to the Western mainstream.
Within two years, with Deitch behind her, she went from obscure gallery
showings to a prize winning appearance at the Venice Triennial in 1997. De-
itch himself would later be hired by the Mori Building Co. to draft the busi-
ness strategy for the Mori Art Museum in 2003.

The problem with Mariko Mori’s sensational photo series was that it was a one
shot idea. Perhaps as a reaction to this early tumultuous success, Mori, now
a global traveller herself, started searching for meaning and substance. The
metaphor she grasped was the space age alien in a capsule shooting around
the world for a series of glamorous tourist shots: her series Beginning of the
End (from 1996). Back in New York, she also looked for meaning by making
a move familiar among the neo-Japoniste artists, which Takashi Murakami
has often used: the kitsch appropriation of religious mysticism as a subtext.
Mori used first Buddhism, then a mix of more transcendental religious imag-
ery. These were picked up with an earnest seriousness, but never more than
superficial and selective appropriation. Struggling to get the back story right,
she took advice from famous Japanese photographer Hiroshi Sugimoto, an
antiques specialist, getting some basic indications about dress and poses. Mori
then started to develop these into a constant theme. But the works were some-
thing quite different to the early images: spectacularly expensive productions
that required large commercial sponsorship and collaborations with scientists,
designers and architects to create space age installations, videos and interac-

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 39

tive spaces. One of the scientists involved was even a Nobel prize winner from
the University of Tokyo, Masatoshi Koshiba, who had invented a galactic sub-
atomic particle detector. Into this machine, Mori plugged Tom Na H-iu (2007),
a white, vaguely celtic, chrystalline sculpture which received flashing light
messages from across the universe.

This was art with Hollywood sized pretensions. And, unfortunately, Mariko
Mori trapped herself in a classic neo-Japoniste trope: Japan as futuristic
techno-paradise. There she was: the pretty girl in an astronaut’s jump suit wel-
coming the tired space traveller with a few words of mystical Asian religion.
It was contemporary Japan as it had been envisaged at the Osaka World Expo
of 1970: the landmark exhibition and celebration of Japan’s modernity that
first wowed the Western world. It was about as far from the Japanese reality
of the post 1990s – of crumbling regional towns and grimy city shitamachi
(“downtown” working class neighbourhoods) – as possible. In the 2000s, it
did still look good in one place, though: outside her uncle’s Roppongi Hills,
where they placed one of her futuristic sculptures for the tourists to enjoy. For
awhile, Mori’s fantasy visions continued to delight Western publics looking
for a taste of Neo-Tokyo in second tier US and European museums, but her
serious curatorial and sales credibility fell steadily during the 2000s, especial-
ly as 1990s art theories about performance, identity and “post-human” futures
became less fashionable. Even more fatal was the shift of Western imagination
of the global future from Japan to China and elsewhere in Asia. Especially
post 2008, the overblown budgets and credit lists for the work looked irre-
sponsible and tasteless.

There was an early warning lesson here for Takashi Murakami and Kaikai
Kiki. By 2011, he had not yet been victim of such a harsh re-evaluation. He
has continued the characteristically expensive art bubble style of the pre-2008
era, toying with a similar mix of Japanese pop culture, Asian mysticism, high
tech production values, and get-out irony. The spectacular rise – and subse-
quent decline – of Mariko Mori as a global art superstar underlined the po-

40 PART ONE
tency of combining Tokyo girls images and otaku “little boy” consumers. But
it also illustrated the dangers of betting everything on a two dimensional neo-
Japonisme for a Western art world with congenital attention deficit disorder.

Utsukushii Kuni: Yokoso Japan!

It might be thought that otaku style representations of Japan would not go
down so well with policy makers. Yet there was a strange alliance between
conservative policy makers and otaku obsessions, as Cool Japan became of-
ficial foreign policy in the 2000s.

Before they were swept away by the victory of the Democratic Party of Japan
(DPJ) in the 2009 elections, the last years of unbroken Liberal Democratic
Party (LDP) rule were marked, as always, by a series of forgettable prime
ministers, stumbling through one political crisis after another. What they
talked about, as the economy remained stagnant and Japan’s influence in the
world declined, was culture: how to rebrand and repackage Japan’s interna-
tional image. And so they put manga and anime on official brochures. Video
games and toy character stars replaced cars and computers as the image of Ja-
pan’s principle export industries. The men in suits supported a world cosplay
(costume play) competition, promoting the bureaucrat behind the idea to an
ambassadorship. One prime minister, Mr Abe, talked about the utsukushii kuni
(beautiful country) – a deeply conservative pre-war vision of Japan – while
his bureaucrats were hiring J-pop stars like Puffy AmiYumi for Yokoso Japan
(Welcome to Japan) tourist campaigns. Another, Mr Aso, a huge old school
manga fan who had appealed to otaku in his leadership battle, went one better
and talked about Akihabara as a national treasure. In the final, desperate days,
the LDP government created a global media storm by appointing three teen-
age looking girls from Tokyo’s fashion streets in Harajuku and Shibuya – a
garish style “Shibuya 109” girl (the style of a famous teen department store), a
punk schoolgirl, and a gosu rori (gothic lolita) – as the nation’s foreign minis-
try “Ambassadors of Cute”.

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 41

Much of the logic behind these strange policies was built on a set of ideas
about Japan’s future identified by an American technology journalist, Douglas
McGray, in an article for the widely read American Foreign Policy journal in
2002. Japan’s burgeoning pop cultural and content industries, he argued, could
provide an alternative to its former manufacturing and financial influence in
the world. Japan could reposition itself internationally, with a new leading
role in Asia, through its growing “Gross National Cool” (GNC). Although
neither a culture nor Japan specialist, McGray’s article was rapidly hailed as
visionary in Japan. Travelling around the big cities at the start of the new mil-
lenium, McGray was really only observing the tail end of the post-Bubble cul-
tural explosion of the early to mid 90s that was already beginning to fade. But
the politicians and bureaucrats seized his words with the fervour of prophecy.
This unlikely foreign policy guru was then flown back to Japan to speak to
packed policy conference audiences taking notes.

The new branding of Japan borrowed directly from what had been going on for
a few years in the art world, as it sought to make a sensational splash for Japa-
nese contemporary art on the international scene. After Takashi Murakami’s
Superflat, the Japan Foundation – on the whole a rather conservative institution
usually attuned to avoid offence at all costs – nevertheless thought it a good idea
to sponsor a huge otaku pavilion at
the Venice Architectural Biennale
in 2004, curated by cultural studies
professor Kaichiro Morikawa. The
show recreated in explicit terms the
ambiance and visual stimulation of
Akihabara. The catalogue even in-
cluded a plastic toy kit by Yuki Os-
hima – a cult designer who has also
Japanese Foreign Ministry "Ambassadors of Cute" (2009). featured in Murakami’s shows – of a
Press photo by MOFA.
giant cartoon schoolgirl straddling an
COOL JAPAN

42 PART ONE
Akihabara train in a mini skirt. Meanwhile, over in New York, it was the equally
conservative, corporate funded Japan Society, more known for its sponsorship
of classical Japanese arts, who adopted Murakami’s Little Boy.

This was the Cool Japan of the 2000s. Mid-level bureaucrats involved in
implementing these ideas were themselves secret otaku, the same original
generation as Murakami and Nara. The new cultural policy gave these fans
in suits the chance to talk about manga characters, anime, or a J-pop idol in
the middle of a boring policy document. They could mix nerdy graphics and
projections of sales in the content industries with images of a maid café, or
fashion snaps like Shoichi Aoki’s FRUiTS (a famous Japanese street fash-
ion magazine). If this was trade and foreign policy, then, it’s no surprise that
Takashi Murakami, the most successful and most “pop” of Japanese contem-
porary artists, also became a poster boy for the policy makers. He was one
of their star “global performers”, as a Japan Foundation brochure described
him. Another official document identified him – alongside such names such as
fashion designer Issey Miyake, anime artist Hayao Miyazaki, star chef Nobu
Matsuhisa, and film maker Takeshi Kitano – in its “dream team” of creators
who could rescue the Japanese economy.

Of course, it might be a mystery why an ironic and controversial radical, famous

for celebrating the culture of the most marginal and despised outsiders in Japanese
society, should have so willingly hitched his vision to conservative government
policy. Yet the answer lies in what always unifies left and right in Japan: its con-
tempt for America and an underlying nationalist resentment of the West.

During the 2000s, Murakami was always laughing. Laughing at his audience
in the West, principally. When his manifestos in Japanese to his catalogues in
English are compared, there is a massive gap. In Japanese, he has always been
angry and vitrolic in his anti-Americanism. He was, he said, happy to sell a
“soy sauce” culture to Westerners if they will buy it. Behind this has been a
bitter drive to assert Japanese national culture: to put his contemporary art on

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 43

the front row of the starting grid, like Ayrton Senna, the upstart fast car driver
from Brazil. For Western viewers and curators, it was nothing but the bound-
lessly happy neo-pop vision that he sold.

This strategy worked for Murakami because there was for years a startling
mismatch going on: between the Japan out there in the struggling cities and
regions of a country in decline, and the fantasy Japan in the Western audi-
ence’s heads, as it enjoyed Superflat, Little Boy and ©MURAKAMI. This
could be boiled down to three peculiar selection mechanisms at work here. It
was these ironic differences that lay behind the success of Murakami, Nara
and otaku style art internationally:

1) Timing: Cool Japan peaked worldwide in the mid to late 2000s, yet by all
accounts the Tokyo scene was much more interesting in the 90s.
2) Selectivity: What got represented and consumed in the West as Cool Ja-
pan was always a narrow slice of any given creative field.
3) Taste: The selections of Cool Japan were a lot more underground, mar-
ginal, and weird than either mainstream or hip pop culture in Japan.

One of the key players in the making of Cool Japan in the US, Eric Nakamura,
has a good answer for all this. Nakamura is second generation Japanese Ameri-
can, and the cultural entrepreneur behind the Los Angeles based magazine,
shop and website for Asian pop culture, Giant Robot. At a business conference
in LA to discuss transnational opportunities in Japanese media and creative in-
dustries, a Japanese audience member asked angrily why Westerners like him
only pay attention to a tiny amount of the popular culture coming out of Japan.
Why do they distort everything with their weird selection? Nakamura was un-
fazed. He said he knew that real Japan was out there, but like any country most
of it is boring and provincial. Like all the fans in the West he was only inter-
ested in the 2 or 3% of it that was cool from his point of view. In other words,
when he started going to Japan he only had time for Neo-Tokyo. Giant Robot
magazine started printing features about this stuff in the mid 1990s, originally

44 PART ONE
photocopied for friends out of their bedroom. So it took a long time to make
Cool Japan cool in the US: more than ten years. Giant Robot was among the
first to run feature stories on Yoshitomo Nara and Takashi Murakami. It treated
them like any of the cheap commercial pop art in California, which is fun and
easy to consume, and possible to pick up as postcards or t-shirts, or $30 or $40
for a print. Soon Nakamura and his Chinese-American partner, Martin Wong,
had a little empire with two stores and a restaurant in LA, plus stores in San
Francisco and New York.

But what about the question of taste? The art was superflat, but there was
some kind of power underneath the surface. One American curator in LA,
Catherine Taft, put it nicely when she described this kind of Japanese contem-
porary art. It was all “eye candy”: easy to like, very attractive, yet it was those
disturbing, subliminal messages underneath that hooked the viewer. During
the 2000s, Western viewers let these Japanese artists get away with it – be-
cause they were “typically” Japanese. The presentation of women and girls
in Japanese art would not be acceptable for an American artist. But Little Boy
and Tokyo Girls Bravo thrived on this subliminal thrill: the underlying sex,
strangeness and
violence that West-
erners identified
with Cool Japan.
Contemporary art
v i ew e r s l i k e t o
feel they are “on
the edge”. Even
the anti-American
nationalism was a
kind of thrill for
countercultural
Shibuya crossing at night. Photo by Ann-Christina Lauring Knudsen.
viewers in the US,
COOL JAPAN

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 45

especially in the era of George W. Bush. At Murakami’s big show at MOCA,
in 2008, the entry looked like a children’s adventure playground, but the mon-
strous masturbating giant and the girl with milk spraying out of her breasts
had some children sobbing with fear. Yet no scandal erupted. And Nara was
anything but kids’ stuff: with all that anger and sorrow in the children’s eyes.
There was something very dark going on in these images. As such, American
collectors entertained their own rumours on what it was all really about. While
Cool Japan reigned, they enjoyed the ambivalence as the sign that this was
truly great art.

In the 1990s, Takashi Murakami’s contemporary Makoto Aida and others in

Japan also made art out of similar sources: the marginal extremes of contem-
porary Japanese society. But they pushed it way over the line. Many people
in Japan think Aida is the most important artist of his generation. Yet he has
been misunderstood or ignored in Europe and America. Murakami always
recognized he and Aida shared similar ideas and sensibilities, but Murakami
has been far more effective in masking it with a flat and attractive surface. In
one of his best works, from 1996, Aida painted Mitsubishi Zeros circling in a
moebius loop over a burning New York skyline, appropriately enough in the
flat Japanese painterly style on folding bedroom screens. It was hard to see
this one going down well at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. And,
indeed, when it was shown post 9/11 as part of an Anti-Americanism show
at the Whitney Museum in 2003, it didn’t. There was a scandal. When Aida
went to the self-styled Capital of the Western World in 2000, he had a hard,
disillusioning time. Murakami, however, came home from New York trium-
phant, one in a million. He did it His Way. The underlying message was still
there. He called his show after the name of the bomb that flattened Hiroshima,
and mentioned mushroom clouds and Akira. But then he turned the mush-
rooms into cartoons, and filled the show full of happy flowers. He made it
big in America, showing off marginal and deviant art from Japan made by his
friends back home to the applause of a basically ignorant foreign audience.

46 PART ONE
Now Cool Japan is over. Politically, the tide had turned in Japan well before
the disasters of 2011. The new DPJ government scrapped the idea of a manga
museum, and turned away from culture in favour of economic priorities. The
Tokyo Metropolitan government passed legislation in December 2010 that
criminalized the commercial use of sexual images of virtual cartoon charac-
ters that looked underage. There was a threat to close down Akihabara and
half the manga, anime and toy figurine industries with it. It became dangerous
to sell Japan as “Sensation”.

Murakami had a magical run. Cool Japan celebrated Japan, when there wasn’t
much to celebrate otherwise. Depressing politics; shaky global business;
bad relations with Asia; a demographic crisis looming; a lot of young people
locked in bedrooms with psychological problems. Also, after 9/11 in the US,
there was a need for images of shining silver towers with flowers and happy
dinosaurs, not one collapsing, with smoke and flames billowing out. So the
tourists got their ©MURAKAMI Roppongi Hills monopoly game, with its
happy dinosaur, and plenty of smiling flowers. They had their unattainable
cartoon girls, always giving service with smile. They had Groovision chappies
staring blankly back. These were, during the 2000s, the kinds of things they
might have hoped and wished for when they visited Japan: the things Mr Abe
might have been suggesting when he talked of an utsukushii kuni.

So it may have seemed silly, but Cool Japan made sense for Murakami and the
politicians that used it. There was one Japanese writer I talked with who had
nationalist views on international relations and Japanese wartime history that
quite shocked me. He reserved his biggest scorn for the Japan Foundation, and
the policy of promoting otaku culture as an image of contemporary Japan. He
thought it was a conspiracy of New York Liberals and Democrats and what he
called “Asia-loving multiculturalists” in Japan who wanted to present Japan
to the West as a “submissive female”. He felt ashamed by this representation.
It was wrong to present Japan as an otaku paradise, he told me. But in a way,
he was wrong. For political purposes, while Cool Japan lasted, the opposite

LITTLE BOYS AND TOKYO GIRLS: THE RISE OF SUPERFLAT 47

was true. What better than representing Japan in the world as eye candy? Flat,
colourful art that put a smile on your face. Who could see past those comput-
erized colours, those simple seductive lines, the happy celebration of all things
“pop”? The screen was captivating and complete. The nationalist politicians
and civil servants understood this art very well. Behind the screen, you could
do anything you want.

48 PART ONE
 PART TWO

How to be A-Zillionaire:
Commerce, Design and Art in the
Superflat World

The Art Entrepreneurship Theory

Takashi Murakami’s blend of deviant otaku style sexuality and warped repre-
sentations of post-Bubble Japan was certainly a potent cocktail for the interna-
tional art market. But it was not his greatest work. As emphasized by curator
Paul Schimmel, Murakami’s most important contribution as far as world art
historians will be concerned was his revolutionary practice of commercializa-
tion and branding. It took Andy Warhol’s notions, turning artistic creation into
commercial factory line production, far beyond anything that Warhol dreamed
possible. It was this that positioned him for great success during the global
economy and art bubble of the late 1990s and early 2000s, but it also drove
him to a conceptual dead end when the era and the currents on which he had

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 49

been surfing came to an end in 2008 with the Lehman shock and collapse of
the world financial markets.

Viewed historically, Murakami’s greatest single work could well be his self-
help book, The Art Entrepreneurship Theory, a runaway bestseller in Japan in
2007. In 2011, he published a follow up, Art Theory Battle. In these books, he
spoke to the wannabe kuriieita. These were the young students or adults who
have grown up in the post-Bubble era, but who wanted to be free, individual,
and above all creative in their life and work. I did it my way and here is how
to follow, Murakami said. In plugging into the self discovery cult of jibun
sagashi, Murakami evoked the most powerful individualist ideology of the
times. The 2007 bestseller was also part of the self-help boom of the 90s and
2000s, joining many other famous creative gurus of the decade.

The Art Entrepreneurship Theory was a book, of course, unlike Superflat and
Little Boy, not written for foreigners. The cheerful, slightly sardonic translated
voice heard in those carefully airbrushed catalogues, was replaced by Mu-
rakami himself in the original version: an angry, bitter, often vitriolic vision of
Japanese art and culture. He poured scorn on the international system that he
had learned to play, and unleashed great gales of anger against the stupidity
of the domestic Japanese art establishment. He lambasted Japan’s museums,
curators, art market, art critics and art schools, while idealistically seeking to
smash this system and replace it with his own. It was a didactic and paternal-
istic vision, yet full of the irrational exuberance of the global art bubble years.

As during those years, the bottom line was money, and so this is how the book
started: “How I sold my work for a billion yen” ($1 million). In 2007, the idea
of making $15 million for a sculpture was still a fantasy, but other works had
already broken the $1 million barrier. These are by no means unbelievable
figures for contemporary global art. A famous triptych by Francis Bacon sold
the same day as My Lonesome Cowboy for $87 million; top works by Damien
Hirst or Jeff Koons have routinely sold for more than $10 million. Modernist

50 PART TWO
and impressionist art can sell for even more – as it did when Japanese buyers
were at the height of their outrageous spending spree in the late 1980s.

As Murakami analyzed it in his book, what gives art work value is telling a
good story about it. It is, first, about the time and refinement that goes into the
conceptual idea – something not taught at Japanese art schools, where tech-
nique is everything. It matters little that Damien Hirst’s famous $12 million
shark started rotting in the box after five years. He could just make it again
for the collector. It was the patented idea that counted. The idea for Murakami
was to position himself in that history, fitting at once with the dominant dis-
courses of the international art world, while also – in a post-colonial world
– portraying an idea of where his art came from in global or world art terms.
Murakami said this was “knowing your own identity”: about recognising the
Western gaze at Japan and playing along with it for all its worth. Murakami
played the western art game and won. He sold them back the image that they
most wanted to consume, then made a gaisen kouen (triumphal return perfor-
mance) to come back validated to stardom in Japan. Phase two, he says, would
be him showing to the world “the real thing”, now on his Japanese terms.

Presenting post-war otaku culture, and its inversion of American pop cul-
ture was all important to Superflat and Little Boy’s success. But Murakami’s
credibility was solidly anchored in a realization that the only existing narra-
tive about Japanese art traditionally in the West is the classical Nihonjin ron
(the theory of Japanese cultural uniqueness) said to be found in its classical
ukiyo-e and later nihonga arts. These are the only modern era arts from Japan
that have won their recognized place in the international pantheon – the tri-
umph of Japonisme in the late 19th and early 20th century. So, as the old Japa-
nese culture was linked with the new, in the Superflat ethos, Murakami was
able to hitch his work to obvious postmodern ideas (from the 1970s and 80s)
of blurring of high art and low popular culture, East and West, amorality and
consumerism. All could be associated with the pre-existing historical “Japa-
nese” genius for flatness. This was a further reason why Murakami, for all his

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 51

truculent radical views, was easy to absorb into a nationalist foreign policy
frame. Running together traditional and contemporary Japanese culture was
a recurrent theme in Japanese “soft power” propaganda of the last few years.
It is also the only way Western art historians know of narrating this relation.
Paul Schimmel laughs proudly at how he has specialized in “turning young
UCLA Japanese art historians to the dark side”, recruiting young scholars to
give art historical depth to Murakami’s flat presentations – Michael Darling
for Superflat, Mika Yoshitake for the MOCA show. Writing scholarly foot-
notes is an important part of the value-making business of putting an artist’s
name in art history.

But more important than this scholarly procedure – which is familiar from
the massive literature on Murakami that his “story” has helped generate –
was the thoroughgoing commitment to commercialism and branding. From
the moment Murakami hit the spot in the mid 90s, he stayed right on theme.
Murakami’s time in New York was by all accounts a fairly unhappy one per-
sonally. He found the place tough to deal with. But surrounded by the pres-
sures of the American art market and gallery system, Murakami learned that
he must dump his over-intellectual Japanese art world preoccupations – that
he didn’t need the simulationist theory or the Dadaist attitude that launched
his career in Japan. He just needed to brand himself “Japanese”. The meticu-
lous nihonga techniques he learned at school could still be important. Not so
much thematically, rather as a training in something exotic to Western eyes –
particularly the painstaking attention to detail and finesse, so much associated
with Japanese arts.

One of his very early works parodied the slogan of the famous Japanese toy
maker, Tamiya: “Takashi: First in Quality” (1991). High production values
were a big part of Murakami’s success. Attention for detail was after all also
a great classic Japanese post-war corporate virtue. Take what the West does –
the production technique and marketing savvy – and sell it back to them with
improved added value. An entire boom economy from the the 1960s to 1980s

52 PART TWO
was based on this idea. It is what made Toyota great. Murakami’s world beat-
ing formula was this: Warhol + Koons + Hirst, only better. His works techni-
cally always looked superb.

A good example was his use of translations in the catalogues. They were
all translated by three or four different native and Japanese hands, and care-
fully compared and worked over until they were just right. Westerners will
simply not read the dreadfully translated texts that routinely accompany art
catalogues in Japan. Japanese cultural exports have often failed for the simple
reason that this good practice is not followed. Here is a good example, which
can be found in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs brochure on Creative Japan
that came out in 2007 as part of the Cool Japan policy. In it, contemporary art
was proudly presented alongside manga, anime, video games, fashion, food,
literature, design and architecture as one of the nation’s great new cultural ex-
ports. The section on art was authored by Yumi Yamaguchi, a self-appointed
“cheerleader” of Japanese contemporary art at home and abroad. Her writings
are easy and simplistic – a gentle introduction from an enthusiastic eye. But
the translation of her text in this lavish booklet for foreigners was laughably
incompetent, a classic example of “lost in translation”. The text trivialized
Murakami’s theories into one brief paragraph, but the mess it made of Nara
was unforgivable: “He is known for his idiosyncratic treatments of young girls
with distinctive facial expressions highlighted by slanted eyes”. One could
hear the howls of laughter following Bill Murray up the corridor.

Murakami never made such mistakes. He took a similar meticulous attitude

to the production of objects, such as the figurines. Returning to Japan, he im-
mediately enlisted commercial figurine producers such as Shuichi Miyawaki
– a cult hero of the otaku world – to help him realize his visions in art form.
The eight foot plastic monsters he then took to otaku collector fairs – with
smaller limited edition versions on sale – were a shock to the shy, nerdy col-
lectors who normally collect eight inch doll figures to pet and love. Many
were unhappy seeing their lifestyle and obsessions parodied this way as “art”.

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 53

But the early versions still sold out. The Hiropon company was first founded
with a handful of close associates: notably Murakami’s key right hand man,
Mr., a hardcore otaku artist, whose openly paedophile paintings and toys
were also taken to international success by Kaikai Kiki and Tomio Koyama.
Initially, they worked on a number of other ideas and prototypes – some of
which took hardcore lolicon (lolita complex) forms – as they worked out a
line of products for the new company. The “staff” came next – young artists,
ready to work for the corporation, including the “Tokyo Girls” Murakami
went on to present to the world. Most were volunteers at first, and many
came and went under the intense work pressure demanded of them at the
company’s Saitama base. But in five years the workforce expanded to more
than 20 regular personnel. Murakami also took the ambitious step of opening
an American “factory” in New York in 1997, which dealt mainly in painting
production lines of his signature works. It drew mostly on visiting Japanese
art students who usually cannot work in the US for more than three months.
A PR office there also dealt with international press. The exploitation of
young artists as a workforce has become routine practice in the contemporary
art business – check any major artists’ studio. But Murakami’s studios were
notable for the sheer number of willing workers and the degree of organiza-
tional control he imposed on their work. This included rigidly defined cor-
porate roles, check in times, and even early morning team callisthenics and
a pep talk from the CEO, who often slept in his office. This was nothing like
Andy Warhol’s party atmosphere “factory” of the 1960s. Murakami really
had a Fordist-style production line. In the two locations, during the 2000s, up
to 100 employees were working away on computers, models, construction,
packaging, marketing, accountancy and PR, micro-managing every detail of
the production line from first sketch to installation. If his art all looked and
felt seamlessly corporate, that’s because it was.

The other secret of Murakami’s success was his talent as an organizer. From
the beginning, curation was as much a part of his art practice as making his

54 PART TWO
own shows. He sought alternative venues for art and he took work not seen
as important and presented them as the best of Japanese contemporary art.
He completely ignored the dominant art system. Superflat was a sample of
friends, famous pop cultural figures, and young unknowns, along with some
of the best figures in contemporary commercial design. Murakami added one
image from Yoshitomo Nara – who was by then a star in his own right – and
contributed just one work of his own, the famous eyeball poster. Murakami
took care of all the production, marketing and PR, with a brilliantly written
catalogue and manifesto, and then just put his own name in lights on the cov-
er. Superflat was revolutionary in that it showed you could take commercial
arts from other fields, or pluck artists straight out of school and, with the right
packaging, put value on them in both the local and global contemporary art
context. Almost overnight it brought into question the whole value system of
the Japanese art world: of slowly accumulating credentials from schools, gal-
leries, critic, and museums – in short, of building up a conventional career.

The Pop Life show at the Tate Modern in London in 2009 gave Murakami
the honour of the final room, positioning him as the last of the line of art-
as-branding and commercial production running from Andy Warhol through
Jeff Koons, Damien Hirst and others, to the mid 2000s global art bubble.
Conceived before the financial crash of 2008 with the title Sold Out, the cura-
tors were forced by the artists to change its name, toning down their implicit
critique of the artists as puppets to global capitalism. Either way it still all
looked very tasteless in the context of the economic recession. It underlined
how much Murakami’s commercial logic might be the end of the line for this
kind of brash style of money-driven contemporary art.

But what became apparent in the late 2000s was how the real story in fact was
all about Takashi Murakami’s relation to Japan. It became clear that recogni-
tion in Japan, getting his page in Japanese art history, is what really matters
for him. It was not idle rhetoric: Murakami really wanted to smash the sys-
tem. But, at the same time, he also craved acceptance. The Tokyo art world

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 55

may have celebrated his big auction sales, and Kaikai Kiki may have spent
a fortune buying monthly advertizing space and special features in the lead-
ing Japanese contemporary art magazine, Bijutsu Techo. But money doesn’t
buy love. Practically nobody in Tokyo ever has a kind word for Murakami.
“Takashi” became a caricature they could see on TV, wearing a tacky Louis
Vuitton jacket, shouting at art students on the “Beat” Takeshi Kitano show for
their complacency and lack of ambition. He broke with his closest associates
in the Japanese art world – by the late 2000s about the only person he was still
on speaking terms with was Nara. So Murakami has gone it alone. His people
were not the insider Japanese art world. But he has had another resource to
turn to: the kuriieita masses. These are the followers who could give him the
love he craves. He would lead them to the promised land. Murakami set out
to smash the art system: the lame art education, the exploitative galleries, the
parochial debates, the ineffective market, the claustrophobic schools. And he
replaced it with his own: the school of GEISAI.

Nara as Businessman
Whatever they think of Takashi Murakami, everybody loves Yoshitomo Nara.
Nara was the quieter partner in the “New Pop Revolution”, but he scored com-
parable local and global success while losing none of his credibility or insou-
ciant rock star image in the process. The eternal, ageless dreamer, he even got
all the girls. It always rankled with Murakami, who is driven by his “asshole
competitiveness”, as he admits.

Nara was never an ideas man; he is not a theorist. He has always had very lit-
tle interesting to say about his own work. It’s all in the imagery, the craft, and
the feeling of the work: old fashioned aesthetics which register less in aca-
demia, but which may have much longer lasting impact. There have been few
contemporary artists whose work is so apparently guileless and simple, and
yet so absolutely, immediately, recognizable. The power of the work lay in
just how close it is to the charm of children’s book illustration: a sheer com-

56 PART TWO
mercialism with its insidious kowa-kawaii (creepy cute) hook, that Murakami
never got close to with his brands and characters.

The fact is, after Cool Japan, they now have only each other to talk to. Both
have maintained a determinately autonomous and sometimes hostile stance to
the mainstream Tokyo art world, guarding their independence as agents from
galleries and the media, and displaying the confidence and ego of artists that
know that there is no one else locally who can touch them on the international
stage. It was their shared American experience, in Los Angeles, and more gener-
ally in dealing with the American gallery system and art market, which created
this alliance. They were thrown together at UCLA simply because they were
both Japanese, but the friendship and mutual respect they developed lies in the
depth of their respective ambitions. Murakami still calls Nara to compare strate-
gies, or anxiously discuss his next big – maybe foolish – move.

Nara’s naïve image is a front – as it must be for an artist who has been contin-
ually exhibited, internationally famous, and is now well past 50. Nara always
was, in many ways, the cooler business head of the two stars. Murakami’s big
sales were spectacular, but he didn’t have an extensive in-depth inventory. The
suspicion of insider dealing with Gagosian, Bernard Arnault (who owns Louis
Vuitton and Christie’s auction house) and François Pinault hung over his land-
mark sales. The massive leaps in value during the art bubble years also meant
his prices were fragile. Nara’s prices rose over the years in a steady, unbroken
ascent. His works range from famous paintings that went for over $1 million
in the auction house, right the way down to mass produced commercial edi-
tions selling for a few dollars on an open air market. But the big money was
always in the middle range of collectibles, where his inventory was massive.

I once got caught in the Nara trap myself, trying to pick up a litho print at
TKG Editions (Tomio Koyama’s small shop) in Ginza: no 70 in a series of 72,
a very sweet but incredibly simple colour drawing of a angry girl exclaiming
“Beh!”. The endearment is every bit as important to the sale as the name. It has

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 57

always been the key to Nara’s failsafe charm – his pictures always remind you
of someone. I asked the price… Wow! It seemed like a bargain, until I worked
out I’d got my zeros mixed up. Not $300 but san jyuu man en, approximately
$3000 at the time. If very minor multiple prints like this run off at $3000 a piece
(x 72), and the most expensive for over a $1 million, the mathematics is obvi-
ous. Checking in three years later, TKG still had the very last in the series on
their books. It was currently hanging in the Mori Art Museum shop, they said,
and was now listed at $8000. I looked on longingly, the would-be collector. On
paper, I could have made $5000 on it in three years – if I’d emptied my bank
account in 2007. There was clearly a solid operation going on here. Nara has
works in many major Western collections. He has been avidly collected by Sue
Hancock and the Rubell family in the US, Frank Cohen in the UK. But even
more significantly, Nara has strength in depth value for Japanese and Asian col-
lectors, who have been more likely to give wide berth to Murakami.

Much of Nara’s inventory in the 2000s was in fact largely undocumented.

When fakes were exposed in some Asian auction sales, it pointed to how the
real power of Nara’s work lay in its unquantified nature. To satisfy my long-
ing for a print, I could instead go buy a small copy on Spitalfields flea market
in London, alongside similar “works” by English graffiti star, Banksy. Nara
copies exist alongside all the works he has given away and lost track of. Nara,
himself, has an elephant’s memory for people he has given work to, and has
been known to fly into a wild rage with anyone who has broken the gift and
tried to sell on the work. Individual works were always signed with legal con-
tracts preventing any flipping onto the market. But at the same time, the fakes
and copies have guaranteed another level of fame.

As Tomio Koyama’s longest standing and most important artist, the two had
a close but difficult relationship. They had a series of arguments about sales
strategies. By 2009, Nara was keen to go completely independent of the
commercial gallery structure, looking for staff to man his own independent
operation. In the meantime, he was always unusually powerful in dictating

58 PART TWO
how Tomio Koyama presented his work. He would tip off Koyama about new
artists, and foisted any number of derivative manga style and kawaii artists
onto the gallerist, including several who were taught by the same teacher, No-
buya Hitsuda at Aichi City University of Art. Koyama himself always had a
kawaii taste, but Nara kept them coming. During Cool Japan, the combination
guaranteed a distorting effect on the value of some rather mediocre artists in
Tokyo because of Koyama’s big name. And so kawaii art became what Tokyo
was known for, and the sole reason why some collectors go there.

The real key to understanding Nara’s success, though, is the fact he was
an artist who made his name outside the white cube of the gallery, on the
pages of books. Initial reactions to Nara’s shows in the mid 1990s didn’t
know whether to treat him as anything more than a character illustrator. He
had been around since the late 1980s commercial design/illustration boom,
and had tried unsuccessfully to present himself in this context. Some early
commentaries, such as one by the influential curator Eriko Osaka, associ-
ated him with the notion of heta uma (intentionally clumsy or badly skilled
art). This had been developed by conceptualists such as Hideki Nakazawa
as a kind of levelling anti-art strategy in avant garde circles. But the under-
lying point with Nara was commercial – and nothing to do with his formal
technique, which is very good. He was swept along by a different trend –
the independent book publishing boom of the late 1990s. When the second
book, Slash With a Knife, was picked up in late 1998 by Masakazu Takei of
FOIL, it was because this small time magazine entrepreneur and photo cura-
tor had spied a non-art world market for the work. Tokyo has a large small
scale book publishing industry able to produce and distribute books quickly;
Japan has a ravenous appetite for printed works. Photography had similarly
been pioneered in this form. Araki and Daido Moriyama made their careers
through publishing in books, not hanging in galleries. It was the same story
with Nara, who overnight found a huge cult audience by side stepping the
conventional gallery and museum system.

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 59

Outside of the carefully controlled art market context, Nara was always indif-
ferent about price for his works or how they were copied. Fans need to collect,
he said. They have no money, and they need to be able to buy stuff as souve-
nirs, even if it’s next to worthless in art terms. Murakami’s entire theory was
grounded in a simulationist aesthetic of “remake and remodel,” borrowing
freely from commercial design and toy makers. Yet he tied himself up in legal
knots by trying to sue companies that “copied” his DOB brand image. Nara
just learned to let go and watch his own images reproduce. Moreover, as Mu-
rakami notoriously sought to consolidate his Fordist model of production under
one roof from start to finish, Nara organized his business as a series of loose
franchise contracts to outside firms who took care of business while leaving
him with clean hands. And so he had Lamm Fromm stocking his products out
of a base in Yoyogi, Workaholics Inc. producing made-in-China dogs for him
in Harajuku, and Chronicle books publishing worldwide out of San Francisco.
Yoshi Kawasaki and his company 2K by Gingham in LA took Nara’s images
and did the same thing with T-shirts internationally that Masakazu Takei did
with the picture books and postcards. The spin offs seemed to be infinite.

Distribution was the other side of the business. Nara’s work, however, casual
as it may have seemed, showed up not only in museum shops, but in alterna-
tive art stores and off beat hipster boutiques the world over. These are the
kind of fashionable stores where affluent adults, locked into a fad-obsessed
adolescence well into their late 20s, 30s, even 40s, hang out and fill their lives
with “cool” stuff. Once Nara started producing three dimensional toys, he po-
sitioned himself at the head of the 2000s adult vinyl collectible boom. Nara
thus sold in a lot of contexts where no-one had any idea who the artist was – it
just looked “cute” or “cool”. You might well own a Nara without knowing it –
that was part of the charm and commercial power of his art. It was the base of
a pyramid atop which stood his major auction and gallery sales.

And so Nara kept giving it all away. When he let the museum in Seoul keep
all his work, Tomio Koyama argued with him about the danger to sales. Nara

60 PART TWO
knew he would just get a permanent museum collection in his name. Nara
may not have worried about the sales, but he was screaming down the phone
and at meetings with the curators when they screwed up the catalogues or the
website. Koyama was also furious about the café in Omotesando, that Nara
set up with a partner as a permanent installation of his A to Z show. Parts of
the famous Yokohama show were installed there, together with a small “shed”
that recreated the atmosphere of the tour for fans, while charging Y700 for a
cup of caffé latte. It is questionable who was the better businessman.

As A to Z became an almost permanent, endless world tour – with dozens of

variations in different countries – Nara perfected a business organization so
much more effective and manageable than Murakami’s authoritarian corpo-
rate model. Nara always came over as the consummate slacker CEO, while
being an extraordinarily manipulative and demanding individual according to
those who worked closely with him. He succeeded by channelling the spirit
of the voluntary feel good NPO. His organizational experiments in his home
town, Hirosaki, were striking for how well they tapped into a different feel-
ing in Japan after the Kobe earthquake of 1995 – the same spirit as seen again
after March 2011. With local aid, he set up his art operation as a charitable
NPO, with himself as a sleeping director. He got his friends and fans in to
help build the exhibitions. They called all this “collaboration”. As Nara said,
with a charming smile: “This is where I started to get a kick out of it – it’s like
there were a hundred of me”. It was the community spirit he inspired – but
it was all in his name. After A to Z, Midori Matsui was less impressed with
these politics. It no longer conformed to her introvert “Micropop” theories.
She criticized Nara over the Hirosaki shows for their “regressive populism”.
Yet still she pointed to its basic power: of “how it had become a contemporary
equivalent of folk art, representing and consoling people who feel alienated
from modern art”. His home region, meanwhile, could not believe its luck.
The visitors in Hirosaki or at the Aomori Museum of Art are all there to see
Nara. He has become as much a part of the local tourist industry, in this sad
and grey corner of Japan, as the region’s famous lacquerware or seafood.

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 61

It is hard to think of any comparable story in global contemporary art. Talk of
Takashi Murakami’s explosive anger, exploitation, bad feelings and resigna-
tions have always been rife about Kaikai Kiki. Nara’s massive operation has
never been portrayed as anything but an enormous and fun fan club. Not ev-
eryone was happy at Hirosaki, though. Some fans vowed they wouldn’t come
back, after the hard labour involved. Nara kept his money tight, and expected
everyone to pay their own way at after work drinks parties. Not everyone
could live off his own preferred diet of cigarettes and curry rice. Nara’s op-
eration was thus a rolling organization, in which he managed to get everyone
working for him while having next to nobody on the payroll. Yet, as a col-
lective art practice, Nara’s methods were never theorized as important. Paul
Schimmel, for example, doesn’t get Nara at all. Ask him, and he thinks he is
just stuck doing pictures of little girls and cute dogs. Well, yes, and that’s the
point: at $8000 a pop Nara has been much closer to becoming like Picasso
signing a beer mat than Murakami. Or, for that matter, Damien Hirst, when
he signs off on another one of his automated $50,000 spin paintings. Nobody
would ever describe one of Hirst’s cynical rejoinders to the emptiness of con-
temporary art cute or cool. Nobody loves Damien Hirst or his work, however
much it is theoretically admired. Nara is almost universally adored.

Yoshitomo Nara’s identity as a populist “folk artist” – with very solid sales –
may augur well for his prospects in the era after the global boom of the 2000s,
just as Murakami may be dated by his association with the branded “pop life”
of Warhol and Koons. It may even allow him to survive the demise of Cool Ja-
pan. Like Murakami, though, it is Japan and its long term regard for him, in the
end, that Nara cares about. And on this point, Nara has unquestionably ruled
as the most popular and visible contemporary Japanese artist. It’s the fans that
count. When he started writing his blog before Yokohama, it was the master
stroke – the moment that Nara made the transition from cult pop-art star to ma-
jor cultural figure. Nara has made work that is instantly recognisable, loveable,
but then copyable by all. He was always an artist in whom everyone shared.

62 PART TWO
There was little development in his style as he moved from gallery painting to
installation artist. But he alone turned his audience into Nara producers as well
as Nara consumers. What other major contemporary artist could send out the
word and have thousands of fans making the art for him, as they did in Yoko-
hama and Hirosaki? Forget Yoshitomo Nara? There doesn’t seem much danger
of that. The audiences have kept growing. At an opening in Japan in mid 2011,
the now married 50-something artist still had a long line of teenage girls queu-
ing for him to draw on their arms. The cult continues.

The World is Flat

Takashi Murakami and Yoshitomo Nara’s sudden rise to prominence as
global artists owed much to the fact they were both consummate artists of the
so called “Web 2:0” moment. Around the year 2000 the internet came of age,
with a second generation of technology introduced that expanded its reach
and power beyond all recognition. With the introduction of broadband, an
ever-improving line of visual software applications such as Photoshop and Il-
lustrator, the expansion of home made websites and blogging, 3G telephones
with cameras and internet (in Japan, years before anywhere else), affordable
home scanning and on-line sharing and, a little later, social networking and
wiki sites, all kinds of local and global communication or information flows
were transformed.

In this new world, digital and virtual imaging takes over. It became as easy
to steal and mass produce art or photography as two clicks on an internet
website, and just as easy to manipulate it on a flat computer screen. The re-
ally smart idea of Superflat and the word of mouth internet gossip that led to
Nara’s Yokohama breakthrough was not its specific otaku style content, or
even any neo-Japoniste strategies these artists may have had, but the generic
medium shift onto which these visual ideas latched. Murakami and Nara’s
art worked best as art taken out of the gallery and put indifferently into mass
produced books, on t-shirts, as collectible toys and badges, on video screens,

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 63

on websites, and instantly copied-in-China luxury bags. Art gave way to new
technologies of design and illustration, and the power of instantly reproduc-
ible imagery. Artists’ names became brand names. Art became something
communicated and shared through blogs and virtual networks by fans, not
only or principally through physical gallery shows and auction sales for rich
elites. Murakami and Nara were the two visible Japanese artists most boldly
embracing this global shift. Their art made a virtue out of Walter Benjamin’s
gloomy predictions about the work of art in the age of mechanical production.

Superflat art of the kind mastered by Murakami and Nara, in short, plugged
perfectly into the remarkable global flattening that was just coming online in
the year 2000. That is “flat” as understood in the famous book by the New York
Times columnist Thomas Friedman, The World is Flat, published in 2005. In it,
Friedman identified the essense of technology driven globalization. How it is
collapsing cultural borders and global distances, democratizing production, dis-
tribution and consumption, as well as outsourcing the origins of culture to new
parts of the globe. Murakami and Nara’s art concentrated Japan into a simple
digital code that was flat and easy to understand: Japanese yet “odourless”, as
Waseda University sociologist Koichi Iwabuchi puts it. Something that could be
copied the world over, and everybody could like. It is the same power that lay
behind manga and anime’s global explosion of the 1990s and 2000s, as well as
the astonishing success of Pokemon or Hello Kitty. In this world, complex ideas
or feelings are much better communicated through imagery and instant-impact
design. Imagery and graphics took over from text with the internet revolution:
visual creativity became the new rock and roll. Everyone now wanted to be an
artist or a graphic designer – or, more precisely, something in between.

Murakami and Nara, of course, were not of this digital generation. They had to
rely on much younger collaborators and staff to operationalize their ideas. But
this was a modus operandi that suited well the new role of the artist as CEO
of a branding agency with a staff of assistants, working at the borders of art
and design, aiming at global markets. A good case in point is the design group,

64 PART TWO
Enlightenment, led by Hiro Sugiyama, who provided some of the signature im-
ages of the Superflat show. For a start, the disciplinary distinction between art
and design is an artificial Western notion in the Japanese context. The blend-
ing of art and design in Japan is as old as the Japanese visual arts themselves.
Historically, design has always had a stronger institutionalized schooling than
the fine arts. There is therefore no implicit superiority of a fine art career, and
the commercial infrastructure and impact of design has always also been an
important part of its creative status. During the 1970s and 80s boom years in
the Japanese economy, contemporary art of international standing in Japan had
barely yet emerged, but Japan’s commercial designers were already received as
global leaders. Their ideas and images were linked to products that embodied
the notion of Japan as the new image of an alternative Asian future.

In this period, graphic designers dominated the visual arts in Japan. Big com-
mercial shows with prestigious competitions in places such as the Parco de-
partment store made stars of designers, turning their works into commercial
art – and suggesting to many artists and theorists at the time that “art” itself
was finished with the power of new technology and visual forms. An artist
such as Hiro Sugiyama, part of the same generation as Takashi Murakami and
Yoshitomo Nara, found no way to pursue an artistic career other than through
commercial design fields and education. The channels for a conventional art
career as understood in the West – through art school, galleries, the market
and museums – simply did not exist in Japan in the 1980s. Freelance com-
mercial design work, with art on the side, thus became a common route for
an older generation of art stars, who were all graphic designers – including
cult figures going back to the 60s such Keiichi Tanaami or Tadanori Yokoo,
as well as the big prizewinning cult artist-designers of the 1980s shows, such
as Shinro Ohtake or Katsuhiko Hibino. The work they were already doing in
the 1980s was not a lot different in its “pop” sensibility or its attractive “flat-
ness” than the art that was to later become a global sensation – in fine art – in
the 1990s. Takashi Murakami, for one, long denied the influence from Shinro

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 65

Ohtake that is obvious enough in his work and style. Murakami and Nara in-
deed first tried to present their work within the competitive design fields, but
were not skilled enough as graphic artists.

Operating out of an office close to Tama art school, Enlightenment are a small
group of four or five artists, with a classic corporate structure. While publical-
ly presented as a collective, Sugiyama has all the ideas, and has over the years
brought in a changing roster of younger collaborators through his art teaching.
The younger partners do the work on the computers: actualizing or extending
his basic sketches. They also make the tea, clear up, and defer to the master on
all business matters. Sugiyama’s big break came through his invitation to be-
come a VJ for live shows by the New York Japanese musician Towa Tei, one
member of the early 80s pop group Deee-lite. Like his older peers in graphic
design, building a cult status – and eventually international recognition – was
achieved outside the bounds of conventional high art. But the blurring of de-
sign and art as a career positioned him, as it positioned others in Japan, to be
at the cutting edge of global art trends in the late 90s and early 2000s.

This was, then, another source of Superflat’s great power, as it was in par-
allel terms for Yoshitomo Nara’s book publishing and toy manufacturing
crossovers. The signature images of Superflat were straightforward forms of
contemporary Japanese graphic design – Enlightenment’s computerized por-
trait of Ayrton Senna, Groovisions, irresistible Chappies, Nara’s doleful little
characters. In Japan, putting all this in Parco department store was business as
usual: cult graphic design in a large public commercial context. Transposed
to an elite Western art gallery – in the pop cultural capital of the world, Los
Angeles – it was dynamite. It mattered little that few of the artists on show
had any kind of conventional art career credibility back in Japan. It was a
Japanese equivalent of the transvaluation of low art from the street into a high
art in a white cube context, that was being effected elsewhere in the art world
with graffiti artists such as Banksy and Shepard Fairey, and (a little later) with
fashion designers such as Hussein Chalayan or Viktor and Rolf.

66 PART TWO
This is why the timing of Murakami and Nara’s global breakthrough looked
like such a stroke of zeitgeist genius. Their art was carried mainstream into the
far bigger, new technology driven flows and trends of popular culture. Fine
art is always at best in the slipstream of these far hipper and edgier trends. At
worst, it is a stuffy, clunky, elite version of younger, cooler forms of creativity
that are moving around the planet far more rapidly through more instanta-
neous channels of communication. Murakami and Nara were among the first
fine artists to hitch a lift with these channels. They presented something that
itself looked cool, or at least irresistibly cute, and certainly exotic, in a world
overwhelmed with a choice of other similar brand images.

The global art business was repositioning itself culturally during these
years. As has been brilliant diagnosed by the British art critic, Julian
Stallabrass, it became a vehicle for cultural globalization and city place
branding that has itself transformed museums, galleries and art festivals
from staid repositories of national high culture, into front line tourist at-
tractions for high end global consumption. With new technologies, art
itself was liberated from the flat canvas on white walls, to take multiple,
ever more spectacular digital, video, plastic or architectural forms, requir-
ing ever more massive financial investment and logistical organization.
Takashi Murakami, Yoshitomo Nara and Mariko Mori – while the good
times lasted – were the only Japanese artists able to compete in scale and
ambition on a global level with the overblown productions needed to im-
press anybody at the Tate or MOMA in the 1990s and 2000s. Think of any
of the global art stars dominating the scene of these decades: Jeff Koons,
Damien Hirst, Pippilotti Rist, Ernesto Neto, Bruce Nauman, Olafur Elias-
son. Global times, and apparently limitless finance, encouraged everyone
to think big. And, with economies of scale so much easier, and human and
social resources so much more accessible there, who could compete with
boom time China? Even Murakami was dwarfed by the size and ambition
of the work of Chinese artists Ai Weiwei or Cai Guo Qiang.

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 67

It did not often matter how mindless – or at least intellectually superficial –
a lot of this new global art was. Indeed, Jeff Koons taught the world that art
could in fact be empty, and just “fun”. Such was the pact that Koons, this
always smiling Mephistopholes from the New York finance world, offered
Murakami during his first year in the US. But an art hitched to rampant urban
development and limitless finance, would come crashing down if the boom
times came to an end. And there was also a kind of technological submission
going on: of making art merely the follower of whatever new trend in comput-
ers, design, fashion, textiles or architecture, is actually leading the way. Artists
cannot possibly keep abreast of technological change driven by commercial
logic: they will always be derivative and behind other fields. And so, as with
Mariko Mori, and increasingly with Takashi Murakami, as the credits for the
shows began to read like a Hollywood movie reel, with ever massive rosters
of scientists, consultants and financiers as part of the production, the work
looked increasingly pointless, dated and out of touch.

The other dangerous blurring of the mission of art – that tempted Murakami
more than Mori or Nara – was the call of television media and celebrity. Dur-
ing the years of Cool Japan, Murakami copied his moves fairly openly from
his friend and partner, the household Japanese TV celebrity and comedian
“Beat” Takeshi Kitano. The two had an association going back ten years,
when Murakami introduced Kitano’s comic “gag art” to the show he curated
at the Fondation Cartier in Paris in 2002. Kitano is better known in the West
as a cult movie director, but in Japan he is famous as a foul-mouthed stand up
comic. He brings the humour and edge of a poor Tokyo neighbourhood, Kita
Senju, to the TV screen, in his zany, often sadistic, comedy shows. In secur-
ing his Japanese career, he developed a serious reputation in the West as a
movie director with ultra-violent Japanese gangster movies. Takeshi Kitano
is no contemporary artist, but he is a master media manipulator, and it is not
difficult to see he was a kind of sensei to the younger Murakami, who was
impressed by his talent of translating trashy local Japanese pop culture with

68 PART TWO
an edge of the violent and obscene, into a marketable global version of Cool
Japan. Kitano’s view on art is encapsulated in his long running TV show Dare
demo Picasso (“Anyone can be Picasso”), on which Murakami sometimes
appeared as a judge: a vulgar talent contest, trivializing the business of art.
It was one of the models for Murakami’s GEISAI. In the summer of 2010,
Kitano was able to return Murakami the French favour, as a summer show of
his “artworks” at Fondation Cartier packed in French families and Japanese
tourists, and became a tacky hors d’oeuvre to the big Palais de Versailles show
hosting Murakami from September.

As Takashi Murakami became a TV celebrity in Japan, he similarly sought to

take his art down market with high profile collaborations with American pop
stars such as hip hop artist Pharrell or idol Britney Spears, in the wake of his
designer deal with Vuitton. The question was whether these side operations
were somehow supporting his art practice, or had become his art practice.
Was there no longer any difference between a Kitano and a Murakami? Was
Murakami on stage next to Kanye West, a pop artist in the same sense? Andy
Warhol’s famous 15 minutes of media fame is the most dangerous and tran-
sient fame of all. In this respect, Murakami took the idea of “pop life” further
than any of his peers in the elite global art world, even Hirst or his beloved
Koons.

The Creative Surplus

Art is a naturally exploitative and unfair social structure. It thrives on the
hopeless dreams of thousands of artists, young and old. They pursue their cre-
ative impulses and variable degrees of talent, and try to live and work outside
of conventional employment or everyday social norms. Art students in a class
know that almost certainly none of them will ever make a living out of the
subject they spend years training in. A lucky few might get to teach, or have
their talent exploited for little money working in a successful artist’s studio.
And yet artists keep trying. In his book, The $12 Million Shark, Don Thomp-

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 69

son estimates that as many as 40,000 artists in this sense might be living in
London, New York or Paris, scratching out a living in the most expensive cit-
ies on the planet. They do it for love and self-gratification, not money.

Nowhere in the world has there been such a willing population of hopeless
creatives as in Japan. The collapse of the Bubble economy in the early 90s and
the breaking of Japan’s post-war myths of progress, left an entire generation of
young Japanese, born too late for the boom, with nothing but idealistic, self-
obsessed dreams in their heads. They were fuelled by the liberating images
of global culture and consumerism of the 80s, but devoid now of hope in a
society and economy now set on a path of apparently permanent decline. They
turned away from the illusions of employment in Japanese corporations and
the responsibilities of the traditional household. Then, with maybe a small part
time freeter job for pocket money, these masses dreamt of escaping the dreary
bonds of everyday social reality, and living their lives as free spirited kuriieita.
They had the ease of living in a still wealthy society with a strong community-
based sense of welfare, as well as families willing to let them live for free at
home long into their adult lives. With nowhere else to go, their own bedrooms
became art studios, fantasy realms of free expression and pure imagination.

Still today, the fruits of this generation are best seen at Design Festa, one
of the massive regular festivals of creativity that take place at the enormous
Tokyo Big Sight, the exhibition spaces built in the 90s on the new dockland
developments of Odaiba. Design Festa is a Do-It-Yourself artists’ flea market,
started up in 1994 by a stylist Kunie Usuki, to enable young creative people
to show off and maybe sell some of their personal products. Twice a year,
it attracts about 6,000 wannabe designers and artists of all kinds, mostly in
their late teens or early twenties, who set up cheap, small booths to present
their work over two days. There are about 50,000 visitors. There is live music,
fashion shows and performances, and you see some of the same sub-cultural
groups dressed up for the weekend as you would in Harajuku on a Sunday af-
ternoon. A few of the exhibitors are looking for a professional breakthrough.

70 PART TWO
Design talent scouts visit the show, a few parts are corporate sponsored. But
most participants are simply desperate for someone – anyone – to look at
them, and talk about their work. Mostly the point about Design Festa is sim-
ply to be part of it.

Based out of a wrecked, graffiti covered building in Harajuku, which is open

throughout the year for similar DIY shows, the organization have a proudly
flat, non-hierarchical approach. It rests on a self-declared punk rock ethic:
anyone is good enough to participate, and all creativity however cheap (or
hopeless) is good. It is an idealistic philosophy, but also a kind of “pay-per-
play” mentality typical of contemporary Japan, as Tokyo based blogger W.
David Marx calls it. In Japan, you create your own stuff, you buy your own
booth, you make your own show, you reflect your own image. I create there-
fore I am. Mostly it’s only for yourself or a few friends. And the most you are
likely to sell at the show is a few postcards back to others who are just like
you, collecting their own little mementos of something that briefly caught
their eye. The scale of collective activity here is enormous. It is breathtaking,
endearing – and pathetic.

Foreign visitors have always loved Design Festa, as it confirmed their im-
ages of Cool Japan. Part of this was what fascinated the West so much about
contemporary culture in Japan in the years before 2011. It was the sheer over-
whelming volume and diversity of the stuff. Even if it was strange or out of
fashion, creativity in Japan also seemed so enthusiastic: so naïve, fresh and
sincere. Creativity in the West is different: it is always so self-conscious and
ironic. From a serious art world point of view in Japan, of course, Design
Festa has almost always been completely ignored and irrelevant – even if the
participants are the same youngsters filling many of the mainstream art and
design schools.

So much useless beauty. This is the “creative surplus”, the daunting social
mathematics of wasted talent and human resources in a post-Bubble, post-

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 71

Disaster society living on nothing but illusion and fantasy. Art has in Japan
been the biggest dead end of all, sucking all these young people in, as long
as they could stay at college or live off their parents. It has been just another
one of the many ways you can postpone growing up in Japan. Of course, the
“creative surplus” is a problem in all highly industrialized late-modern societ-
ies now facing decline. But other such societies have different ways of deal-
ing with it. The writer Richard Florida claims that 30% of the American work
force are members of the “creative class”. This is America’s entrepreneurial
myth. It allows a lot of not very creative or original people to feel good about
themselves. In Japan, creative youngsters who opt out of regular corporate
jobs and family lives are made to feel like unwanted losers and deviants. As
manufacturing and basic economic activity shifted away from the developed
world, creativity in the global 1990s and 2000s became a universal ideology;
a sign of the narcissistic times. In many countries creativity was meant to fuel
the new economy. To not be creative in this world, they said, was to be dead
in the water.

Japanese governments eventually bought into the idea of “cool” and “cre-
ative” Japan. Yet they approached it as they always seem to do with policy:
as a top down corporate plan that could be designed in a committee by men
in suits. But if creativity in society exists, it is something that grows from the
ground up. It is made by people who are still young and energetic. It has to be
harnessed. But Japan has wasted its creative surplus. The masses of kuriieita
remain, hiding most of the time in their bedrooms, or stocking shelves at a
conbini (convenience store). They cannot identify with the men in suits or the
proud corporate brands that made Japan rich in the past. But they can identify
with artists who seem to live the way they do, who have been successful do-
ing the thing they love. Artists who have also, it seems, successfully refused to
grow up.

And so it was, during the years of Cool Japan, Takashi Murakami and Yo-
shitomo Nara harnessed the power of this creative surplus to their own work:

72 PART TWO
stealing beauty, it might be called. When Nara put out the call, he tapped into
the community spirit of all these Japanese youth. Murakami was even more
ambitious. He saw the masses of kuriieita as his natural followers. And so he
set up his own school, the school of GEISAI.

GEISAI was Murakami’s version of the classical Japanese iemoto, or art

school, in which followers are trained in a technique by a single master. Be-
yond the rarefied world of contemporary art, the classical system of tradi-
tional art schools still goes strong in Japan. Thousands of practicing artists
are organized into these schools, which are led by a single sensei who trains
his followers to reproduce a particular style. Essentially, it is still a traditional
tenno system, which mirrors the dynastic structures of historical Japan under
the Emperors. Alongside all this, a system of specialized art colleges offer
something that looks more like a Western art training. There is the subsidized
national university (Geidai) at the top, other regional schools in Kyoto or
other cities, and private schools such as Tama (Tamabi), Musashino (Musabi),
or Zokei, all providing education in various fields, including contemporary
art. Within these schools, though, the same kind of hierarchical system and
routine emphasis on technique and reproduction continues to be stronger than
conceptualism or innovation.

GEISAI was designed to destroy all of this. Launched as part of Murakami’s

large homecoming show at Tokyo’s Museum of Contemporary Art (MOT) in
2001, it developed into a twice yearly festival, based on the end of year art
shows that take place at the regular art schools. GEISAI also took place at
Tokyo Big Sight at the weekend. Participants applied, paid for a booth, and
showed their work. Although it started much smaller, it expanded into a mass
event, sometimes with over 2,000 artists. GEISAI was essentially a straight-
forward copy of Design Festa. Many of the same young hopefuls – if they
could afford it – would show at both. However, GEISAI, unlike Design Festa,
was also a competition: a talent show, in effect, in which Murakami used his
personal networks to invite a number of distinguished Japanese and interna-

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 73

tional judges to pick out the most promising young artists, and eventually a
top three of prize winners. As the show expanded, it was supplemented by a
stage show and side events for visitors. It was also pitched strongly at tourists
looking for Cool Japan. At its peak, in 2008, GEISAI 11 had maid cafes and
a “school playground”. Murakami also tried to get extensive television and
media coverage. Participants paid for the privilege. A small space with walls
costed between 10 and 20,000 Yen for a day. Electricity, furniture or a pass for
parents to help set up were all charged as extra fees. The artists got a tiny solo
booth in the middle of a sea of other artists. The prices were, per day, about as
expensive as hiring one of Ginza’a infamous kashi garo (rental gallaries).

The work seen at GEISAI was exactly the same kind of thing as at Design
Festa. It was a splurge of adolescent style outsider art with the occasional
interesting or talented artist. Yet Murakami packaged the whole thing as a
massive celebration in his own honour. He wanted to demonstrate the power
of Kaikai Kiki to select and make artists famous in Japan, regardless of the
official art system. In 2008, the show was about to open to the public after the
frenzied early morning set up, and the young participants were called to the
main stage. Murakami jumped up, screaming his enthusiasm for his followers,
and calling them all to swear by his ethos: “Will you swear to make art until
the day you die?” The doors opened and the public were allowed in. During
the day, the official judges – dressed in fake art school happi (traditional in-
digo coats) – were carefully chaperoned around the booths so that they could
make their selection. With translators at the ready, they got a few seconds at
best to look at each.

The Japanese judges were invited to suggest that winners have a chance of
breaking into a serious career in the Japanese art world. Famous foreign judges
were meanwhile sold the show as a sampling of the very best of young Japa-
nese contemporary art. Paul Schimmel, a judge one year, afterwards politely
described it as an attractive celebration of “folk art”. He knew what he was
looking at. But at the prize giving ceremony at GEISAI 11, it was clear some

74 PART TWO
of the judges were fooled by Murakami. For example, there was Philip Segalot,
one of the contemporary art world’s most important buyers. He spends mil-
lions of dollars of other people’s money at auctions, often for François Pinault,
and he was in fact bidding for someone at Sotheby’s against Mr Pinault when
Pinault bought My Lonesome Cowboy. He said he had never been to Japan be-
fore but was deeply impressed by what he saw. A lot of the Western press invit-
ed to show were similarly fooled, because they were similarly ignorant about
Japanese art. During Cool Japan, they would go home and write about GEISAI
as the first place to go on any visit to the Tokyo art scene.

GEISAI became a huge vehicle for Murakami’s art operation – and ego. It
tapped into the power of reality TV contests, and served a recruitment func-
tion for his corporation. Winners of the competition were sometimes offered a
job with Kaikai Kiki, although only one – Mahomi Kunikata – became an es-
tablished name through this route. Most GEISAI winners never got much fur-
ther than Murakami’s stage. The judges sometimes also picked out conceptual
or installation work, but the winner selected for Kaikai Kiki was invariably a
pretty girl doing kawaii bedroom art who could be brainwashed and trained to
paint flowers by numbers. The winner at GEISAI 11 – Kyoko Nakamura, was
a good example. This rather desperate looking 35 year old was completely
overwhelmed by her few minutes of fame as she stood, like a shy teenager,
crying on stage in front of TV screens that had cost Murakami $1 million to
install. As the expensive show continued with a J-pop band coming on stage,
the crowd surged back out into the exhibition area in the hope of seeing some
of Nakamura’s works. Fighting a way through the crowd, all that could be
seen was that several of her fragile childish doodles and sketches of the coun-
tryside had been ripped from the walls of her booth in the hope they might be
the next “Micropop” masterpieces from Kaikai Kiki.

Elsewhere in the Tokyo art world, not surprisingly perhaps, there was a lot of
resentment, even disgust expressed about GEISAI. During the 2000s, it un-
dercut the efforts of galleries to build sustainable value on emerging artists’

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 75

works. It distracted the attention of the global art media away from serious
Japanese art. Aspects of GEISAI and Kaikai Kiki reminded people too much
of a cult. Despite nearly going bust in 2009 and winding up in hospital with
exhaustion, Murakami kept GEISAI alive as his platform for an alterntive
Japanese art system of his own. He started a paid lecture series in which other
“creative gurus” were invited to tell young hopefuls how they should forget art
school or university, and just build a way to fame and fortune by following the
self-help advice on offer. Murakami also intended to open a GEISAI museum
that would create a permanent building for his art empire in Japan.

It is true the existing art system had failed too many young artists. At Japa-
nese art schools, there has always been an unwillingness to break the stifling
conventions, or even to engage in the kind of constructive criticism needed
for talent to develop. There is some value in learning the hard way: students at
the USA’s top art schools are ruthlessly ripped apart as part of their training.
When does anyone ever say what they are thinking in Japan? Takashi Muraka-
mi has certainly always said what is on his mind. Perhaps he was right to rant
at some aspects of the Tokyo art world. But what was GEISAI but a big op-
eration to sustain his company and name in Japan? GEISAI removed the need
for serious art education and filled young heads full of illusory dreams. There
were similar problem with Yoshitomo Nara’s “community”. What was it but a
temporary refuge from reality, where costless volunteers were put to work for
an artist’s brand? Murakami and Nara were the exceptions. They made it big
through talent, chance, and particular conditions that pushed their work onto
the world stage. They kept saying young artists could do it “my way”, but it
wasn’t true. Now Cool Japan is over. Murakami and Nara’s children have no-
where to go. They are orphans.

Murakami and Nara were, however, true revolutionaries. Their new pop vision
sought to tear down the system, then erase the history that produced them.
They hid the complex story behind the glow of a shiny, colourful flat screen,
and locked the experience of their generation permanently in a nostalgic chil-

76 PART TWO
dren’s playroom. They gave the world Cool Japan, and for years that was all
the world could see. But now the truth is clear: a superflat art world with its
history erased was one with no future.

HOW TO BE A-ZILLIONAIRE: COMMERCE, DESIGN AND ART IN THE SUPERFLAT WORLD 77

78 PART TWO
 PART THREE

Whatever Happened to the

Likely Lads?
The Tokyo Art World in the 1990s

Tokyo 1991-1995: The Birth of the Cool

Western art history will tell the story of Japanese contemporary art in the
1990s as the triumph of Takashi Murakami, Yoshitomo Nara and, more dis-
tantly, Mariko Mori. As is the custom with the writing of history, there may
only be room for one page about Japan. There may also only be room for one
annointed “genius” from that time and place. Paul Schimmel and others have
made their choice. But this is not the viewpoint of the Tokyo art world. To un-
derstand this, it is necessary to go back in time, to the moment of the Bubble.

For the young Japanese artists born – like Yoshitomo Nara and Takashi Mu-
rakami – in the baby boom of the 1950s and early 60s, coming of age in

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 79
Japan in the 1980s was like being born with a winning ticket in the lottery
of life. The 1980s were the age of plenty, of Japanese splendour at its peak.
Japan will probably never again know this kind of global ascendency; it may
never again feel this self-confident. Japanese corporations and its million-
aires were literally buying up the world. They couldn’t keep their hands off
rich Western trophies, such as the modern and impressionist art they bought
for such crazy prices. The most famous – infamous, in fact – was the $82.5
million spent on one Van Gogh painting by a Japanese businessman in 1990.
Meanwhile, Japanese products were dominating world markets. The most fa-
mous was the Sony Walkman, a symbol of Japanese style and technological
ingenuity. There was a never ending boom in property prices. Tokyo was, by
far, the most expensive and luxurious city in the world – for those that could
afford it. And, the myth was, if you were young, you just had to reach out
and you could get it. Corporate opportunities would come knocking, and you
had as much money as you needed to buy whatever you felt like. Children
as they grew up in this age could have every toy or fantasy object that they
could desire. And the adults they grew up into wanted their own toys to con-
tinue the game.

In the decades since the war, the Japanese economy had impressed – and
shocked – the West by its clinical efficiency, and the speed of its technologi-
cal and financial advance. At first, its contemporary culture seemed uninter-
esting: a black hole of bland, mass-marketed imitations of the West. Japan’s
hyper-modernity was always contrasted to a relatively unchanging classical
backdrop: of exquisite gardens, cuisine and tea ceremonies. This was the old
Japan, still preserved in thick plastic packaging amidst the rampant urban
development and economic growth. A major exhibition in late 1991, Visions
of Japan, organized by the architect Arata Isozaki at London’s Victoria and
Albert Museum, celebrated these two archetypal faces of Japan. As this sug-
gests, it was only in the 1980s and after that Japanese contemporary creativity
really started to be appreciated on the global stage, firstly through commercial

80 PART THREE
 Tatsuo Miyajima, Counter Void (2003). Neon, glass, IC, aluminium, electric wire. 5 x 50m
installation outside Roppongi Hills. Collection of TV Asahi. Photo by Kunihiko Katsumata.
Courtesy of SCAI The Bathhouse.

Yasumasa Morimura at opening of Requiem, Hiroshima Museum of Contemporary Art (2010).

Photo by author. Behind are posters for the show (Morimura as Albert Einstein) and one by
Yoshitomo Nara.

1980s BREAKTHROUGH ARTISTS

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 81
design and architecture, then fashion designers such as Yohji Yamamoto, Rei
Kawakubo (Comme des Garçons) and Issey Miyake.

The creativity of Japanese modern and contemporary artists since the War
– which included important avant garde and experimental movements such
as gutai, anti art, and mono-ha – had mostly been ignored. But in 1988, the
Japan Foundation curator Fumio Nanjo was able to introduce two artists at
the Venice Aperto for new talent: Yasumasa Morimura and Tatsuo Miyajima.
Morimura played games with Western art history, manipulating photos of
himself to question the hierarchy of Western assumptions, as well as his own
sexuality. Miyajima made spectacular technological installations, using digi-
tal numbers, darkness and light, to create an intense zen-like atmosphere for
visitors. It was a moment when the art world was opening up to alternative
global vision of non-Western art: for example, the famous exhibition of 1989,
Magiciens de la Terre, at the Pompidou Centre in Paris. Observers realized
something extraordinary and different might start to come out of Asian societ-
ies as they started to develop, catch up and maybe even overtake the West.

What a wonderful world. But then something happened. The Japanese bubble
burst. There was the final crazy period of excess in 1988-90: wild speculation,
a miraculous pyramid of value, incredible financial acrobatics; then the Japa-
nese economy went into a slow, but inexorable decline. The graph of the rela-
tive land price values before and after the end of 1990 is the most powerful
image that can be presented to explain this. It looks like Mount Fuji. Straight
up and straight down. The world has only even seen anything else quite like
this one other time – nearly 20 years later, in September 2008, with the col-
lapse of Lehman brothers and the ensuing financial crisis around the globe.
All this already happened a long time ago in Japan. This is one reason why
the experience of post-Bubble Japan should be interesting to everybody nowa-
days. Looked at in the long run, Japan has had now two decades’ experience
of post-Bubble stagnation, a situation the Western world has been getting used
to since 2008.

82 PART THREE
In fact, the Bubble deflated quite slowly. It was more like little holes being
punched in the golden dome over Neo-Tokyo. The effect was a slow, insidious
one, like a poison slowly circulating the body. Analysts reckon that the Japa-
nese economy only really reached its nadir in the late 1990s, when the depres-
sion sank in across all sectors of the society. By then other traumas had added
themselves to the mix.

Something interesting happened, though, with culture in Japan in the im-

mediate post-1990 period. Those who were creative among the baby boom
kids started to look around them at a world that was changing unpredictably.
There was a feeling of decadence in the air, a feeling of “no future”. The party
was coming to an end, in a spectacular burnout. They were staring into “the
void”. With the passing away of the Emperor Hirohito in 1989 – the end of
the Showa period – there was also a strange feeling in the air of infantile help-
lessness. Yet they still had money in their pockets. They had the wild dreams
and aspirations of the Bubble years in their heads. They had the feeling that
anything was possible. The consumer boom in fact took a few years to really
come to an end. Yet the myth about invincible Japanese corporations and the
controlled post-war miracle was beginning to collapse. Everyone felt it was
time to express themselves: to go it alone and break out.

For example, consumer magazines. These are always one of the best indica-
tors and illustrators of the Japanese cultural industry. In the early 1990s, the
magazine industry went into its most intense period of expansion and success,
sucking in talent and creativity out of the conventional corporate economy.
Advertising booms, and companies started to outsource the work to creative
freelancers. There was a boom in graphic design, in toy design, in music, in
fashion, in literature, in independent publishing, in freelance journalism, in
film making, in manga, in anime, in video game design – and in contemporary
art. All of the eventual protagonists of Cool Japan emerged during the period
that gets going in the early 1990s. The economic boom led to a cultural boom,
driven by a generation who grew up in the bubble, but who now found their

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 83
creativity liberated by the post-Bubble chaos. It produced a golden decade of
creativity in Tokyo comparable to Paris and Berlin in the 1920s, California in
the 1960s, or London and New York in the punk era of the 1970s.

It was, of course, a generational effect. Takashi Murakami was 30 in 1992,

starting to reach his creative peak. The generation born between the late 50s
and mid 60s were the lucky generation that invented Cool Japan. Pop and
sub culture started to drive the streets of Tokyo. What became the quintes-
sential locations of the mythical Neo-Tokyo are precisely the areas of the
city that went through a brilliant, sparkling pop culture makeover during the
90s. The trends of commercial areas like Shibuya, Ebisu and Harajuku; the
style of places like Daikanyama and Naka-Meguro; the darker more urban
edges of Shinjuku nichome (2# district), and Ikebukuro East and West side;
the otaku-planet of Akihabara. There were also the student and youth culture
boomtowns out West, on or off the central Chuo train line: Nakano, Koenji,
Kichijoji, Shimo-Kitazawa. There was the birth of every kind of crazy sub-
culture in these places, every kind of consumer niche for pop music, fashion,
games or collectibles. The entrepreneurial legends started to appear: Hiroshi
Fujiwara, music producer and branding maestro extraordinaire; Nigo, his
“second” who built a street fashion empire out of ura-Hara (the underground
scene in Harajuku) through clever limited edition sales techniques; Jun Taka-
hashi (“Jonio”, after Johnnie Rotten), the punk rock designer; Kensho Onuki,
(“Ken Rocks”) with his legendary DJ nights in Shinjuku; the iconic musician
Cornelius (Keigo Oyamada); the graphic designer, Kashiwa Sato; the girls’
gang of photographers led by Yurie Nagashima, Hiromix and Mika Ninagawa;
the cult street photography magazines established by photographers Yasu-
masa Yonehara (egg), and – during the brief Sunday “pedestrian paradise” of
Omotesando from 1996-8 – Shoichi Aoki (FRUiTS). Girls culture, especially,
exploded, as young women started to assert their independence as free think-
ers, consumers, and as the drivers of street fashions. As always in Tokyo, there
was the ferocious processing of global cultures, just as omnivorous and meta-

84 PART THREE
bolic as ever – but the culture produced out of this decadent period looked like
nowhere else in the world.

In all these creative fields, these were the names that eventually became fa-
mous internationally. It took over five years for any of the excitement of Cool
Japan to reach the consciousness of bureaucrats and politicians. They had been
brought up to despise the individualistic choices of the “new breed” younger
generation (shinjinrui), for not following the corporate or political identity they
had. Using the language of conservative sociologists, they now described Japa-
nese youth with negative concepts like parasaito singuru (unmarried children
still living at home), hikikomori (bedroom recluses) or make inu (loser dogs, i.e.,
unmarried women). Otaku, too, was a very negative concept until it was adopt-
ed internationally. It was associated for many years with social deviants, and
particularly the infamous “Otaku murderer” Tsutomu Miyazaki who in 1988-
9 stalked and killed four young girls. Only after Douglas McGray said it was
ok, sometime in the mid 2000s, did the bureaucrats and politicians start to get
hip to anything. It took even longer, up to ten years or more, for the rest of the
world to wake up to what was happening in Japan. After the Bubble burst in
1990, all the Western financial interest in Japan started to evaporate and move
away. Other parts of Asia started to seem more attractive: Korea, Taiwan, Hong
Kong, Singapore, then China. And so the world was simply not looking when
Japan became, in fact, the coolest place on the planet. By the time consumers
in North America and Europe started to read manga or Japanese novelists, get
fascinated by the street fashions and music of Neo-Tokyo, or start to describe
themselves as otaku, the golden age of the 90s was long over.

The era in many ways had ended already in 1995. This was the “zero year” of
post-war Japan, its low point: the year of the Kobe earthquake and the Aum
Shinrikyo cult sarin gas attack on the underground. What happened in con-
temporary art in particular, was the fruit of a very special time and place be-
fore this. Tokyo 1991-1995, the place where it all happened.

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 85
Ginza Days, Omori Nights: The Birth of a Contemporary
Art Scene
For a group of students, who had all studied at Tokyo’s prestigious national
University of the Arts (Geidai) in the late 80s, these years were the golden
years. Their dynamism was born of frustration. They were frustrated by their
teachers, who focused only on technique and ignored the exciting conceptual-
ism that they could read about in the global art press. They were frustrated by
the dominant trends in art criticism in Japan, that focused on the elite avant
garde legacy of the 1950s and 60s. And they were frustrated by galleries and
curators, with practically no contemporary gallerists willing to nurture new
artists, and at that point in time, virtually no art museums showing interna-
tional contemporary art.

The biggest frustration, though, was the Ginza rental gallery system. The
young artists faced the impossibility of showing their work publicly, because
of the domination of this kashi garo system. These were the commercial gal-
leries for rent by artists trying to sell work, that mostly promoted vain and
conservative styles for old fashioned collectors. Tokyo’s historical city cen-
tre, Ginza, was ageing in the early 1990s, but it was outwardly still the shiny
silver heart of the Japanese capitalist dream. In the 1980s, in the midst of the
crazily overheating Japanese consumer economy, it had become the most ex-
pensive few square miles on the face of the planet. The commercialism and
corporate face masked a backstreet scene of underworld money and secret
dens of business and pleasure, in which the deals that drove the dream were
made. It was also the heart of the old Tokyo art world. Some of the galleries
dealing in antiques or Western modern art were owned by yakuza (Japanese
mafia) because they were the perfect front for laundering money. The young
artists were shut out of this world, unless they had rich parents who could pay
for a gallery show.

86 PART THREE
But still, the group were young, and these were exciting times. There was the
amazing pop culture buzz in Tokyo, with new magazines, club nights and al-
ternative fashions, popping up everywhere. They were a gang, and they spent
all their time together: talking, arguing, dreaming, checking out the scene. The
emergence of “Tokyo pop”, as their movement came to be known, was not
some kind of accident. It was a moment in time that brought together a group
of extraordinarily talented and energetic people. It was a place too: a school,
however old fashioned some of the professors were. A group of friends push-
ing and inspiring each other. The western art world usually only knows the
name of one character from this group: Takashi Murakami. But the truth is, as
sociologists know, “it takes a village”: a whole social network, place and time,
for such creativity to be born.

I have talked with many of the people involved in or around this Tokyo gang
at the time. Min Nishihara, Murakami’s close friend and “muse” in the early
90s, an art writer who formulated many of the key ideas of “Tokyo pop” in the
brilliant, trashy articles she wrote. Tomio Koyama, now the most famous com-
mercial name worldwide in Japanese contemporary art. Tim Blum, Koyama’s
drinking partner at the time, a brash young Los Angeleno helping to run a small
gallery in Tokyo, and sketching a manifesto that will one day turn this amazing
new art he finds into something global. Yuko Yamamoto, now one of the most
important gallerists in Tokyo, who was a young gallery assistant to Tsutomu
Ikeuchi at Röntgen, and met her husband there, Noi Sawaragi, the art writer.
Yuko Hasegawa, the ambitious and tireless editor and art organizer, who is
today the most powerful museum curator of contemporary art in Japan. Kiki
Kudo, now a well known art writer and critic, an art school dropout who be-
came Murakami’s first assistant. Hideki Nakazawa, the key conceptualist of the
group, who has gone on to become the most important chronicler in Japanese of
those exciting times. And Masato Nakamura, the organizer and closest partner
of Murakami, an art intellectual with a talent for conceiving avant garde public
interventions in the great tradition of Japanese radical 60s artists.

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 87
Artist Takashi Murakami unveiling My Lonesome Cowboy, Artist Masato Nakamura at the March 1994 opening of
at Tomio Koyama Gallery in 1998. Courtesy of Peter Bellars. his show Lucy at SCAI The Bathhouse. Courtesy of Peter
Bellars.

THE LIKELY LADS

History blurs chronology, and so much of what happened in those times takes
on the misty glamour of myth. For example, there was the birthday party on
February 1st 1992 of the two young leaders of the movement, Takashi Mu-
rakami and Masato Nakamura. They shared the same birthday; Murakami is
one year older, he was turning 30. Of all the young ambitious artists, these two
were the most “likely lads” coming out of Geidai – the ones who seemed most
destined for great things. They had a friendly rivalry, as well as a contrast in
styles. They had known each other since the mid 80s from Geidai and tutoring

88 PART THREE
Art Writer Noi Sawaragi. Courtesy of Noi Sawaragi. Gallerist Yuko Yamamoto. Courtesy of Yuko Yamamoto.

RÖNTGEN AND AFTER

Artist and Art Writer Hideki Nakazawa. Courtesy of Hideki Art Writer Kiki Kudo at Mori Art Museum, visiting
Nakazawa. installation by Takashi Kuribayashi, Wald aus Wald, at
Mori Art Museum (2010). Photo by author.
ART WRITERS

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 89
together at art prep school. Murakami had since 1991 started to make waves
on the Tokyo scene. At his first proper solo exhibition in December 1991, he
exhibited Randoseru, a series of Japanese children’s school bags made out
of precious, illegal animal skins. Nakamura shared his feeling of frustration
with the contemporary art scene, but was plotting ways of taking art into the
streets. Their attitude had especially taken shape around a controversial book
published in 1986 by art critic Nobuo Nakamura, Shonen Art (Youth Art),
which castigated the lack of any real art scene in Tokyo. Now they were trying
to invent one by themselves.

Kiki Kudo, who was 20 at the time, gatecrashed the party with a friend. She
had recently failed the entrance exam to Geidai – an archaic system where
hundreds of candidates, desperate for one of the subsidized places, have to
sit through hours of drawing and painting exams. It was the only art school at
which students of poorer class background could afford to study. Murakami,
as always was the centre of the crowd, loud, laughing. Kudo and her friend
thought he was some kind of funny oyaji (old bloke), a 30 year old intellectual
type, who was just finishing his PhD, but obsessed with teenage youth culture.
Murakami asked what she was doing? Nothing much, she said. Ok, do you
want to be my studio assistant? Murakami didn’t have a studio, he just had
an apartment. Kudo had no formal skills, but she knew a lot about the strange
sub-cultures Murakami liked, as well as many of the actual people involved.
She became an “ideas” person for Murakami.

Kudo’s greatest influence, though, was Min Nishihara, Murakami’s “muse”.

Nishihara had a style of writing totally unlike the high brow intellectualism
of other art critics, such as Noi Sawaragi and Yuko Hasegawa, who wrestled
with postmodern art theory. Nishihara had more of a down-to-earth, “hardcore”
style: fast moving, sharp and throwaway, the style of writing seen nowadays
in blogs. Like many people who remember her writing from that period, Kudo
describes her as the “genius” of Tokyo pop. Min Nishihara and Takashi Mu-
rakami were inseparable, a non-stop barrage of back and forth argument and

90 PART THREE
ideas. Nishihara wrote for the same magazines as Noi Sawaragi and Yuko
Hasegawa, and she travelled together with Murakami to exhibitions. She tried
to discover and promote new artists. They travelled together to Europe, to see
the famous Documenta show in Germany in 1992, writing scathing critical
reviews on every piece they saw. She and Murakami talked about launching a
magazine called “Art Sex”.

Takashi Murakami was a brilliant networker, always at the hub of things, a

classic “connector”. He was also pushy. When somebody important came into
a gallery, the group would move over to try to catch their attention. Min Nishi-
hara remembers meeting Jay Jopling, the famous British gallerist, and Jeff
Koons, this way. Koons was friendly to the young group, who were all huge
fans of his work. Murakami would just phone people up, tell them to take
notice of his work. Murakami is like that, one old friend says, he never stops
“being Murakami” 24/7. That’s how he had first contacted Noi Sawaragi in
the late 1980s. Sawaragi was a young editor at Bijutsu Techo, the most impor-
tant Japanese art magazine, who had been writing provocative articles about
global art trends that all the students had read. They met and got on famously.
One day, in early 1991, Sawaragi was going to check out a new, yet-to-open
art space in South East Tokyo, and he invited Murakami to come along. It was
a totally unexpected place – a big old warehouse in an obscure industrial area,
Omori. They met the owner, a young man their age, who was the son of a fa-
mous antique tea utensils dealer. Tsutomu Ikeuchi had started his own gallery,
and was already showing extraordinary electronic pop art in strange booths at
the art fairs. Now he had spent a large amount of his family’s money on reno-
vating this big space for art events. It had three floors, and lots of room for
big installations or a huge party. Ikeuchi called it the Röntgen Kunst Institute,
because of his fetish with German futurism. He didn’t have many clear plans
yet, so over an all night izakaya session, the three decided that they would
organize Murakami’s exhibition together. They agreed that the event shouldn’t
be like a normal art opening: it had to have music and publicity, and they had

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 91
to try to get some of the cool Tokyo pop scene to come and look at contempo-
rary art for a change.

Even younger art world people in Tokyo, who could only have been young
students at the time, always claim to have been there at the packed opening
for Anomaly, the show to which that first meeting led, at the new Röntgen in
November 1992. It was chaotic: people were pushing in, with music and noise
everywhere, and the featured artists tried to compete for attention with each
other. Other just brought their work to display unannounced. Tsutomu Ikeuchi
couldn’t control it, but this was what he wanted. Anomaly was the spectacular
show that launched the career of Takashi Murakami, as well as the careers of
the well known Osaka otaku artist Kenji Yanobe, who built child-like survival
machines and costumes for some future apocalypse, and Kodai Nakahara, a
much discussed pop-artist, who was making plastic figurine sculptures and art
out of toys. The Bijutsu Techo special at the time linked these artists to others
also making “Tokyo pop”: including Chiezo Taro, who had already shown how
to make Japanese pop art successful in New York, and Yukinori Yanagi, who
was making political art that critiqued Japanese nationalism with playful and
ambitious installations, and had already enjoyed some significant international
attention and sales since the late 1980s. These were more of the “likely lads”:
the new young emerging stars of Japanese contemporary art. All together, the
scene was like the famous Freeze show in London of 1988 that launched the
careers of the Young British Artists (YBAs), such as Damien Hirst and Sarah
Lucas. What was happening in Tokyo was every bit as provocative and cre-
ative. At Anomaly, it was Takashi Murakami who eventually triumphed amidst
the chaos, upstaging everyone by unveiling his sculpture/installation Sea
Breeze with high drama. A painted trailer with doors was wheeled out into the
crowd to the accompaniment of opera music and a naked dancer with a hula-
hoop. Inside the trailer there was a massive floodlight from a sports stadium.
To everyone’s astonishment it exploded with intense light and heat into the
room when the shutters were opened.

92 PART THREE
Performance of Osaka Mixer Plan by Small Village Centre, with friends, Osaka, Dec 1992. From left, standing, in white
coats, Hideki Nakazawa, Takashi Murakami, Masato Nakamura, Min Nishihara. Seated, centre, Tsuyoshi Ozawa, and right,
Gallerist Tsutomu Ikeuchi. Courtesy of Min Nishihara.

NAKAMURA, MURAKAMI AND FRIENDS

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 93
All of these people and many others were part of a scene that gave birth to
ideas, images, installations, and emotions that were simplified and made world
famous under Murakami’s name in the touring shows Superflat and Little Boy.
The years from 1992 to 1994 were an extraordinary blur of events, parties,
publications, new art, and new talents appearing. The young artists soon found
other alternative spaces in which to organize events in. After Anomaly, the gang
shifted to P-House, an alternative art/culture space in Shibuya, run by an under-
ground figure called Taka Akita. All the time Noi Sawaragi, Yuko Hasegawa and
Min Nishihara wrote about the events for the hippest Tokyo magazines, such as
Brutus and Atelier, linking the contemporary art scene for the first time to paral-
lel happenings elsewhere in clubs, music and street fashion.

When they couldn’t show in Tokyo, they took the events elsewhere. Already
before Anomaly, the gang had travelled to Seoul for an exhibition organized
by Masato Nakamura, who was studying there for a while. Nakamura and
Murakami, who would show together there, had done a survey, and discov-
ered that they had the two most hated Japanese names in South Korea, be-
cause of the war. So they called their shows together Nakamura to Murakami
(Nakamura and Murakami). Nakamura often developed the issue of Japanese-
Korean relations in his work: his wife Shin Myeong-Eun was a Korean artist,
and a best friend of Min Nishihara. Also, two slightly younger Geidai artists,
Tsuyoshi Ozawa – a friend of Murakami’s from Saitama – and Makoto Aida,
came along to Seoul as video documentarists. They were both buzzing with
their own sub culture-inspired ideas.

After Anomaly the whole group had gone to Osaka in December 1992, mainly
to show off in front of what was then a more prestigious art scene than Tokyo in
the Kansai region. Tsuyoshi Ozawa, Takashi Murakami, Masato Nakamura and
Hideki Nakazawa sometimes performed as the group, “Small Village Center”, a
pun on their names and a reference to the 1960s radical art group, Hi Red Cen-
ter, led by Genpei Akasegawa. In Osaka, they made a provocative performance
to “clean up” the streets, a direct reproduction of one of Hi Red Center’s famous

94 PART THREE
Nakamura to Murakami, (Nakamura on left, Murakami on right), an art work by Hideki Nakazawa about the Geidai group's
visit to Seoul in 1992. An example of Nakazawa's Baka CG (silly computer graphics), a development of the notion of heta
uma (unskilled or clumsy art) using primitive computer technology. Courtesy of Hideki Nakazawa.

NAKAMURA, MURAKAMI AND FRIENDS

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 95
street cleaning performances in Ginza during the 1964 Olympics. Next up, Min
Nishihara introduced extraordinary new work by the younger pair of Makoto
Aida and Tsuyoshi Ozawa, in a second important show at Röntgen called Fo(u)
rtune in January 1993. Aida’s unforgettable manga-style update of Hokusai’s
The Dream of the Fisherman’s Wife (1814) was unveiled at this show: The Giant
Member Fuji versus King Gidora, a 12 metre square acrylic painting that was so
big it had to be laid out on the floor. Here was an artist willing to take his ideas
to the limit, as his cult book of the same year, Seisyun & Hentai (Adolescence &
Perversion), made clear. With a close association initially through Röntgen, Aida
and Ozawa were also founding members of the Tokyo art group, the Showa 40
nen kai (“The Group 1965”), which also included photographer/performance
artist Hiroyuki Matsukage, manga artist Parco Kinoshita, painter Oscar Oiwa,
and the architecturally trained Yutaka Sone. As a group, their only manifesto or
raison d’être was, comically, that they were all born in 1965, the 40 year of the
th

Showa period. They launched their art unit at a mock serious press conference
at the Japanese television headquarters of NHK in 1994. The Showa 40 nen kai
became a legendary drinking club, mapping out the city with their art interven-
tions, raunchy performances, and written social commentaries. Min Nishihara,
meanwhile, forged a powerful curatorial alliance with Shin Kurosawa, another
influential member of the original Geidai gang who often worked with Tsuyoshi
Ozawa, and she would also later curate Yutaka Sone at Röntgen.

When the 90s artists couldn’t find exhibition spaces, they took to the streets.
A defining moment arrived when Masato Nakamura laid the plans for an open
air “terrorist” art event, The Ginburart, that would take place on the streets of
Ginza in April 1993. Nakumura was a quieter personality than Murakami, but
also a leader with a phenomenal talent for persuasion and organization. Again,
with the radical legacy of Hi Red Center in mind, but also the more recent ex-
ample of 80s street art interventions in the East Village, New York, Nakamura
targeted the eight chome (districts) of Ginza, challenging eight artists to make
a public art event in each.

96 PART THREE
Young members-to-be of Showa 40 nen kai at SCAI The Bathhhouse, taken June 1994 at the opening of Takashi
Murakami's Fall in Love, where Murakami introduced his DOB character. From left, Artists Makoto Aida, Tsuyoshi
Ozawa, Parco Kinoshita. Courtesy of Peter Bellars.

The Press Conference Performance launch of Showa 40 nen kai (1994), from left, Artists Makoto Aida, Oscar
Oiwa, Hiroyuki Matsukage, Tsuyoshi Ozawa, Yutaka Sone, Parco Kinoshita, with centre right, critic/curator Chie
Kaihatsu. Courtesy of Hiromi Hasegawa and Showa 40 nen kai.

BIRTH OF SHOWA 40 NEN KAI (THE GROUP 1965)

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 97
Muneteru Ujino performing Art Mikoshi at The Ginburart (1993). Courtesy of Hideki Nakazawa, who published the floppy
disk journal Japan Art Today. Edition 5 featured The Ginburart.

THE GINBURART

Masato Nakamura’s The Ginburart stole Takashi Murakami’s thunder as the

leader of “Tokyo pop”. The concept of Murakami’s early work hinged on his
anti-art intellectualism. Albeit provocative, his art was a purposely mean-
ingless translation of Japanese popular culture. It was only later, after New
York, that he discovered it could work so well as a signifier of “Japan” for
foreigners. Nakamura was more of an idealist, and believed in art as a social
intervention, a means of changing society. A close associate of Nakamura and
participant in The Ginburart, Peter Bellars, an English artist and art writer,
had also suggested the idea of making the art system itself the target of the art.
Bellars couldn’t understand why Tokyo artists didn’t make more art about the
extraordinary street life and culture around them. Following Masato Nakamu-
ra’s “rules of the game”, each of the participating artists at The Ginburart did
something that upset the normal, everday functioning of the Ginza districts
they had been assigned. For example, Min Nishihara painted white text on the

98 PART THREE
streets; Peter Bellars nailed up “Love Hotel” signs outside corporate office
entrances. Meanwhile, another Geidai friend, Muneteru Ujino, later famous
as sound sculpture and performance artist, gave a popular commentary tour of
all the works, dressed as an angel and carried by six men in a Shinto style “Art
Mikoshi” shrine.

The most famous art work to come out of The Ginburart was the invention
of the Nasubi gallery. This was the perfect visualization of the young artists’
struggle for space, as well as an accidental product of the rules of the game
set up by Nakamura. Tsuyoshi Ozawa was given the honour of performing his
work in Ginza 1# chome. For this work, Ozawa decided to parody the Ginza
art system by showing various alternative gallery spaces, tiny platforms for
works that could be thought of as an exhibition. He called the idea Nasubi
Gallery (Eggplant Art Gallery) as a parody of one of the famous Ginza gal-
leries, Nabisu. One of these was an old milk delivery box, painted inside
like a tiny “white cube”, which he could hang on a wall or post in the street
anywhere. Murakami had been invited to participate in The Ginburart, but
his plan to make a masochistic “re-
jection tour” of the Ginza galleries
in his district with his art portfolio
failed because it was a Sunday, and
the galleries were closed. Naka-
mura, irritated, insisted he had to
do something. Murakami asked if
any gallery would do? Yes, he was
told. So he asked Ozawa if he could
make an exhibition inside his milk
box gallery. It was the first Nasubi
gallery show: a miniature Murakami Art work by Masato Nakamura at The Ginburart (1993).
Courtesy of Peter Bellars.
installation, using coloured paint
and plastic Tamiya toy soldiers, THE GINBURART

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 99
 Installation of Tsuyoshi Ozawa, Nasubi Gallery, #1 Tsuyoshi Ozawa and Parco Kinoshita, Nasubi Gallery
chome, at Nasubi Gallery (1993). Courtesy of Hideki (1994). Mixed media. 33 x 19 x 14cm. Courtesy of
Nakazawa. Showa 40 nen kai

Tsuyoshi Ozawa demonstrating back pack installation Curator Shin Kurosawa at Shinjuku Shonen Art (1994).
of Nasubi Gallery, exhibition Top Breeder Series Vol.2 Courtesy of Peter Bellars.
(1994) by Complesso Plastico (art unit of Hiroyuki
Matsukage and Hiro Jirano). Courtesy of Peter Bellars.

CONTEMPORARY JAPANESE STREET ART

100 PART THREE

which he often used in his earliest works. The show was called Takashi Mu-
rakami’s Large Retrospective Show. The two artists have fought ever since
over who owns the concept, but Ozawa has gone on to show many other art-
ists around the world in his Nasubi gallery.

The impact of The Ginburart surprised the young artists. Not only did they at-
tract a big audience and a lot of curious passers-by, as well as the police. They
also made a very powerful statement about art in the city from a generation that
felt locked out of the system. It galvanised more young artists to action. One
of these was a young sculptor named Yoshihiro Suda, who carved tiny flowers
and plants out of wood. Later that year, he hired a daily parking space in Ginza,
and parked an empty wooden crate there. Inside this strange installation space
was one of his tiny fragile weed sculptures (Ginza Weed Theory, 1993). It was a
beautiful metaphor for the struggle of contemporary artists in Tokyo.

In April 1994, Masato Nakamura planned a second, even bigger street event,
Shinjuku Shonen Art, in the Yakuza red light district of Kabukicho. Things were
beginning to take off for all the group, but with so many plans and artists crowd-
ing the scene, it was beginning to fragment. Murakami declined to take part in
Nakamura’s new show. He was set on pursuing his idea of turning otaku ideas
into commercial contemporary art, and he abandoned Tokyo for New York in
late 1994. It marked the end of a short golden era, and of working relations be-
tween Masato Nakamura and Takashi Murakami, whose friendship had chilled
after The Ginburart. Tomio Koyama and Min Nishihara visited Murakami while
he was in in New York. He was depressed and homesick. It was the beginning of
1995. While Murakami sat and hatched his plans in the US, back in Tokyo, two
terrible events were about to change everything in Japan again …

Art and Money: The Birth of a Contemporary Art Market

The emergence of this dynamic group of young artists was only half of the
story. In parallel to this, as suggested by the Röntgen story and the role of

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 101
gallerist Tsutomu Ikeuchi, there was the emergence of a new gallery scene,
which would offer the artists a place to show their work. Contemporary art in
Tokyo has always faced a struggle to survive. It is a small part of the arts, in
which traditional and classical forms are more appreciated. The collectors and
the corporate buyers that fuel the business in Europe and America are scarce
in Japan. Many rich Japanese who might pay embarrasingly large sums of
money for modern Western art works do not even look at Japanese contem-
porary artists. The city of Tokyo has historically offered very little support to
contemporary art. There is a constant struggle for the money to finance the
careers of young and established artists, and to find the space to show their
work. And so, as Tokyo art journalist, Lucy Birmingham puts it, Tokyo gal-
leries and art spaces move around the city, using old buildings and abandoned
spaces, only ever “one step ahead of the wrecking ball”.

What did exist prior to the new possibilities of the 1990s were commercial
gallery-like spaces in department stores, associated with the burgeoning de-
sign and pop illustration scene. There was one exceptional space, the Saison
Museum, in the large Seibu department store in Ikebukuro. The writer Noi
Sawaragi, for example, points out that this is where he learned about interna-
tional contemporary art, not from public museums. The Saison Museum of
Modern Art was backed by the company’s chairman Seiji Tsutsumi, one of the
very rare corporate figures interested in contemporary art. From the mid 1970s
onwards this department store location had been organising high quality con-
temporary exhibitions, mixed in with other commercial and design shows.
The museum was run by Kazuko Koike, an advertising consultant for Muji,
with her partner Atsuko Koyanagi. In 1983, looking for more freedom to do
their own events, the two women discovered an old, unused rice building in
Koto-ku – the Shokuryo building – by the side of Sumida river in North East
Tokyo. It had extraordinary 1920s architecture, ideal for alternative art spaces.
This became Sagacho, Tokyo’s first true alternative contemporary art space.
The city offered no help. Koike and Koyanagi relied on raising sponsorship

102 PART THREE

from enlightened companies like Shiseido and Asahi, fighting against ever
rising rentals. As the operation expanded into the 1990s, several new young
commercial gallerists opened spaces there, including Shugo Satani, Taro Nasu
and, in 1996, the young Tomio Koyama of the Geidai gang. These were a new
generation of gallerists. Like Tsutomu Ikeuchi, they felt a mission to cultivate
and support young and radical art, but also that a more internationally open
attitude might bring better commercial success.

Sagacho became a new departure for the Tokyo art scene, a mix of the best of
western artist with new Japanese names. It played a decisive role, particularly,
in the discovery of Yasumasa Morimura, as well as the breakthrough of pho-
tographer Hiroshi Sugimoto, who later became Koyanagi’s husband, becom-
ing one of the other great alliances of contemporary art in Japan. Building
on her family’s Ginza based ceramics business, Atsuko Koyanagi set up her
contemporary art gallery in 1995. Still today, she preserves much of the quiet
charm and efficiency of the old style Tokyo art business. Sitting in the elegant
surroundings of her gallery – one of the largest art spaces in the centre of the
tightly packed Ginza streets – she says that she and fellow gallerists, Tomio
Koyama, Shugo Satani and a fourth group member Kiyoshi Wako, who deals
mainly in European artists, still sit down for a regular dinner to discuss busi-
ness and cooperation. Among her many well known Japanese and international
artists, Koyanagi has placed her biggest hopes in Tabaimo, the young female
video artist who represented Japan at Venice in 2011. Notably, she withdrew
support for Mariko Mori, after the financing costs started to get too high.

Parallel to the Seibu Saison museum, the Touko Museum on the corner of
Omotesando crossing also established a venue at the turn of the 1990s for cut-
ting edge contemporary art. This small but very visible corporate museum was
run by a commercially minded entrepreneur, Masami Shiraishi, a new breed on
the scene. He was a tough and pushy businessman, who had worked for the top
modern gallery in Tokyo in the 1980s, Fuji Television Gallery. Smoothly inter-
nationalized in his manners, he was not afraid to put noses out of joint or take

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 103
 Gallerist Tomio Koyama. Courtesy of Tomio Koyama. Gallerist Atsuko Koyanagi. Courtesy of Gallery
Koyanagi.

Gallerist Masami Shiraishi. Courtesy of SCAI The Gallerist Sueo Mitsuma. Photo by Hiroyuki Matsukage.
Bathhouse. Courtesy of Mizuma Gallery.

PIONEERS OF THE CONTEMPORARY ART MARKET

104 PART THREE

risks on new artists. With Etsuro Ishihara, of ZEIT photo salon, he founded the
international contemporary art fair in Japan, NICAF, in 1992, after they were
shut out of the foreign dominated Tokyo Art Expo. Etsuro Ishihara was a simi-
larly brusque character, whose bold business mind established the international
careers of the pop photographers, Araki, Daido Moriyama and others associ-
ated with the controversial “provoque group”. The first NICAF made a lot of
money, establishing the first real bridgehead for a home grown contemporary
art market in Japan and evolving later into the annual Art Fair Tokyo. The first
SCAI (Shiraishi Contemporary Arts Institute), up a small hill in Omotesando,
put on the Seoul Nakamura to Murakami show in 1992, remembered by all
as one of the most brilliant of the era. Shiraishi opened SCAI The Bathhouse,
a reconverted old sento, an architectural gem in the quiet old neighbourhood
near Yanaka cemetery, in 1993. It showed Takashi Murakami solo in 1994,
Yoshitomo Nara in 1995, supported Masato Nakamura’s extraordinary conbini
and McDonald’s installations a little later in the 90s, as well as Mariko Mori
and Tatsuo Miyajima’s expensive futurist works.

Sitting in an office at SCAI, overlooking a shrine, Masami Shiraishi relishes

retelling the stories of those years. At a David Lynch opening at Touko Mu-
seum at the height of his global cult popularity in 1991, Shiraishi recalls a
noisy young student with a gang of friends taking over the gallery. It was Ta-
kashi Murakami. A huge fan of Lynch, Murakami queued with a book for a
signature from Lynch. When done, he bought another and went to the back of
the queue. Then another. Shiraishi asked who he was. Later, when Murakami
came to present his work to him, Shiraishi gave him his first business lesson.
Murakami asked for ¥5,000 for one of his small plastic soldier sculptures.
Shiraishi told him he couldn’t get enough food to live on with that, and paid
him ¥10,000.

Masami Shiraishi also discovered Tomio Koyama, giving him his first break
as a gallerist at Touko. If anything, Koyama was even more outgoing as a
businessman, and more willing to take risks internationally. He would sit

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 105
alone at small art fairs in LA and Miami with his funny, childish Tokyo pop
art on sale. Yet this was how he made his great breakthrough international
sales, such as to the Nortons in Los Angeles. Like Shiraishi, Tomio Koyama
recognized the importance of a good gallery location. After Sagacho, he
started to plan with Atsuko Koyanagi the well organized Kiyosumi complex
in the same North Eastern area of Tokyo near the Sumida river. This would
gather several other gallerists, and take over part of a still working factory.
After opening in 2005, it became the number one stop on any collectors’ visit
to Tokyo, hosting the galleries of Tomio Koyama, Taka Ishii, Shugo Satani
and Hiromi Yoshii. Parties became a more genteel affair, yet there has always
been a trace of the underworld origins of the Tokyo art world. One Tokyo
based American writer recalls how he and his Japanese friends got into an
argument at the Hiromi Yoshii gallery one evening, and were then threatened
with yakuza language.

Across town, Sueo Mitsuma (Mizuma), a former 80s art dealer and collector
with a strong taste for Asian contemporary art, opened his Mizuma Gallery, first
in Aoyama, in 1994. This became another key location on the Tokyo art map. As
the first gallery eventually became too small and expensive, he moved to an old
warehouse, with spaces on two floors, in Kami Meguro. Mitsuma was a bold
collector himself, but struggled financially during what he recalls as the “patient
years” of the early 1990s. The end of the Bubble was a moment when the old
corrupt system of art dealing was exposed in Japan, leading to a great discredit
internationally. It was exposed how naively some collectors in Japan had paid
incredibly excessive prices for their Western trophy art, sometimes without
proper certification. It was also discovered how there had been many bribe
schemes using expensive foreign art, in which a piece was bought at a high
value, was then given to a politician as a bribe, who then sold the work on at a
much lower price back to an art dealer, benefitting everyone all round. Mitsuma
was one of the figures trying to re-establish a credible art market in the wake of
this disastrous collapse. Unlike others, though, he was not concerned with fit-

106 PART THREE

ting in with the Western art system, or getting in line with global trends. Rather,
Mitsuma believed there was a place for an Asian art world, in which Japanese
contemporary art and artists could take the place alongside other artists across
the region. He particularly liked young, provocative Japanese artists, who would
consciously play with older styles, traditions and political themes with an ironic
spirit. He thought it was a scandal that Japanese industrialists or corporations
would spend a fortune on Western art works, or even set up museums to them,
without ever buying any works from their own culture. He also believed in the
value of a good social scene for art: Mizuma Gallery openings became legend-
ary for their atmosphere, and the nijikai and sanjikai (2nd and 3rd round after
parties) into which they spilled.

A momentous meeting for Japanese contemporary art took place in 1997,

when the psychiatrist Ryutaro Takahashi discovered Mizuma Gallery. Taka-
hashi was one of several wealthy medical psychologists and doctors who
developed in the 1990s and 2000s an intense interest – and collection – of
contemporary art. There was also Hisashi Hozumi in Akita, an avid collec-
tor like Takahashi of Yayoi Kusama, who set up a centre which used art and
visiting artists as a form of therapy for ageing patients with mental problems.
Yoyoi Kusama is an artist herself who has lived for a long time in a mental
institution. And there was Satoshi Okada, a psychologist and Tokyo socialite
who became a key supporter of many new young artists in the 2000s. Ryutaro
Takahashi was of an older generation, born in 1946, a sixties radical, whose
father was a surgeon. At the gallery for the first time, Sueo Mitsuma showed
him something by Makoto Aida from the Geidai group. Mizuma still had “on
sale” some of Aida’s extraordinary first works from the 1993 show at Rönt-
gen. Takahashi was engrossed by Aida’s vision. He also thought Aida’s fold-
ing screen manga of Mutant Hanako (1997) – a violent and very pornographic
sci-fi satire about the Pacific War in the 1940s – would be perfect for his hos-
pital reception room. It inspired the start of a collection that has become one
of the most important and rare collections in Japan of its post-90s contempo-

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 107
Collector Ryutaro Takahashi. Photo by Rie Odawara. Collector Satoshi Okada. Courtesy of Satoshi Okada.
Courtesy of Mizuma Gallery.

THE COLLECTORS

rary art. In 2008-9, Takahashi’s collection, toured the country under the title,
Neoteny, which refers to the strange condition of animal species who retain
the features of infants long into adulthood – a metaphor for the Japanese post-
Bubble condition. Takahashi also opened a space in Hibiya, in the center of
Tokyo, for prominent shows of different parts of his collection. Takahashi’s
mission became quite clear. He wanted to save this work from the fate of pre-
vious era’s masterpieces from Japan, such as its best ukiyo-e, which were sold
cheaply to Western museums and collectors, never to return.

Art spaces in Tokyo invariably come and go, though. The Sagacho building,
the first of the pioneers, was sold and scheduled for demolition in 2000, by
a city deaf to the significance of a contemporary art space, and blind to the

108 PART THREE

architectural heritage of the building. The main exhibition space closed, and
the building stumbled with financial difficulties until its sentimental farewell
show, Emotional Site, in late 2002. This was like a who’s who of local and
international artists, filling the broken down spaces for one last kampai (toast).
Like so many influential shows of the last twenty years, it was only made pos-
sible by the strong social connections that have soldered the Tokyo contempo-
rary art world together in spite of all the problems. The closing struck a chord,
with thousands of visitors, waving goodbye – again – to an era.

When Will Aida Be Famous? Before and After Zero Japan

Looking back, 1995 was the year things really went wrong for Japan. It was
the year when all the nightmares came true. In January, a huge earthquake
devastated Kobe. Then, in March, a cult group led by a 50s born otaku-style
guru, Shoko Asahara, planted sarin gas on the Tokyo metro, shattering the
nerves of a population that felt it lived in the safest major city in the world.
The impact of the two disasters, so quickly one after the other, was a crush-
ing blow to the society. Even though there had been a financial crash in 1990,
people and businesses were still running in the air, like a cartoon character af-
ter the ground has disappeared from under its feet. In 1995, they looked down
and saw nothing underneath.

For the hardcore otaku – such as the writer Toshio Okada interviewed by Mu-
rakami in his 2005 book Little Boy – it was a moment of pure fantasy. All the
monsters, madness and apocalyptic destruction they could possibly imagine
were appearing. Okada recalls rushing down to Kobe to take “cool” photos.
For others, it was the moment to question the assumptions of social harmony,
rampant capitalism and sprawling urban development that had driven post-
war Japan. All kinds of volunteers had to help clear up the mess in Kobe: the
public services couldn’t cope. In particular, it led to the legal establishment
of new non-profit organizations (NPOs) to take up the work that governments
and businesses seemed unable to do.

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 109
After this, the late 1990s were a struggle for everyone. After all the high hopes
of the early 90s, many artists gave up and moved to New York, LA, London
or Berlin. It could well be asked: Whatever happened to the “likely lads”?
Yukinori Yanagi, the most internationally successful of the new young gen-
eration in the early 1990s, disappeared off for years to the US, only to return
in 1995, settling in a seemingly quiet position at Hiroshima University. He
had become disillusioned with the New York art market and was looking for
a more meaningful “lifework” project. Hiroshima became his regional base
to launch of variety of spectacular group projects that engaged with art in the
city, as well as the base for discovering new possibilities for art on the islands
of Japan’s industrially polluted Seto inland sea. It was here he first sketched
the plans to develop the extraordinary Seirensho (“Refinery”) copper factory
art conversion on the desolate island of Inujima – now the most impressive
part of the network of art projects centred around the island of Naoshima. Ko-
dai Nakahara, reckoned to be the most original of the three young heroes at
Anomaly in 1992, became disillusioned with gallery shows after 1995 and re-
treated to a professorial position in Kyoto. He is still widely mentioned as one
of the most influential teachers of the next generation. Meanwhile, Masato
Nakamura, Takashi Murakami’s earliest partner and rival, remained highly
active in Tokyo and was selected for Venice in 2001, the peak year for Japa-
nese contemporary art internationally. He too came back home disillusioned.
At the exclusive party for biennale invitees, he felt intimidated by all the rich
global art people and tacky Italian celebrities. He realized with disgust that he
was a token Asian face, and that his art in fact had no meaning in this context.
Takashi Murakami was much more comfortable than all his rivals in selling
himself to foreigners. Masato Nakamura came back to Tokyo, to also devote
himself to making art in the city.

The contributions of Min Nishihara, meanwhile, are largely forgotten. Much

of her writings, as those of Noi Sawaragi, were encompassed in the more ac-
cessible writings of Midori Matsui. Min Nishihara married Shin Kurosawa,

110 PART THREE

 Artist Yukinori Yanagi. Photo by Yoshikazu Nishijima. Courtesy of Yukinori Yanagi
and Miyake Fine Art.

Aerial view of Inujima Art Project Seirensho (2008). Copper refinery site
conversion and museum conceived by Yukinori Yanagi with Architect Hiroshi
Sambuichi, Inujima island. Photo by Road Izumiyama. Courtesy of Yukinori
Yanagi and Miyake Fine Art.

YUKINORI YANAGI

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 111
 Detail of Yukinori Yanagi, Dollar Web Garden (2010), "S-House Project". Part of Art House Project on Inujima
island, installation in collaboration with Architect Kazuyo Sejima and Art Producer Yuko Hasegawa, Inujima
island. Olive trees, arrows, leaver lace, insects. Photo by Road Izumiyama.
© Yukinori Yanagi. Courtesy of Yukinori Yanagi and Miyake Fine Art.

YUKINORI YANAGI

112 PART THREE

who was involved in some of the most innovative shows of the era at Mito Art
Tower, a museum to the north of Tokyo. Kurosawa was the central curatorial
influence, for example, in Tsuyoshi Ozawa’s landmark 1995 work, The Uni-
versity of Sodan Art (Consultation Art), in which, during a two month long
residence, Ozawa produced works in flexible consultation with a passing cast
of artists, curators, writers and members of the general public. Later, after
she and Kurosawa split, Nishihara married the original Group 1965 member
Yutaka Sone. When, after 1999, Paul Schimmel suggested they come to LA,
with Sone teaching at UCLA, they moved, leaving the Tokyo scene behind.

Shin Kurosawa, like the influential BT editor, Kiyoshi Kusumi, more or less
dropped out of the contemporary art scene in the 2000s. Others among this
group will be better remembered. Yutaka Sone will certainly be viewed as an
important artist of the period. He had first burst on the scene in 1993, with
Her 19th Foot, a perplexing sculpture of 19 bicycles welded together which
he would challenge people to ride. In his later work, he used surreal marble
sculptures, performances and video to continually confound audiences with
new conceptions of beauty and artistic communication. He was selected for
Venice in 2003, alongside the young gothic style sculptor Motohiko Odani.
Sone’s residential collaborations with artisans and labourers in China and
Mexico also positioned him as the one contemporary Japanese artist whose
practice and methods rival those of the leading Chinese artist, Ai Weiwei.
Of the original Group 1965 members, Tsuyoshi Ozawa has remained an im-
portant figure, as has Hiroyuki Matsukage, with his own sometimes shock-
ing translations of trashy Tokyo pop culture in photography, video work and
highly physical performances. But the question on everyone’s mind in Tokyo
has always concerned that other original member of the Showa 40 nen kai:
Makoto Aida. “When will Aida be famous?”…

Again, it is a question of history – although the question has for years re-
mained unanswered. Tsutomu Ikeuchi closed Röntgen Institute in December
1995. It was the anxious end of an era. He had been representing Ozawa and

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 113
 Photo of Artist Yutaka Sone and Art Writer Min Nishihara (1997). Photo by Shigeo Anzai. Courtesy of Min Nishihara.

ART COUPLES

114 PART THREE

Artists Makoto Aida (centre) and Hiroko Okada (right), with Artists Hiroyuki Matsukage (left) and Mario A (behind), at
Mizuma Gallery opening, late 1990s. Courtesy of Peter Bellars.

ART COUPLES

Aida, but they declined to move with him to the new, more conventional gal-
lery he opened in Omotesando. It was rather with Mizuma that Aida was to
find his permanent home. Aida always had an unusually close relationship
with Sueo Mitsuma, who saw him as the most important Japanese artist of the
era. This was also the consensus view of the Tokyo art world at the end of the
1990s, when he was featured as the cover artist in Bijutsu Techo in the Dec
1999 roundup of the decade in Japanese art, J-Art at the Turn of the Milleni-
um. At Mizuma, he became, in effect, a “house” artist, allowed carte blanche
and underwritten by the gallery. Mitsuma carefully managed his career and
sales, with one eye someday on the huge retrospective that would be made in
his name in Japan. He was always reluctant to sell Aida’s works in the West,
to avoid the fate of so many other Japanese artists whose work was sold to for-
eigners thus rendering a big retrospective or museum collection in their hon-
our at home very difficult, if not impossible, to organize. For example, when

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 115
the most important Japanese modernist artist of the 20s and 30s, Tsuguharu
(better known as Leonard) Foujita, was to have his big career retrospective in
Japan, he had to simply paint new works in one year to fill the show. Others
like Taro Okamoto had to go outside the system and simply build their own
museum. In this respect, the premier place given to Aida’s work in Ryutaro
Takahashi’s collection is of historical importance.

So Makoto Aida has, of course, been very famous – and popular in Japan since
the 1990s. When he was paired with the cult Mizuma graphic artist – and close
friend – Akira Yamaguchi at the Ueno Royal Museum in 2007, the show was
said to have had 30,000 visitors a month. His sales on the Asian market have
always looked good in relation to Takashi Murakami – his rival in art histori-
cal terms – because Murakami has mostly been seen as an artist for the Western
market. In Tokyo, in the late 2000s, Aida would always seem everywhere – an
everpresent influence in galleries, talk shows, cram classes, openings.

In the West, though, it has been another story. There were sporadic, minor,
outings in New York and San Francisco; the occasional glimmer of interest
among Japanese specialists in Europe. Mizuma Gallery kept up a steady sup-
ply of Aida publications, including a DVD, Mukiryoku Tairiku (Apathetic
Continent, 2003) and comprehensive catalogue, Monument for Nothing
(2007). But the message through the late 1990s and 2000s never got through.
For example, there was the story of Makoto Aida and those other famous bad
boys of contemporary art, the Chapman Brothers, who were big stars of the
Young British Artists movement. When Aida and the Chapman Brothers were
brought together for the show Lonely Planet, by curator Kenji Kubota at Mito
in 2004, they and Aida got on like a house on fire. The Chapmans wanted to
bring him to London. Mizuma gallery duly followed up, sending all Aida’s
back catalogue to Jay Jopling at White Cube, a top London gallery. The pack-
age came back, return to sender, practically unopened. The English gallery
just didn’t get it. The Chapman’s infamous huge plastic dioramas of model
Nazis killing each other in an orgy of violence somehow has never faced the

116 PART THREE

same problem of acceptance in the global art world as loving drawings and
sculptures of edible Mi-Mi chan (2001) – Aida’s dubious plan to solve future
global food shortages by promoting a line of miniature edible artificial girls
that would be served as Japanese culinary delicacies. M. Pinault or Mr Saat-
chi, who gladly own the Chapmans, have not been buying up Aida’s work, and
do not seem likely to any time soon. In this respect, Murakami’s Japan has
proven so much more marketable than Aida’s. Superflat, which featured one
work by Aida was, in many respects, Aida-light all the way. Superflat turned
Japanese hardcore into Japanese kitsch.

Another issue was Sueo Mitsuma’s strategy for his star artist. Unlike other
contemporary gallerists, such as Tomio Koyama or Masami Shiraishi, who
learned very well how to do business in the global market, Mitsuma has al-
ways insisted on keeping exclusive representation of his artists internation-
ally. This meant he has struggled to develop the quid pro quo international
networks needed to secure regular invitations and custom at international art
fairs. It also meant he could not
easily secure the financial co-
operation needed in other major
world cities to launch prominent
exhibitions. During the 2000s
in Europe and America, he was
left selling his more kitsch and
pop culture related artists who
fitted the more commercial neo-
japoniste mould. Back in Japan,
it was rumoured that Mitsuma
was holding on to some of Mako-
Artist Makoto Aida. Photo by Hiroyuki Matsukage. Courtesy of to Aida’s most important works.
Mizuma Art Gallery.
Whether or not this was true,
BAD BOYS OF JAPANESE ART Mitsuma was evidently betting

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 117
on the long run. But it is still not clear that any Japanese artist can do without
the gaisen kouen (triumphant return performance) if they want to make it to
the historical pantheon.

Some of the problems with understanding Aida were, of course, about produc-
tion values. Takashi Murakami’s carefully airbrushed translations modulated
otaku ravings for the sensitive tastes of star struck Los Angelenos and politi-
cally correct New Yorkers. Makoto Aida’s vision always included a fair dose
of pure unadulterated Tokyo trash, often as ugly and in your face as the crows
in Yoyogi Park as the sun goes down. Moreover, Aida gave away his own
“self-defeating” game at the start of Mukiryoku Tairiku (Apathetic Continent),
when he admitted his voracious appetite for ideas, tended to lead to an inevita-
ble “falling away” in the final product. It has been difficult to brand and mass
market this kind of restless art, even with such technical mastery and original-
ity. In a world of high resolution Taschen
art books – in which Takashi Murakami
and Yoshitomo Nara always looked good –
Aida’s major book, Monument for Nothing,
could easily seem like a half-baked collec-
tion of mad ideas thrown together by an art
school professor. For every inspired mo-
ment, there were just as many duff items
and hungover gags that should have just
been left in the closet. That’s Makoto Aida:
a ¥100 slot machine of ideas, and why he
has always been so loved by the Tokyo art
Artist Hiroyuki Matsukage, performing ECHO
world. They have been willing to follow
at Mizuma Gallery (2002), in which he smashes him, because Aida has mirrored all of its
bottles in a confined space, reciting a prayer for
each until he is done. Sound and interactive system joys, its frustrations, its bile, and its beauty.
design by Sumihisa Arima. Courtesy of Mizuma
Art Gallery.
The work of Japanese contemporary artists
BAD BOYS OF JAPANESE ART of the early 90s was powerful because it

118 PART THREE

had somehow prefigured the emotions and trauma unleashed for real in 1995.
There was the decadence and extremity of the pop culture they simulated; the
strange and violent dreams of the otaku; the feeling of hopelessness and loss;
the worry about being Japanese. Takashi Murakami and Yoshitomo Nara were
like original generation otaku who rejected the system and started their own
cult. Masato Nakamura and Tsuyoshi Ozawa were looking for other, socially
responsible, alternatives in community art activities they knew Japan had to
find. Makoto Aida, meanwhile, was an artist willing to think the unthinkable.
Such as his contribution to Ozawa’s Nasubi Gallery in 1994, when he first
moved to live in the suburbs. He expressed his disgust by placing a painting of
a sarin gas bottle inside, and hung the box in the street outside his house. The
artists were already staring at the “void”.

Looking back, it was Noi Sawara-

gi who best expressed these ideas,
in his books of the late 1990s.
Japanese contemporary art was
in a “bad place”, he argued. He
then gathered together the most
important art works of the 1990s,
the legacy of the new generation,
at a show called Ground Zero
Japan at Mito right at the turn of
the century in late 1999. Much
of it focused on the overriding
concern that Sawaragi and many
other intellectuals felt at the time,
that after the events of 1995 they
had to rethink all their ideas and Makoto Aida, Sarin (1994). Exhibition in Nasubi Gallery, shown
at The Group 1965 - We are Boys!, Düsseldorf Kunsthalle (2011).
assumptions about Japanese his- Photo by author.
tory and culture. They had to re-
MAKOTO AIDA AND ZERO JAPAN

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 119
 Makoto Aida, Beautiful Flag [War Picture Returns](1995). A pair of two-
panel sliding screens, hinges, charcoal, self-made paint with a medium made
from Japanese glue, acrylic. 169 x 169cm each. © AIDA Makoto. Japanese
girl on left, Korean on right. Photo by Kei Miyajima. Courtesy of Mizuma Art
Gallery.

MAKOTO AIDA AND ZERO JAPAN

120 PART THREE

ally go digging in the dirt, and unearth feelings and expression buried by post-
war illusions, especially Japan’s unhealthy relationship with the US, and with
the rest of Asia. Sawaragi went back to Taro Okamoto and Tadanori Yokoo.
He gave a place to Shinro Ohtake, and featured a reprise of Kenji Yanobe and
Takashi Murakami from Anomaly. And at the center of the show, there was Ma-
koto Aida’s astonishing War Picture Returns paintings (1996 and after): a series
of massive nihonga screens on which he painted twisted fantasies of Japanese
nationalism that evoked both high classicism and the bombastic style of official
wartime Japanese army art. Aida’s paintings were like a visual psychoanalysis
of the whole question of “Zero Japan”. At the time, major curators in the US,
such as Alexandra Munroe, realized that this was the show about Japanese con-
temporary art in the 90s that should be seen in the West. Munroe was the most
important Japanese art curator in New York, and she became the main local
organizer of Little Boy at Japan Society in 2005. But Noi Sawaragi’s presenta-
tion was difficult, and framed everything in terms of its significance for Japan
and Japanese art history. The idea was lost. Takashi Murakami, via his gallerists
Blum and Poe and his curator Paul Schimmel, was on hand instead. His Super-
flat sampling and re-mix proved to be a so much easier show to translate. The
Americans preferred to listen to a much simpler and more comfortable story.

WHATEVER HAPPENED TO THE LIKELY LADS? THE TOKYO ART WORLD IN THE 1990s 121
122
Takashi Murakami, Cosmos (2003)
Installation view at Happiness: A Survival Guide to Art and Life, Mori Art Museum (18/10/2003 - 18/1/2004)
Courtesy of Mori Art Museum

MURAKAMI'S WORLD

123
Yoshitomo Nara, The Little Star Dweller + Star House (2006)
acrylic and glitter on canvas
228 x 182cm
© Yoshitomo Nara
Courtesy of Tomio Koyama Gallery

ETERNAL DREAMER

124
Yukinori Yanagi, Banzai Corner (1991)
plastic toys (×380 pieces) and mirror
92 x 183 x 183cm
Collection of Yokohama Museum, Benesse Art Site Naoshima, Okinawa Prefectural Museum & Art Museum
© Yukinori Yanagi
Courtesy of Yukinori Yanagi and Miyake Fine Art

RISING SON

125
Makoto Aida, The Giant Member Fuji versus King Gidora (1993)
acetate film, acrylic, eyelets
310 x 410cm
photo by Hideto Nagatsuka
© AIDA Makoto
Courtesy of Mizuma Art Gallery

OTAKU OBSESSIONS

126
Yayoi Kusama, Dots Obsession (2004)
Installation view at Kusamatrix, Mori Art Museum (7/2/2004 - 9/5/2004)
Photo by Masataka Nakano
Courtesy of Mori Art Museum

PERENNIAL FAVOURITE

127
Yukinori Yanagi, Hero Dry Cell "Solar Rock" (2008)
Installation at Inujima Art Project Sereinsho, parts from Yukio Mishima's ex-house in Shoto (three tatami mat room,
vestibule), a single slab of Inujima granite (44 tons), water, Inujima slag, light bulbs, sunlight
Photo by Road Izumiyama
© Yukinori Yanagi
Courtesy of Yukinori Yanagi and Miyake Fine Art

INLAND SEA AMBITIONS

128
Tsuyoshi Ozawa, Vegetable Weapon: Saury Fish Ball Hot Pot / Tokyo (2001)
Type C Print
113 x 156cm
Courtesy of Tsuyoshi Ozawa

ART WEAPONS

129
Makoto Aida, A Picture of an Air Raid on New York City [War Picture Returns] (1996)
six panel sliding screens, hinges, Nihon Keizai Shinbun, black and white photocopy on hologram paper, charcoal pencil,
watercolour, acrylic, magic maker, correction liquid, pencil, etc
169 x 378cm
CG of Zero fighters created by Mutsuo Matsuhashi
photo by Hideto Nagatsuka
© Makoto Aida
Courtesy of Mizuma Art Gallery

AMERICAN DREAM

130
Masato Nakamura, TRAUMATRAUMA (1997)
Installation view at SCAI The Bathhouse (7/11/97 - 14/12/97)
Courtesy of Masato Nakamura and 3331 Arts Chiyoda

CONSUMER IDENTITIES

131
Miwa Yanagi, My Grandomothers / YUKA (2000)
laser jet, text panel
160 x 160cm
Coutesy of Miwa Yanagi and Yoshiko Isshiki Office, Tokyo

FEMININE FANTASY

132
Yutaka Sone, Dice-Toss (2006)
performance curated by Heidi Zuckerman Jacobson, Aspen Art Museum (17/2/2006 -
16/4/2006)
Courtesy of the artist's studio

SNOW KING

133
Tabaimo, public conVENience (2006)
Video installation
© Tabaimo
Courtesy of Gallery Koyanagi

ZERO ZERO GENERATION

134
Chiharu Shiota, Dialogue with Absense (2010)
Installation view
photo by Sunhi Mang
© Chiharu Shiota
Courtesy of Kenji Taki Gallery and the artist's studio

BYE BYE KITTY

135
Miwa Yanagi, Windswept Women 2 (2009)
framed photography
300 x 400cm (with frame)
Courtesy of Miwa Yanagi and Yanagi Yoshiko Isshiki Office, Tokyo

BIG GIRLS

136
Kohei Nawa, PixCell-Deer#24 (2011)
Mixed media
H:205 x W:150 x D:200cm
Photo by Omote Nobutada (Sandwich)
Courtesy of SCAI The Bathhouse

DIGITAL OR ANALOGUE?

137
Kei Takemura, Detail of A.N.'s Living Room in Tokyo: Premonition of an Earthquake (2005)
Italian synthetic cloth, Japanese silk thread, transparency, permanent pen
380 x 1120cm
Courtesy of Kei Takemura (a participant of The Echo at ZAIM, Yokohama 2008)

AFTER THE TSUNAMI

138
 PART FOUR

Art & The City:

How Art Replaced God at the Heart
of Neo-Tokyo

The Tower of Power: The Mori Story

There was a new hope in the air in Tokyo at the turn of the millennium. With
the globalization boom elsewhere in the world, Tokyo’s fortunes as a global
city were finally picking up again, and there was a new wave of urban devel-
opment and building. Moreover, somebody was for a change paying attention
to the arts. Policy makers and urban planners had become alive to internation-
ally fashionable ideas about the “creative city”, and the role that art, museums
and high end culture might play in driving new economic development. There
seemed to be a growing international awareness of new young Japanese art.
More generally, the extraordinary cultural creativity of the 90s was finally
putting Tokyo on the map as a capital of global fashions. In 2000-2001, plans

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 139
were being laid for the first big retrospectives of Yoshitomo Nara and Takashi
Murakami back in Japan after their international breakthrough. Simultane-
ously, the Yokohama Triennial was being seen as a new move to establish
Japan and Tokyo as the global gateway for the Asian art boom just around the
corner. And, above all, the planning of the Mori Art Museum (MAM) atop the
Roppongi Hills complex promised to give Tokyo a world class museum at the
heart of the city. And so, after the gloom and despair of the 1990s, everyone
started to focus attention on the shiny new tower rising over the South West
part of the city…

The anticipation was intense because Minoru Mori, Tokyo’s most powerful
developer, was planning to put the museum at the pinnacle of the new tower:
a trophy location on the 53rd floor of what would become the most visible
building on the Tokyo skyline. The construction would push the very limits
of height regulations in the earthquake prone city. It would cover a prominent
lot totalling a massive 11.6 hectares in a city with intense space restrictions
on new buildings. Like all his previous buildings, Roppongi Hills was a state-
ment about translating prestige and power into architecture; about leaving his
mark on the city.

Unusually, Minoru Mori was a philosopher. Unlike his brother, Akira, who
inherited the other half of the family business, Minoru saw his development
plans in grandiose social terms, as “tools for social betterment”. Their father,
Taikichiro, was said to be the richest man in the world in 1991-2, although he
died the next year. Minoru Mori saw himself as a “builder of cities” and above
all was influenced by the French architect Le Corbusier, whose work as an art-
ist and designer he avidly collected. The development plan for Roppongi Hills
was thus dressed up Le Corbusier style as a social philosophy: an “urban new
deal”, Mori claimed, about reinventing the inner city. It would aim to rebuild
community and culture in locations being vacated by families and the middle
class because of urban decline. Roppongi Hills was visualized as an idealized
high rise oasis in a city where there is very little open public space. It would be

140 PART FOUR

mixed use: with an office tower joined by residential units, a commercial cen-
tre, and leisure facilities that would make it a day and night location.

The Tokyo Metropolitan government was keen on the project because the
grime, poverty and messy sprawl of the old Roppongi neighbourhood, as-
sociated with the sex business and yakuza interests, would be cleaned away.
Roppongi Hills was conceived as a metallic raised space that would feel like
a castle above the city. It could be sealed off, monitored 24 hours a day, kept
clear of homeless or poor people, and would be sliced off from the city around
it by expressways and new metro connections. Prestigious clients were drawn
to the offices – including a Hyatt hotel, and banking firms such as Goldman
Sachs and the Lehman Brothers – and high end residents attracted to live in
the apartments. The Roppongi Hills “tribe” (Hiru zoku) were typically media
stars who represented the new generation of entrepreneurial cultural figures of
the 1980s and 90s – for example, musician Ryuichi Sakamoto and hip hop de-
signer Nigo. The aesthetic of Roppongi Hills was smoothly internationalized;
a statement about Tokyo as a hub of the global economy. Yet Mori saw the
place as an inclusive, universal offering to the city. The notion of public space
was softened by the expensive art and design works that would be placed
around the complex. Culture was thus the key to breathing life into what
would otherwise be a sterile and elite business and commercial development.
“Cutting edge” global artists and designers would be used to replace the tatty
soul of the old city with a new shrine to modernity and the future. It would
inspire the people of Tokyo and those that visit it. And, above it all, in the
clouds, a museum. A place that might bring viewers to worship Neo-Tokyo
from the pinnacle of the city.

The combination of art, redevelopment and tourism has been a familiar theme
in urban planning in recent times. London, for example, did it with the river-
side Tate Modern development. In a few short years, it became the biggest at-
traction in the city. But the draw in this kind of high end location is ultimately
the spectacular art collection that the Tate holds, and its importance as a glob-

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 141
ally renowned museum. The Mori Art Museum was new and did not hold a
great collection. The art it was planning to show would be unfamiliar to most
people who might visit. The logic of Roppongi Hills has therefore been the
reverse. A museum was put in the tower, and given an international mission.
But the masses were also drawn in to see the art shows with a work of human
hands that the museum would find it very difficult to compete with – the view
through the windows on the 52nd floor. This is still the case today. If they are
really lucky, and it is not too windy, visitors can even take a small lift up to
the open-air helicopter pad on the roof. This is the God-like view promised
by the “Tokyo City View” sold to tourists in the foyer. It is a truly sublime
experience, especially at night, not least because there is nothing safe about
being up this high in a building in an earthquake prone region like Tokyo. So
Roppongi Hills became the classic experience of Neo-Tokyo, with its breath-
taking philosophy of no-tomorrows, the source of the city’s restless dynamic.
Live the future now, keep wiping away the past, because nothing may last. All
this was ashes and rubble only a few years ago; it may be so again… Entry to
whatever is on at the museum is basically free after that.

That said, the creation of the Mori Art Museum was a key moment in the at-
tempted internationalization of Japanese contemporary art. A moment when
the street level creativity of the 90s started to crystallize as something sig-
nificant, and intersect with ambitious business and urban development plans
that first Japanese society, then the rest of the world might begin to notice.
Mr Mori was not then a noted art collector or connoisseur, and he wavered
over the kind of art museum he wanted. But the Opera City development in
Hatsudai in the late 90s, which had successfully included a contemporary
art museum, had shown that high culture ambitions could be combined with
commercial goals. Mr Mori was even more ambitious, and for the museum
he encouraged something that was unheard of in the staid Japanese curatorial
world. The committee broke with tradition and scouted out a foreign direc-
tor, someone who would become the very first foreigner to lead a major art
museum in Japan. It was a big hire: the Englishman David Elliott, a renowned

142 PART FOUR

scholarly curator, respected for his work on world art, and with a strong pedi-
gree in Japanese art history. The headhunting searched far and wide. Among
those approached were leading American curators with Japan connections:
Paul Schimmel in LA, and Tom Sokolowski, who had co-curated the one ma-
jor contemporary Japanese show seen in the US during the 1980s, Against Na-
ture, in 1989. But it was David Elliott who accepted the position after several
years in Stockholm. Elliott had played big part in keeping alive an interna-
tional appreciation for Japanese modern and contemporary art in the West. His
early show and catalogue, Reconstructions (1985) at the Museum of Modern
Art in Oxford, was a forerunner of the later survey of post-war Japanese art in
Scream Against the Sky (1994-5). Elliott’s perspective emphasized more the
radical politics of earlier Japanese avant garde movements. At Oxford, where
he had been director, he also played a part in restoring interest in Yoko Ono,
whose serious reputation declined in the years after she married John Lennon,
as well as Yayoi Kusama, who was nearly written off entirely as a crazy old
lady in the 70s and 80s.

Elliott arrived in 2001, with a two year start up phase to establish the mu-
seum. His first achievement was to refuse to accept that it be called an “art
centre”, as Mr Mori envisaged. Elliott insisted from the beginning it had to
be a real museum. It had to be high brow and aim for the global elite, it had
to put on original shows, it had to foster young curatorial and artistic talent,
and it had to collect art (although this only started later). Becoming director
of this museum was not a job to take on lightly, given the notorious hierar-
chical management structures of a typical Japanese corporation, and the pres-
sure of living up to Mr Mori’s vision. There would be the intense difficulty
of dealing culturally with an entire museum staff as a foreigner – even as one
well versed in Japanese art. There would also be the daily pressure of dealing
directly with the Mori family at every step: Mr Mori made his wife, Yoshiko,
the chairperson of the museum’s board. So here was a good test of Tokyo’s
pretensions as a global “creative city”. MAM could recruit the best of inter-
national talent to a key position in the art world, but could it enable them to

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 143
thrive and do what they might do to internationalize the scene and put the
Tokyo art world on the map?

The curators at MAM have always stressed that there was never any pressure
put on them in the choice of art itself. But it was a strange kind of museum.
An army of public relations officers were deployed to manage the museum’s
corporate image. Like any Japanese corporation it was intensely self-con-
scious of its image with the public and the Japanese media. It was obsessed
with knowing all potential measurements of its success in terms of visitors
and media visibility. Mr Mori considered the idea of an art museum a kind
of experiment. Could they make something from elite, high culture popular
and open it up to a broad public? Elliott needed a second-in-command to help
him, and he appointed Fumio Nanjo, arguably the most powerful name in
the Japanese art world. Nanjo was a long time key player on the Japanese art
scene, both through the Japan Foundation where he had worked for years, as
well as his own art management business, Nanjo and Associates. He was also
an ambitious curator and art writer, one of the very few globally recognized
names from Japan. He had made a name for himself at the Venice Biennale,
and also through involvement in the successful Against Nature touring show.
Unusually, though, Fumio Nanjo was somewhat an outsider to the academic
Japanese curatorial system. He had a background in politics and finance, and
his company was better known for its involvement in art buying and redevel-
opment schemes, as well as various public art projects that were a forerunner
to the public art installations at Roppongi Hills that became a signature. Nanjo
and Associates also cultivated a roster of younger curators in Nanjo’s image,
and some of these came in to fill junior curatorial positions at Mori. One of
the other key hires was Mami Kataoka, an ambitious young female curator
from Opera City, which had pioneered the slick combination of popular art
and aggressive corporate sponsorship.

Elliott recognized immediately that communication at Mori needed revamp-

ing. As an assistant, he brought in Edan Corkill, an exceptionally articulate

144 PART FOUR

Curator and Art Producer Fumio Nanjo, director of Mori Art Museum. Courtesy of Mori Art Museum.

Curator David Elliott, former director of Mori Art Curator Mami Kataoka, chief curator at Mori
Museum. Courtesy of David Elliott. Art Museum. Courtesy of Mori Art Museum.

MORI ART MUSEUM CURATORS

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 145
and energetic Australian, and editor of the longstanding online newsletter,
Japanese Art Scene Monitor. The curators at the Mori Art Museum also faced
problems over and above the unusual corporate management context, and the
never ending pressure to make money or score high visitor numbers. There
were basic issues with putting massive – and sometimes extraordinarily ex-
pensive – art works up at the top of a very high building. With Mori’s connec-
tions, insurance was not said to be a big problem, although this was a point
of financial vulnerability. The logistics, though, could be highly complex.
Although it had a designated lift for art works, for some of the bigger gallery
construction materials the museum had to share the Tower’s one big central
elevator with all the other prestigious clients in the building. It was a 24 hour
building, and everything required careful scheduling, and the museum’s needs
were often not top priority.

The two year initial planning period saw Elliott upturning carts and galvaniz-
ing energies for the opening of the museum. Initially, the museum was al-
lowed to incorporate the two floors, integrating the city view into the presenta-
tion of the art works to stunning effect. The first show, Happiness: A Survival
Guide for Art and Life, opened with the museum in October 2003, six months
after the opening of the Roppongi Hills complex. A tour de force from Elliott
as a curator, it showed off his signature style, juxtaposing a panorama of tra-
ditional Asian arts with the best of contemporary global art to pose historical
and philosophical questions. A huge 730,000 entrants are said to have visited
the show, which gained great media exposure for the museum locally but also
unusually serious global art world coverage for a Japanese event. As a presen-
tation it made an important statement about the globalization of art and how
to transcend Western art chronologies and categories.

Next up came the first Roppongi Crossing (2004), designed as a review of

the best of Japanese art of the last three years. Although not quite envisaged
to emulate the Turner Prize in Great Britain, the selection functions similarly
as a way of singling out periodically emerging Japanese artists, to underline

146 PART FOUR

their importance in Japan and their potential impact internationally. There is
both a public voted prize and one selected by curators each time. The show
is absolutely central to MAM’s mission, and the first one represented a high
point, with a strong selection of artists and a self-confident message from
the museum about its new role in the Tokyo art scene. Coupled with a Yayoi
Kusama show on the floor below, it kept strong media attention on the mu-
seum. Kusama’s famous red polka dot installations were blended with the city
view at night, and spread all over the Roppongi Hills complex as a tantaliz-
ing art virus. This show in particular was a huge hit with the public. Kusama
became a regular favourite with Roppongi Hills, developing her visibility as a
brand with products and sales. As with Takashi Murakami, who played a simi-
lar role for Roppongi Hills, the artwork-as-branding blurred the line between
art experience and commerce, and might cheapen the experience of the art. It
was never clear the audience could tell the difference.

The opening of Roppongi Hills was part of a spatial realignment of high cul-
ture in the city around the Roppongi area. This was quite an achievement for
a part of the city mostly identified with red light night clubs and the enter-
tainment industry for foreign corporate clients. This was all still there, but a
new Roppongi Arts Triangle and, later, an integrated annual Arts Night was
promoted to link Roppongi Hills with the newly opening National Art Cen-
tre Tokyo and the upcoming Tokyo Midtown complex with a traditional arts
museum, the Suntory Museum, and the new design-focused 21_21 DESIGN
SIGHT museum. The NACT was the classic “white elephant” public develop-
ment project: a fantastic piece of architecture that has been underused for seri-
ous art exhibitions, and instead mostly used to house the nitten art competi-
tions for the traditional system of iemoto art schools, in which amateur artists
follow the training of an established traditional or modernist art master.

Minoru Mori certainly entertained other, international aspirations, for the

Mori Art Museum. He was also prepared to work with the Tokyo gallery
world. At the wedding party for Mariko Mori, Atsuko Koyanagi planted the

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 147
idea with him of creating an alternative art space in the area, as a way of back-
ing up the Museum’s serious credentials, and linking it to visiting interna-
tional buyers. He then offered the gallerists a battered old building down the
hill from Roppongi crossing, which became the Complex building, opening
in April 2003. Koyanagi suggested it to the several gallerists that couldn’t be
offered spaces in Tomio Koyama’s planned new Kiyosumi building. After a
basic refit of the rough four storey space, the new tenants included several key
symbolically important players in the art world, including Ota Fine Arts, who
still represented Yayoi Kusama, and Tsutomu Ikeuchi’s Röntgen, still pursu-
ing edgy crossover art. There was also the fast upcoming younger gallerist,
Hiromi Yoshii, who had strong New York connections.

Yoshii thought there needed to be a more alternative non-commercial side to

the place, getting together with a group of key art world figures to open the
Magical Art Room. This group included collector and psychologist Satoshi
Okada, the Kyoto academic Shigeo Goto, well known art writer Kentaro Ichi-
hara, and the Enlightenment designer/artist Hiro Sugiyama. Again, this was a
key moment in encouraging new grass roots to emerge. It was all motivated by
Hiromi Yoshii’s melodramatic “After the Reality” philosophy. After the shock
of seeing 9/11 in New York on television, he had the feeling that something
needed to be put back into the art system to help younger artists do something
meaningful and emotional again: to not to just stare blankly at the void. There
was a peculiar transference going here as often in the US dominated post-
war Japan. The indulgent identification with the pain of New York became
a metaphor of the psychological anguish of the decadent, declining Japan,
now decentered even from a leading role in Asia. The partners did not invest
equally in the idea. Over time, only Satoshi Okada, one of the most important
collectors of new young Japanese art, really stuck with the vision. Yet Magical
Art Room exceeded its expectations, and became a source of new young art
discoveries, owing much to the dynamism of its manager, a young art theory
student from Kyoto, Haruka Ito.

148 PART FOUR

Art Writer Chie Sumiyoshi. Courtesy of Chie Sumiyoshi.

Night time view of Traumaris bar, mid 2000s. Courtesy of Chie Sumiyoshi.

TRAUMARIS

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 149
The Complex building also became a focal point for the art scene for another
reason. It had a bar. Okada and (intially) Yoshii owned this part, opening the
bar with Chie Sumiyoshi, a noted art journalist and urban culture flaneur, who
cultivated an underground, backstreet bar atmosphere. Traumaris, as she called
it, became a special late night oasis for the Japanese art world to mingle in,
with Sumiyoshi presiding over off-the-record talk and gossip. Visiting inter-
national artists and curators would also drop by, staying late into the morning;
David Elliott was a regular. There were frequent avant garde music and perfor-
mance events. Traumaris became another crucial hub of the social network.

Daikanyama was the other key place on the map, not far away to the West.
Complex encouraged Tomio Koyama and Atsuko Koyanagi to open a small
viewing gallery so that visitors would not have to spend so much time in taxis
darting across town to disconnected places. A key player in this respect, was
Johnnie Walker, a legendary cosmopolitan figure of the scene with his massive
wolfhound Bacon, who founded an art foundation with hedge funds based in
nearby Yoyogi to try to kick start corporate interest in Japanese art. He would
be the one chaperoning key foreign collectors around the galleries, or warm-
ing them up for sales at openings. Daikanyama also housed the offices of the
two major art project development companies, headed by the rivals Fumio
Nanjo and Fram Kitagawa. Nanjo helped launch there the non-profit Arts Ini-
tiative Tokyo in 2002, an alternative art school and location for foreign art res-
idencies. And just around the corner, in Kami Meguro, was Mizuma gallery.
This became the other key local hot spot of the early 2000s, with its buzzing
social openings, and a Friday night late bar organized among others by the
now Mujin-to Production gallerist, Rika Fujiki, that would sometimes spill
on over to the warren of drinking bars at the Golden Gai in Shinjuku. With
Makoto Aida and the extrovert photographer Hiroyuki Matsukage always
competing for attention at the centre of things, the spirit of the Showa 40 nen
kai lived on. Again, David Elliott was often there too, soaking up the best of
the local scene, hooking up and swapping ideas with others who might drop

150 PART FOUR

in. 2001 is often mentioned as the key year. To the outside world, and even the
Japanese popular media, the return home in 2001 of the internationally suc-
cessful Takashi Murakami and Yoshitomo Nara seemed to be the big story: it
was “the year of Narakami”, they said. But from the point of view of the in-
ner Tokyo art world, it was Mizuma and, a little later, Traumaris – the social
world hosted by the so-called “glamour girls” who organized the events – that
was the real hot bed of the early 2000s. This was a new golden period of cre-
ativity for the galleries and the artists connected to it.

Embedded in this exciting new local scene, Roppongi Hills got off to a good
start. The first half dozen or so shows planned under David Elliott had a big
impact, including a major show for Hiroshi Sugimoto, an important show
for Tsuyoshi Ozawa, and an international touring show Africa Remix. Elliott
enjoyed a full remit over shows in the first three years of the museum, but
as his contract neared an end, there was no longer a consensus about future
planning. Both Fumio Nanjo and Mami Kataoka were keen to take over more
curatorial leadership. Financial pressures were mounting from the family.
The Moris suggested Eliott might move into a more advisory role. They also
wanted him to be involved in developing a new museum in China. Elliott de-
cided not to accept, and Nanjo – who had very good relations with the Moris
– moved into the leadership of the museum in October 2006, completing his
ascent to power in the Tokyo art world.

The ending of the Elliott period is shrouded in a kind of glum silence among
all parties. Art journalist Lucy Birmingham remembers it as the moment when
the hopes of the early 2000s faded. Elliott decided to move on from Japan.
Other leading curators who were brought in to Mori found themselves unable
to work there comfortably for the corporation, including Eriko Osaka, who
later became director at Yokohama Museum of Art. The nature of the shows
over time subtly changed, giving more emphasis to corporate sponsored exhi-
bitions that pleased the public and reduced the space for the art: fancy goldfish
shows or designers cars, for example, as well as more space for an expensive

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 151
café. The 52nd floor was given more priority. The Mori family wanted to see
more architecture and design featured in shows, a broader public appeal.
Despite the positive numbers always claimed to visit the museum – includ-
ing about 10% non-Japanese – it was never clear how many were really there
for the art. There were more secondary touring shows. The curators at MAM
became nervous about how long the Mori family would continue to bankroll
contemporary art. It was said that the museum, which was always going to be
a kind of loss-leader for the corporation, was in fact losing about ¥9-10 mil-
lion a year. David Elliott meanwhile adopted a more roving identity as a glob-
al curator. However, his next move, to Istanbul, working for a powerful family
with a big art museum, didn’t work out. He felt he had a lack of support and
curatorial independence, and quickly decided to resign.

The 2007 and 2010 Roppongi Crossings both made a concerted attempt to get
back the mojo for the tower. Noi Sawaragi was one of the guest curators invit-
ed in 2007, and it was a good selection. Sawaragi contextualized new young
artists in terms of key antecedents from an older generation. Allegations of
nepotism, however, hung over the show. Three artists were selected from the
gallery of Noi Sawaragi’s wife, Yuko Yamamoto, and none from several major
Tokyo galleries. Tomio Koyama, in particular, was furious. The three curators
made their own choices with little coordination or focus. In 2010, an empha-
sis on street art and fashionable graphic designers brought in a large crowd.
The show was curated by the MAM insider, Kenichi Kondo, and two strong
minded independent curators, Kenji Kubota and Chieko Kinoshita. Although
reduced in size, it was a better coordinated show, focused around the legacy
of the legendary 80s/90s performance art group from Kyoto, Dumb Type. It
provided an important piece of art history and was a serious reflection on the
purpose of art in Japan at the end of the 2000s. But it was a show with a per-
vasive introspective feeling: of Japan talking to itself.

By the end of the 2000s, the most telling thing about Roppongi Crossing
events were the press conferences. There was always a good showing of Japa-

152 PART FOUR

nese journalists, anxious to find some scandal to write about. They would
typically seek to oppose the outlandish curators with the good taste of the
public, corporate sponsors, or the Mori family. But in a crowded press room,
politely listening to Fumio Nanjo’s introductions, there were now only ever
two or three Caucasian faces. Interest in the Mori Art Museum internationally
over the years melted away. By 2011, there was barely any coverage of events
there in the dominant world art press, such as Art Forum or Frieze, and the
magazines wouldn’t send anyone to cover openings. A more obvious com-
mercialism, targeted at the still large potential Japanese audiences, seemed the
only obvious path. Roppongi changed. The Complex building was shut down
at the end of 2007 as a prelude to a commercial redevelopment of the build-
ing. Other galleries that were part of the spatial realignment towards Rop-
pongi moved away again from the neighbourhood. Tokyo gallerists started to
remind foreign visitors that MAM might also be worth checking out.

Still, the expensive opening parties would go on for shows at the museum.
They took place in a spectacular room on the 52nd floor, with a massive glass
window overlooking the city. Mrs Mori would come out and make her usual
speech about how she didn’t understand the art, how it all seemed a bit rude
and provocative in fact, but that she was sure it was important. The audience
would politely clap and get another drink. It was the one time when nearly all
the Tokyo art world would be gathered in one room. All except Takashi Mu-
rakami and Yoshitomo Nara, that is, who would never show. Everyone knew
that for all the fine words by Mr Nanjo about the global art scene, this was
not the same as being part of it. By 2011, the Japanese art world didn’t seem
to mind that the West was no longer looking. There have always been enough
bright and beautiful people in the Tokyo art scene to make it feel important
enough: especially when the champagne flowed, and the red lights and neon
twinkled over the void. At Mori openings, there was always plenty enough
of them to have a good time, and to talk, nostalgically perhaps, about the 90s
– when they were young and things were hot in Tokyo. But when the doors

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 153
shut, and everyone would be cleared out on the dot at 10pm, a troubling ques-
tion would remain: Had they really been close to God, or had they just lost
their soul?

Yokohama: From Triennial to Debacle

The second arm of the much longed for internationalization of contemporary
art in Japan at the turn of the century was the attempt to establish the Yoko-
hama Triennial as a major global art event. On the face of it Japan was already
a little late to the biennial/triennial game, given that the first Yokohama event
only opened in the autumn of 2001. There had already been major art events
established in Shanghai in 1996, Taipei in 1998, and Busan, South Korea in
1998, each a part of the late 1990s rash of art triennials that were one of the
major symptoms of the globalization of art in this period. Ostensibly part of
a decentering of the art world away from the West, they became a vehicle by
which dominant Western trends set by famous curators found ways of com-
mercially absorbing non-Western art into a dominant Western theoretical
discourse. They have been colonial operations, in other words. Biennials and
triennials rose with the role of the freelance global independent curator. In the
1990s and 2000s, the prototype for this was the Swiss curator Hans-Ulrich
Obrist. As a group, socialized together by curatorial programmes in the free
moving global 90s, this cadre of younger curators seized leadership of the
global art world. Released from the frustrations of running fixed museums,
they became roving art intellectuals and impresarios. They could make and
break the careers of their favourite artists, worked with gallerists and collec-
tors to oil major deals or put value on new discoveries, and collaborated with
cities to turn contemporary art into big commercial events aimed at tourists.

Even if late, there was unquestionably a demand at this time for Tokyo as a
location for a major global art event. This was not unlike the demand, as yet
unquenched, for a commercial international art fair in Tokyo worthy of the
name. Tokyo has always sat in a potentially pivotal position between East

154 PART FOUR

and West. Japan is, after all, the place where many Westerners learned how to
do business in Asia, even if they started moving on after 1990. The talk for a
long time in the 1990s was to compete with Asian rivals by launching a Tokyo
based event. Fumio Nanjo describes the whole process as a “bungled oppor-
tunity”. In the late 1990s, the Tokyo Metropolitan government cut down the
budget for the arts and severed the idea. At the time, the city didn’t even have
a serious art fair. The focus of the idea moved on to Yokohama, where a new
young mayor, Hiroshi Nakada, saw the idea of major art event as a potential
keystone of his enthusiasm for new ideas about the creative city.

In the last few decades, Yokohama became an upstart rival city to Tokyo. It is
proud of its international connections, as the first port to the West in the mod-
ern era, and a long term host of the American military. Only 30 minutes train
ride out of Shibuya, it feels like a new city (it is Japan’s second largest now)
with a brand new spacious waterfront/downtown that makes Tokyo feel dated
and claustrophobic. Yet underneath the shiny service and finance sector driven
growth and construction of the 90s, there was a declining industrial port town,
with some of worst examples of poverty and urban decline in Japan. Art came
to the service of both upper end development projects and lower end social
welfare work.

The adoption of the Triennial

was part of a move by the city
to gain control over the port and
seafront at Yokohama, whose
political jurisdiction has always
been separate. The idea was to
turn the waterfront into a kind
of touristic arts park, with the
Triennial and regular art events
Yokohama waterfront and Minato Mirai. Photo by author. at its heart. This in turn would
YOKOHAMA TRIENNIAL
converge with the ongoing de-

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 155
velopment of the shiny new Minato Mirai district. The impressive Yokohama
Museum of Art there would become a central part of this activity, with the
influential role of long time chief curator Taro Amano, a powerful figure on
the Japanese art scene, and one of the few to directly articulate a social and
political role for art. Yokohama also put money into developing alternative art
centres in disused buildings – with space and resources for younger artists and
independent art professionals – at two sites called BankArt and the now de-
funct ZAIM. And it sought to use art as a tool of social policy, bringing it in as
part of a gentrification effort in Koganecho and Kotobukicho, two of the least
savoury examples of urban squalor in Japan. Here run down homeless doss
houses, or seedy nomiya (small restaurants) in an area of prostitution once
controlled by the yakuza were renovated and turned into accommodation for
young artists, as well as hosting regular community art festivals. The mantra
promoted by Yokohama officials was the “creative city”: the idea that culture
and the arts can lead to economic development, as well as be used to rebrand
a city internationally.

Four Japanese directors were brought in to lead the first Triennial in 2001:
Nobuo Nakamura, Fumio Nanjo, Akira Tatehata and Shinji Kohmoto. It was
an arrangement that no one was happy with, and it led to arguments. Still, the
tense dynamics produced a comprehensive selection that worked to genuinely
decentre the usual Western art festival paradigm. Yokohama 2001 was the first
truly Asian triennial not directed by Western curators or colonial ideas. Nor
did it reflect Western financial interests or sponsorship. There was a large bulk
of Japanese artists, an excellent selection of emerging artists from elsewhere
in Asia, and Western artists were chosen to fit in with the whole rather than as
leaders for the Asians to follow. The Japanese artists were the dominant selec-
tions, and they rose to the event: a reflection of how strong Japanese art had
become in the 1990s. Original Group 1965 members, Makoto Aida, Tsuyoshi
Ozawa, and Yutaka Sone were all there. The show introduced the brilliant Ber-
lin based installation artist Chiharu Shiota; there was an early showing for the

156 PART FOUR

still very young animated video artist Tabaimo, as well as photographer Miwa
Yanagi’s best work, My Grandmothers (1999 and after). Older heavyweights,
such as the classically stylish photographer Hiroshi Sugimoto and installation
artist Noboru Tsubaki added strong work. And the selection built continuity
with the Japanese avant garde tradition: the key figures of social/performance
artists Genpei Akasegawa and Tatsumi Orimoto represented. The academic
minded Akira Tatehata, in particular, was one of the very few Japanese cura-
tors with the sufficient international experience to make the presentation work
for visitors. His career defining moment was the resurrection of Yayoi Kusama
he effected by insisting on her presenting solo at the Japanese pavilion in Ven-
ice in 1993.

Fumio Nanjo, though, was the lynchpin. His connections with the Japan
Foundation secured its support. He brought his corporate knowledge to the
questions of sponsorship, and his logistics knowhow to the public art presen-
tations. Moreover, he had a clear vision that saw this as a strategic move to
put Japan at the heart of Asia, and to lead the Asian art boom from the front. It
was an unusual investment for the Japan Foundation: a big scale, costly event
held in Japan when their mission is usually more narrowly defined as a foreign
diplomacy effort to promote Japanese culture in other locations. Yet Fumio
Nanjo’s vision was essentially Japan Foundation policy, as they were shifting
their efforts to spreading Japanese cultural influence in Asia, in the name of
“multiculturalism”. There were ideas of Japanese brokerage, and leadership as
a power balance to China behind this, as well as older notions of its civilizing
mission. One key idea that during these years quietly shaped curators careers
in Japan was the Japan Foundation’s promotion of Asian curatorial networks
– again, with Nanjo a central figure, cultivating an alternative, yet still global,
perspective on art from the East.

It was Autumn 2001; a highpoint for Japanese contemporary art. David Elliott
had just moved to join the Mori Art Museum, and the new Triennial coincided
with Murakami at MOT in Tokyo, and Nara at the Yokohama Museum of Art.

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 157
There was a genuine excitement in Japan about the event as a two-way door
opening to the world. The city was a good host, and they used the waterfront
location like a classier version of the Venice Arsenale, with a multitude of
events around the city. The event was a big success: over 300,000 visitors,
including a lot of foreigners, but also a significant, serious global art media
impact. The world, for once, was watching.

The second Triennial was projected for 2004. With the Mori Art Museum
opening just around the corner, and the global art world wondering if they
were witnessing the birth of new global art capital, Arata Isozaki, the celebrat-
ed Japanese architect, was put in charge. Isozaki, for sure, was one of the most
powerful figures in the creative field in Japan. An internationally established
architect since the 1980s, he for a long time dominated much public architect
projects in Japan, as a key broker for many of the biggest public works since
the 1960s, as well as a dominant influence on a school of young followers.
There was a thought – a good one – of linking contemporary art with Japan’s
creative ace in the pack: its international reputation for contemporary archi-
tecture. The Japan Foundation was delighted. Architecture has always been
at the heart of its mission, and there was much to be proud of. The economic
downturn of the early 90s, and the subsequent ending of lots of big architec-
tural contracts, had sent a new generation of younger architects back to the
study and drawing board. They invented a non-monumental, domestic scale
architecture for the 21st century, with ideas about sustainability, new materials,
and a new experience of space at the fore. This was the roster of names who
would emerge as world leaders during the decade: Toyo Ito, Jun Aoki, Shigeru
Ban, Kazuyo Sejima and Ryue Nishizawa (SANAA), Atelier Bow Wow, Ju-
nya Ishigami.

The possibilities sounded brilliant, but it was not to be. It would take nearly
another ten years before the creative potential of Japanese art and archicture
together would be seen on the world stage: at the extraordinary Venice Archi-
tectural Biennale curated by Kazuyo Sejima in 2010. Yokohama 2004 was a

158 PART FOUR

great lost opportunity. As Fumio Nanjo points out, too much uncertainty has
dogged all the Triennials. The city was unable to commit to a specific loca-
tion, or make timely decisions. The Japan Foundation wavered continually
over funding. Notoriously, it is an organization whose personnel are constant-
ly changing, its hierarchies are slow and old fashioned, and it is not always
comfortable working with foreigners. The planning for 2004 soon began to
run into problems, with difficulties over projected costs with the Japan Foun-
dation, and the two primary sponsors, the public television channel, NHK, and
the newspaper Asahi Shimbun. A delay was announced – to 2005. But the real
conflicts emerged over Isozaki’s vision and his relationship with contemporary
art. He launched plans for the show, with art pavilions sponsored by foreign
foundations. It would be an architecture-oriented event that would remove
curators entirely from the organization, and cut the event off from the Tokyo
contemporary art world. At a tempestuous public meeting in December 2004,
organized by Tama Art University students at Bank Art, with panelists repre-
senting the royalty of Japanese art power – Yuko Hasegawa, Fram Kitagawa,
Fumio Nanjo, and Akira Tatehata – there was an argument over these plans.
Isozaki accused curators of hubris and of colluding with gallerists to place
artists in events for commercial purposes, and caring for nothing except their
egos. Nanjo accused Isozaki of being out of touch with the art world. A young
member of the audience asked what Isozaki knew anyway about curation, and
the meeting descended into a shouting match. It was a debacle. In the next
days, Isozaki resigned spectacularly after the city refused to allow him to de-
lay the event another year to 2006. He left a half prepared Triennial, a huge
bill, and with the reputation of the event in tatters.

To some extent, the situation did inspire some fresh thinking. The respected
installation artist Tadashi Kawamata was put in charge, and he announced an
improvized “work in progress” style Triennial, that would build on his own
mainly Japanese networks to inspire a more in situ event the following year.
The event was artistically interesting, but cut off from its international aspira-

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 159
tions, and with the cloud of its history over it, there was a low public turnout.
The second Triennial was thus widely perceived as a shambles. The networks
problem returned: the show was not taken seriously internationally, largely
because international names were not involved. The debacle unleashed too a
typically Japanese orgy of self-defeating critique and reflection. Meanwhile,
the global art world, with its limited attention span, was quick to move to
the much more forthcoming and generously sponsored Chinese and Korean
events, where Western curators would be allowed to call the shots. What
chance Japan had to become the gateway to Asia was lost.

The Yokohama Triennial had to do something to restore its face. In 2008, it ap-
pointed another local curator, Tsutomu Mizusawa, a respected but conservative
curator from Kamakura–Hayama Museum. Art world folk in Tokyo muttered
that he was not up to the job. Version 3.0 became the product of a lot of hands,
a nicely produced package with varied content – but the concept was Mizu-
sawa’s. “Time crevasse” was the slightly awkward English title, a poor transla-
tion for something that meant more “outside of time/space” or “time pocket”
in Japanese. In English a crevasse is a crevasse – a crack in the snow. The jour-
nalists at the press conference joked that he should have called it “black hole”.
Mizusawa defended his title, which could have been used brilliantly if it had
been translated properly. But he was not in control of much. The Triennial had
gone for a committee approach, matching junior Japanese curators with an all
star foreign cast who knew nothing about the Japanese art scene. It was domi-
nated by the two big Europeans: Hans-Ulrich Obrist and Daniel Birnbaum.
They were veterans of the colonial operation in China, and Obrist brought in a
friend from the Center for Contemporary Art (CCA) in Kyushu, Akiko Miyake,
to cover Japan. She was a Japanese curator of the other kind: an international-
ist with global education, for whom all contemporary Japanese art is but a pale
and distant shadow of the world’s centre in New York, London or Berlin. The
Kita Kyushu Center is a money making centre which over the years has spent
a lot inviting over foreign curators such as Obrist to educate fee paying Japa-

160 PART FOUR

nese about global art. The Triennial committee collectively was determined
that absolutely no Asian related logic should be allowed in the selection: it was
the 180º reverse of Fumio Nanjo’s strategy from 2001. The event might as well
have been taking place in Zurich as in Yokohama.

Tsutomu Mizusawa, the chairman, was resolutely anti-political, so refused

to allow any kind of city related dimension into the event. He distanced him-
self and the Triennial from Yokohama creative city philosophy, and pursued
a wilfully elitist line about the art chosen. It immediately drew a lot of local
media criticism, and created bad relations with the city. Taro Amano at Yoko-
hama Museum of Art picked up the slack, organising a series of counterpoint
art events and funding for local community action. Amano had radical ideas
about using his museum as a 24 hour space, building on local social and po-
litical activism, even letting the homeless sleep over there. His events were
like fringe events, and actually generated a good deal of interesting art around
the city at the time of the Triennial, even though much of it was not formally
linked to the main event.

The selection – from a Japanese point of view – was not inspired. Hans-Ulrich
Obrist and Daniel Birnbaum dominated in an off-hand way. Obrist talked
about changing the “rules of the game” – his pet theme for the year – but the
choice of a Triennial based on time and space specific “performance” was a
tired repetition of global trends everywhere. The Triennial was forced to face
up in shame to its lack of pulling power – it could not even get the selected
artists to take the event seriously. One famous American, Matthew Barney,
posted in a DVD, which was shown in desultory fashion high on a screen in
an uncomfortable small room. Another, Mike Kelly, refused to use the space
he was given and in the end an old piece was desperately borrowed from a
collector to half-fill it. Cao Fei, the hot Chinese selection, sent in a video
game machine that sat in a corridor. The spaces in the purpose built main
gallery were ugly pre-fabricated white boxes, whereas previous shows had
worked creatively with existing industrial locations in the port.

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 161
The message the 2008 Triennial gave to the Tokyo art world, meanwhile, was
a big kiss off. Young Japanese artists and all the Tokyo contemporary galler-
ies, not unreasonably felt locked out of the event. There was nothing to relate
to in the relentlessly elitist, Eurocentric discourse emanating from the cura-
tors. But it was a successful Triennial for visitors. Good weather drew a lot
of Japanese visitors, despite difficulties with the performance based presenta-
tion of many events, which meant they had to be there at the right time and
place to catch some of its key moments. Internationally, though, it attracted
virtually no attention. Its “success” thus fell into the dangerous category that
has always measured success in Japan according to how well international
contemporary art is introduced to a Japanese audience – that is, as a second-
ary, receptive role – rather than how well new Japanese art is introduced to
an international audience – the big impact of 2001. For a long while, doubts
hung over the next Triennial – its funding, its viability, its location, its whole
raison d’être in a packed global art calender. Meanwhile, a new mayor, Fu-
miko Hayashi, had come to power. She was more of a traditional business
operator, and seemed less interested in the political or economic uses of art
and creativity.

After Yokohama 2008, Mizusawa went back to his position in Hayama and
Miyake back to her outpost in Kita Kyushu. Obrist and Birnbaum meanwhile
moved on to their next breathless engagement around the planet, having
learned next to nothing about Japan and Japanese art in the process. Already
late in 2010, it was announced that the 2011 would be taken on by Eriko
Osaka, who was now the director of the Yokohama Museum of Art. The Japan
Foundation had withdrawn funding, and the city would take on full respon-
sibility for the event. Even the waterfront location would be left behind, for
something based only in existing art buildings and museums. In ten short
years, the Yokohama Triennial had gone from being a big open swinging door
to the world to an obscure dot on the global art map.

162 PART FOUR

What are Contemporary Art Museums in Japan Really For?
Contemporary art in Japan has not been well served by its public museums.
They were very slow to represent the new trends that swept through Japanese
contemporary art in the 90s. They were too slow to buy the works of emerg-
ing Japanese artists. When they started to acquire Takashi Murakami and Yo-
shitomo Nara, for instance, they were already too expensive.

Not that there has been any shortage of museums. The 80s bubble years were
characterized by a rash of museum building all over the country. Every mu-
nicipality had to have one, preferably designed by an A-list Japanese architect.
They were part of the many log-rolling and pork-barrelling public construc-
tion schemes that had driven rapid development of the country in the post-war
period. Cities and private patrons of the arts also needed to put somewhere
their wickedly expensive bubble period acquisitions, which were mostly Wes-
term modern art classics – all those Rodin sculptures, or Van Gogh and Monet
paintings, for which they paid too much money. These were lavish museums
with stunning collections – even if, in some cases, it wasn’t always sure if
the origins of the art had been adequately certified as genuine. Another part
of the old dealer system was to take the transactions on trust. To question the
work being sold was a matter of shame, as well as financially ruinous. Some
minor public museums in Japan have very strange collections on display – of
long lost “Picassos” and “Giacomettis”. In any case, many of the long planned
schemes for building new museums continued well into the 90s until the pub-
lic money dried up. What is likely to be last municipal museum in a long line,
in fact, opened in Okinawa in 2007.

The first real contemporary art museum in Japan only opened in Hiroshima
in 1989, followed quickly by Yokohama (1989) and Mito (1990). During
the next decade, many other municipal museums opened as part of the ur-
ban development plans of major cities. Important among these have been
Toyota Museum (1998), Sendai Mediathèque (2001), Kanazawa 21st Century

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 163
Museum of Art (2004), the refit of Osaka National Museum (2004) and, of
course, the Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo (MOT), which opened in
1995 in Kiyosumi.

In the 1990s, it was Art Tower Mito, with its iconic tower designed by Arata
Isozaki, which led the way in experimentation. Daring shows by two of the
young original 90s Geidai gang, Yuko Hasegawa and Shin Kurosawa (who
she recruited) are well remembered. Over the years, it has continued to be a
“curator incubator”, as one of its products, Mizuki Endo, calls it. During the
1990s and 2000s, though, the contemporary art scene was led much more ob-
viously by the private museums. Long before Mori Art Museum appeared on
the horizon, the Hara Museum (in
Tokyo and Gunma) – financed
by the Foundation Arc-en-Ciel
and which showcases the collec-
tions of industrialist Toshio Hara
– had a long history of important
shows, including Japanese artists.
Two famous international touring
shows of Japanese contemporary
art, A Primal Spirit (1990-1)
and Photography and Beyond in
Japan (1995-7), originated here.
They were shows that helped es-
tablish important Japanese sculp-
tors and photographers from the
1980s internationally. The Hara
Museum also played a key part
in the careers of Tatsuo Miyajima
Curator Kenji Kubota. one of the products of the Mito "curator
and Yoshitomo Nara, for whom it
incubator", now independent. Courtesy of Kenji Kubota.
has permanent installations, and
MITO ART TOWER CURATORS

164 PART FOUR

Japan’s biggest young new star, Tabaimo, whose early solo show here in 2003
(aged 28) had a huge impact. Two years after Hara, the opening of the Watari
Museum in 1990, again inspired by a rare Japanese contemporary art collec-
tor, Etsuko Watari, provided another key art space in Tokyo. Both these mu-
seums had programmes and acquisitions policies free of the restrictions that
hold back municipal museums.

Akira Tatehata, who became director of Osaka National Museum of Art

before moving to direct the top art school in the Kansai region, Kyoto City
University of the Arts, has an acute analysis of these problems. One thing he
points to is the inability of curators working at museums to make aggressive
bids for works when they become available. In the US, a quick phone call
by the curator would be enough to secure funds to buy an expensive work.
In Japan, before decisions can
be made it sometimes has to go
back to a museum committee,
or maybe even seek approval
from government bureaucrats. To
some extent, the lean years that
started in the late 1990s for mu-
nicipal museums were a reaction
against the profligacy of the high
spending 1980s. The Museum
of Contemporary Art, Tokyo, for
example had no money whatso-
ever for new acquisitions for five
years at the start of the 2000s.
There had been a huge scandal
when they paid $6 million for a
Curator Akira Tatehata, in front of the National Museum of Art, Roy Lichtenstein pop art painting
Osaka. Courtesy of Akira Tatehata.
– although this has proven a bar-
KANSAI ART POWER

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 165
gain in time. But when Hiroshima opened in 1989, in contrast, it had a very
free hand to build an impressive modern collection.

The problems that this can lead to were brilliantly demonstrated in an exhibi-
tion of the Hiroshima collection in late 2007 by curator Kenji Kubota, called
Money Talks. Kubota was another ex-Mito curator, a free thinking indepen-
dent, who also had an unusual background in the finance world. Kubota’s idea
was to place the works room by room in order of how expensive the works
were. The early “cheap” rooms were characterized by a series of smart acqui-
sitions when the museum bought something special – for example, a Keith
Haring or a Yoko Ono – before prices were rising. As the prices went up, the
art works matched the skyrocketing budget of the museum during the boom
years, and there were more obscure works. At its most flush in the early 1990s
– before the economic depression set in – the museum made a number of
spectacular acquisitions that have either proven brilliant, if expensive, invest-
ments – a Warhol, for example – or complete disasters, artists whose prices
ballooned and then burst after the 1980s, such as Julian Schnabel. Soon after,
from the mid 1990s, they had no money at all to spend, not even on cheap
Japanese artists. The quality of the collection collapsed.

MOT in Tokyo was from the beginning under intense pressure from the Tokyo
City Government. Located in Kiyosumi, a difficult to find area in the East of
Tokyo, it has always struggled to attract the public. Like all the Tokyo muse-
ums, it has been vulnerable to the criticisms of politicians and the whims of
bureaucrats. For example, curators are public employees, who each year can
face being rotated to another museum, with no choice in the matter. When the
then Governor of Tokyo, Shunichi Suzuki, visited the inaugural show at MOT
in 1995, the curators covered up the erotic photography by Araki, in case
there would be offense. In most advanced countries, it would be expected of
the major public institutions that they show challenging, even provocative art.
In Japan, the curators are accused by the politicians of “mental masturbation”.
This was the verdict of the famous writer Shintaro Ishihara, when he came to

166 PART FOUR

power as Governor of Tokyo in 1999. He had a strong conservative agenda,
and MOT was immediately targeted for attack. The budget was slashed and
the staff reduced. In 2002, he installed as director, Seiichiro Ujiie, a 75 year
old TV company president, who launched a plan for the museum to hold ex-
hibitions of sports cars and Japanese baseball. The museum became a kind of
joke in the art world. To this day, it has to rely on manga exhibitions – Hayao
Miyazaki and Ghibli are the favourite – to get enough visitors to cover it for
more serious shows.

MOT like nearly all the famous museums and art centres in Japan boasts
spectacular architecture. This points to one of the recurring problems in the
Japanese art world. How can the museums be valued for their collections or
their exhibition policies when the architecture and the architects that produce
it are so much more impressive than anything done by the curators inside?
During these years, it was almost an embarrassment, for example, to make the
long trek to see the stunning new museums designed in the north of Japan by
Jun Aoki and Ryue Nishizawa – The Aomori Museum of Art and the Towada
Art Center, respectively. Everything inside was so weak in comparison to their
beautiful architectural work. Aomori housed a terrible collection of local art-
ists. In the huge central hall it had three oversize fabric murals by Marc Cha-
gall, on which the museum spent all of its opening budget. All it really had to
be proud of was an impressive permanent collection of works by Yoshitomo
Nara, its local hero. Towada Art Centre, meanwhile, was a project managed
by Nanjo and Associates that was full of the worst kind of oversized and toxic
plastic installations that became so fashionable during the global 2000s. Apart
from a peace tree by Yoko Ono, and a big red ant outside by Noboru Tsubaki,
it was a forgettable collection of second hand works by fashionable foreign
artists, a sample of world art to educate Japanese on what was happening in
the rest of the world.

What were these museums for if not to promote the best and most important
trends in Japanese contemporary art? The key story in the tale here has to be

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 167
 21st Century Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa, by architect firm SANAA.

Towada Arts Centre, Towada, by Ryue Nishizawa (partner of SANAA's Kazuyo Sejima). Ant installation by
Noboru Tsubaki. Photo by author.

BEAUTIFUL MUSEUMS IN REMOTE PLACES

168 PART FOUR

Kanazawa’s 21st Century Museum. Kanazawa is a very conservative histori-
cal town, a kind of mini Kyoto on the north coast, associated with famous
samurai and geisha houses, as well as one of Japan’s most beautiful gardens.
Around 2000, like in Yokohama, the long time mayor, Tamotsu Yamade, intro-
duced plans to improve the city through the concept of creativity and the arts.
And so Kanazawa planned a contemporary art museum right in the centre of
town as the heart of this idea.

The building went on to become one of the most celebrated and discussed
public constructions in world architecture of the 2000s, making the careers
of the new wave Japanese architects SANAA (Sejima and Nishizawa). The
circular museum they built embodied everything that was brilliant about the
new wave of young Japanese architecture. It was non-monumental, simple,
accessible, and melded inside and outside, nature and artifice, through its use
of light, space and revo-
lutionary materials. Yet it
also worked perfectly as a
public art museum, inviting
citizens to walk through its
airy corridors and pateos,
while providing an ever
changeable space that could
adapt to all kinds of instal-
lations. A museum like this
needed a collection and
a profile to match, and to
prepare for its opening in
2004 it brought in the big-
Curator and Art Producer Yuko Hasegawa, who established her reputation
at Mito Art Tower and elsewhere before directing Kanazawa's 21st Century gest name in the Japanese
Museum and MOT. Courtesy of Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo.
c u r a t o r i a l wo r l d , Yu ko
TOKYO ART POWER Hasegawa.

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 169
Yuko Hasegawa was an imposing figure: politically adept, sharp tongued, and
well known for her toughness. Her curatorial writing has always been mostly
unappealing and difficult art theory. Like a lot of famous curators, it is not by
reading them that you get a sense of why they are good at what they do. That
is the rest of the job: organizing a museum staff, managing external relations,
choosing and installing works, cultivating and contextualizing artists visually,
and nurturing the best in younger curatorial talent. Hasegawa did all this bril-
liantly. She was a journalist by background, going back to the 1980s, before
completing her art studies at Geidai; she was a little older than the rest of the
Geidai gang. Even then she had a formidable reputation, ringing people up
in bed in the middle of the night to get the latest info or gossip on a museum
show, or leaving bruised associates in her wake.

Still, the art world is a world of struggle and distinction like any others, and
it could be expected that figures such as Yuko Hasegawa and Fumio Nanjo, at
the top of the game as political and commercial operators, might need to break
a few eggs to accomplish their goals. Above all, Hasegawa is remembered for
having put on a series of brilliant shows in the 1990s at Mito, Setagaya and
Meguro, although she was slow to get respect from some quarters. As a result,
there were for years artists her age and younger with whom she would refuse
to work. The move to Kanazawa around the turn of the century was, again, an
exciting moment in the Japanese art world. She was given the go ahead for
major acquisitions at a major new museum, even when there was no money
left elsewhere in the public system.

Yuko Hasegawa’s policy for Kanazawa, however, highlighted the dilemma of

the ambitious Japanese curator seeking international relevance for their mu-
seum. Internationalization for her, like Akiko Miyake at CCA in Kita Kyushu,
meant getting the best international people in, and showing their works to a
Japanese public and media. Hasegawa is proud of being a global curator: “I
never use the word ‘Asian’ or ‘Japanese’”, she says. Her global knowledge can
be impressive for the audience, as Kanazawa certainly was for Japanese viewers

170 PART FOUR

when it opened. But the documentation of her signature opening show, from an
international point of view, looked like a recycling of current fashions in an ob-
scure Asian context. In Polyphony, in late 2004, the only Japanese artist allowed
to rub shoulders with the who’s who of global installation artists presented, was
Yutaka Sone, a long term favourite of Hasegawa. And the only curatorial voice
allowed to be heard alongside the Western curators and intellectuals flown in –
including the ubiquitous Hans-Ulrich Obrist, of course – was Hasegawa herself.
There was clearly no problem with the international networks and connections
she had. Hasegawa had a fluid appreciation of both Western and Asian trends.
But there was a hollowness about the museum she built inside that wonderful
building. She did not initially focus on acquiring important Japanese artists,
who might be thought to be significant in that context. The early programme at
Kanazawa, as in other places in Japan like Towada or Chichu Art Museum on
Naoshima in the inner sea off Shikoku, instead became a condescending les-
son in teaching Western art norms to an ignorant Japanese public – as well as a
lovely location for top Western artists to take a Japanese holiday.

This indeed was the outcome of Yuko Hasegawa’s most important and ambi-
tious piece of curating during this period – her involvement in the Matthew
Barney production of Drawing Restraint 9 (2005). Barney, from New York,
was a performance/video artist who many saw as one of the greatest of the
age. The perfect model of the busy globetrotting artist, Barney arrived prior
to the planned show at Kanazawa with nothing much decided, no clear ideas,
and a plan to just improvise the making of a film with his partner, Björk, on
the spot. With art producer Makoto Sano, Hasegawa set about enabling all the
ambitious filming plans (which involved Japanese whaling ships, big sushi
knives and samurai costumes), as well as all the cultural references needed
for Barney to make his “Japanese” film. With his wife providing the music, it
became a long and very strange Björk video. As Hasegawa relates the story,
she was clearly an integral, creative part of the final work. Yet for this, she
received not much more than a small production footnote – although later she

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 171
was to court controversy at MOT by acquiring a print of a photographic still
from the film for a cool $300,000.

Barney and Björk were a highpoint for the museum, but Hasegawa was much
less happy with the involvement of the city and the mayor who has wanted his
own personal stamp on the museum as the symbol of his city. The art there
had to serve a local function formally, and the management had a hard time
convincing the sceptical and traditionalist tax paying voters to be footing the
bill for cutting edge contemporary art. Hasegawa had to give a description and
explanation for everything she intended to buy, not only the ten big commis-
sioned pieces. There were inevitable arguments. In the end this was the issue
that led to Hasegawa moving on after a relatively short and unfulfilled stay in
the open museum, to an even bigger job, at MOT in 2006. Kanazawa receded
somewhat into a backwater status, a museum where the building was so much
more impressive than any of the works they had. Her successors, though, ad-
vised by Akira Tatehata amongst others, focused more on picking up emerg-
ing Japanese artists for the collection. They also initiated in situ local artist
residencies as public projects.

At MOT, Yuko Hasegawa faced even more difficult challenges. Her first move
was to dislodge the freeze on acquisitions. The Tokyo Metropolitan govern-
ment imposed financial targets for sponsorship, and even forced the manage-
ment to compete for the tender of managing their own museum. Although
everybody denied it, Ishihara sometimes censored what the museum bought.
Over time, Hasegawa’s collection policy changed. She started to lead an ag-
gressive move to pursue the kind of Japanese contemporary collection that a
national Japanese museum should have. Many of the 90s artists became better
represented, and a survey of their late 2000s acquisitions, for example, would
reveal ample evidence that MOT was investing in new young artists. Some cu-
rators worried that the relation with some commercial galleries became a little
too direct: the values of some young artists had not yet been established on
the open market. Hasegawa, as always, had a strong vision of what she is do-

172 PART FOUR

ing. Above all, she has always nurtured many of the most important younger
curatorial talents.

She boldly justified the crass commercial shows to finance the ambitious
serious programme of new artists, leading foreign names, and big Japanese
retrospectives that MOT posted under her tenure. During the 2000s, the MOT
annual was one of the few new survey shows always worth watching for its
discoveries. In late 2007, Yuko Hasegawa’s personal inaugural Space for Your
Future effectively reconciled the tensions of the national and the global with a
sprawling and impressive show that weaved some of the best Japanese archi-
tectural and installation art, including the architects SANAA and Junya Ishi-
gami, and the photographer Mika Ninagawa, into a seamless global narrative.
MOT under Hasegawa was clearly filling a mandate.

MOT, though, was far from the centre of the Tokyo art world, despite its
closeness to Tomio Koyama’s Kiyosumi complex. The public art museums
lost their leadership function to the private museums, and even more to the
aggressive commercial gallerists that were really finding, selecting, promoting
and making the new artists. One symptom in summer 2009 was that Tomio
Koyama and Atsuko Koyanagi decided to join together to promote an exhibi-
tion, catalogue and series of events dedicated to the work of the new young
Japanese architects – because no public authority had thought of stepping in
to create a museum, or even archive, in their honour. It is a strange situation
indeed when commercial gallerists have become the leading museum curators.
In Tokyo, by 2011, the golden days of David Elliott were a fading memory. It
is doubtful now that any major foreign curator would move to Japan, even if
they were asked.

So what are contemporary art museums in Japan really for? It is hard to say
sometimes. Or, rather, it is all too obvious to see that they have been used to
fill other, non-cultural goals. These museums have raised the stock of property
developers, city mayors and architects the length and breadth of the country,

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 173
but very few have increased the awareness, prestige, circulation or valuation
of contemporary Japanese art and artists.

Echigo-Tsumari and Rural Art Festivals: Rise of the

Northern River
There are two Japans. One is the futuristic, fast moving, high tech, city-scape
of urban sprawl: the Tokyo conurbation that stretches for hundreds of kilome-
tres north and south, as well as the nation’s other important urban hubs. The
other Japan is the quiet, declining rural hinterland, with its crumbling small
cities and towns, an ageing population, young people moving out to the city,
no children being born, and the old traditions disappearing. The context of
social change is dramatic, one of the most extreme social polarizations in the
modern world. Most of the population of Japan is now urbanized; the rest of
Japan is – socially speaking – a rural wasteland.

In 2000, Fram Kitagawa, a developer based in Daikanyama and Fumio Nan-

jo’s biggest rival in the business of public art management, inaugurated the
Echigo-Tsumari (“big field”) art triennial. His idea was to bring art, visitors
and investment back to a sharply declining region on the Northern side of
Japan, in Niigata. Echigo-Tsumari, and other adapted versions of it – such
as the summer Setouchi Festival in Japan’s inland sea – were triennial art
festivals that invited the best of Japanese and global contemporary artists
to make installation works in a remote rural region of Japan facing under-
development or industrial decline. Echigo-Tsumari, the original version,
combined art installations that sat as sculptures or art spaces in the coun-
tryside, with works that used and reconverted old empty buildings. Its most
distinctive feature was that the festival is like an impossible “treasure hunt”
requiring several days following mountain roads and country paths to locate
the hundreds of exhibitions. They were dotted around area that stretched (in
the 4th version in 2009) over 760km²: bigger than the 23 wards of Tokyo put
together, but with only about 100,000 residents. In the meantime visitors

174 PART FOUR

were also invited to meet local people and try some of the wonderful local
food and hospitality.

Fram Kitagawa was a financeer, with a classical background in Buddhist art.

Beginning in the 1970s, he started to make money brokering the sale of public
art installations to major corporations. They often wanted some kind of sculp-
ture outside on the south west corner of the building, a good luck tradition for
businesses. His ambition was to use this and his other corporate development
activities as a platform to enable his passion for curation. He started to finance
and organize large art projects and exhibitions for cities and corporate clients.

Kitagawa’s idea with Echigo-Tsumari was to take art out of the city and back
to the land. It would centre on the crumbling rural town of Tokamachi, and the
famous old river that runs through it, the Shinano river. This part of Niigata,
Kitagawa’s home region, is very symbolically important for Japan, as one of
the most noted areas of top quality rice production. Expensively subsidized to
a level as much as seven times above international prices, the prized Japanese
rice is grown on artificially terraced fields on the hillsides. Kitagawa focused
in his vision on the notion of satoyama, which is literally the connecting hill-
side space between the flat lands of modern urban Japan and the uncultivated
mountains and forests behind. For him, it symbolized the unity of the Japa-
nese with the landscape, as well as a lost sense of rural tradition among the
populations who now could only experience an alienated modern urban life.
Kitagawa wanted to bring these people back to the countryside, to experience
an art festival there that could reconnect them with their regional roots.

There is also an interesting political side to the region. This part of Niigata
was one of the most solid and archetypal heartlands of conservative Liberal
Democratic Party (LDP) power during its long reign in government. This
power was based on the way the LDP cultivated constituencies through re-
gional investment deals. In particular, a local politician, Kakuei Tanaka, who
was prime minister in the early 70s, was long the dominant charismatic figure

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 175
in the region. He ensured that Niigata would always have its huge agricultural
subsidies, as well creating a flow of lucrative public works projects for busi-
nessmen in the region. This built schools in villages where children’s numbers
were declining, paved rivers and hillsides in case of any natural disaster, and
laid out roads and tunnels through mountains that led nowhere. Export in-
dustries were also imposed on the region in place of the self-sustaining local
economy. His most famous scheme was to persuade the state to finance the
Joetsu northern shinkansen that runs through mountains and over rivers from
Tokyo to Niigata city, stopping in many tiny towns and small tourist resorts en
route. It was the notorious shinkansen that went nowhere. Huge new railway
stations were constructed to attract people and development, but all the shink-
ansen did was enable the population of Niigata to move out even more quick-
ly to the city. After the 80s bubble, when the money ran out, the region was
left with empty schools and public buildings, failed businesses, a disappearing
population, and grass growing over brand
new highways.

Echigo-Tsumari used these buildings and

this forgotten landscape to find a new
purpose for art. It was presented as the
alternative to the urban culture and devel-
opment model that dominated in Tokyo
and elsewhere in Japan. Mention of it
among art world folk in Tokyo and would
tend to lead to an avalanche of support
in favour of Fram Kitagawa’s idealistic
philosophy of public art, over the axis of
political/corporate interests that domi-
nated art in the big city during the 2000s Art Producer Fram Kitagawa. Courtesy of Art Front
Gallery.
– most obviously the Mori corporation
and museum, as well as other projects ECHIGO-TSUMARI ART TRIENNIAL

176 PART FOUR

 Sayaka Ishizuka, Rice Deity. Outside abandoned village house and inside
installation of rice strings, kitchen utensils, light and mirrors at Echigo-Tsumari
Festival (2009). Photos by author.

ECHIGO-TSUMARI ART TRIENNIAL

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 177
linked to Fumio Nanjo. Kitagawa and Nanjo, both born in the late 1940s, have
vied over the years to impose their visions over various major art projects and
festivals. Describing the titanic struggles of Kitagawa and Nanjo to court cor-
porate and government sponsorship, it was sometimes refered to as the “nam-
boku senso” (civil war) of the North and South in Japanese art: with Kitagawa
from Niigata and Nanjo from Nagoya, their names literally translated mean
“northern river” and “southern quarter”, respectively. The sleek 50th floor cor-
porate offices of the Mori Art Museum contrasted with the messy and chaotic
activity at Kitagawa’s Art Front Gallery office headquarters. Even late in the
evening, young assistants would be running around, with coffee cups and ash
trays everywhere. Kitagawa has always inspired fierce loyalty in his associ-
ates, and is blunt about his opinions.

The 20th century, he says, was an age of cities that led to a dark, if not self-
destructive, art and culture. The unhealthy alliance of art, urbanism and
commercial interests has become dominant in Japan, and Japan more than
anywhere has lost touch with its rural traditions, and its aesthetic roots. Art,
he claims, should not be an index of modern development, or a monument
to consumerism, but a way of measuring what has been lost: the distance be-
tween urban life and the nature or traditions they have left behind. Nowadays,
the modern world only values how fast we can absorb new information. This
is why Kitagawa conceived Echigo-Tsumari as a deliberately difficult, “inef-
ficient” experience: it forced the visitor to slow down and think, to not just
consume everything, but appreciate what they were able to do, as they tracked
down the art in abandoned village schools, remote old houses, up a hill, or
across a deserted field. It was contemporary art, not packaged as a slick tourist
experience, but found in the severest or most unlikely of places.

“Art should not just sit on top of consumerism.” Fram Kitagawa is referring,
of course, to Japan’s most famous urban art experience, the Mori Art Mu-
seum. He scoffs at Minoru Mori’s philosophy of cleaning up the city, and re-
educating urban populations through the sublime experience of art and culture

178 PART FOUR

in a futuristic museum. For Kitagawa, this was tantamount to saying that Art
had replaced a God that has been lost. A museum on the 52nd floor became “a
Parthenon for the contemporary world”, as he puts it. Art here became always
a commercial accessory to urban living, as well as an excuse for ever more
urban development. Behind this, Kitagawa explains how he too, ever since he
was young, wanted to destroy the existing art system. This has been a familiar
refrain from nearly all the pioneers of the Japanese contemporary art world
in the 1990s and 2000s. But he feels that the commercial gallerists, as well
as artists such as Takashi Murakami or the older conceptual artist On Kawara
– who developed the idea of a “Western” commercial strategy well before
Murakami – simply reproduced the Western, US-dominated system. It worked
well for Japan to be in this subservient position during the “air pocket” of the
cold war years. It gave them the financial bubble, Kitagawa says, but this is
when the Japanese lost their ethics. Art was then co-opted in the 1990s and
2000s to keep the development logic going. Something different needed to be
done to create a civil society that was missing in Japan’s relations between the
state, cities and its consumer populations.

Echigo-Tsumari instigated a pause in the decline of the region, and Kitagawa

extended the idea to the city of Niigata itself. At the local level, the effects
could be seen in the cooperative ventures that art groups have brought to
many small villages. The festival relied on the “NPO spirit” of voluntarism,
with hundreds of kohebi (little snakes) as volunteers doing the work – students
and young artists. During the event in 2009, the villages were full of posters
for the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) politician, Yukio Hatoyama, in his
brief period of electoral success. The region had swung dramatically to the
more liberal DPJ – although it was said mainly because of the daughter of the
Tanaka family, Makiko, changing sides just before the election. Fram Kitaga-
wa always faced a huge struggle creating his vision against the resistance of
local politicians, or convincing local residents about the virtues of an elite
contemporary culture - when they, like most people in Japan, prefer baseball,
pachinko and McDonald’s.

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 179
Even more striking was the alliance he struck in the mid 2000s, with one of the
Japanese art world’s other big power brokers, the CEO of Benesse Corporation,
Soichiro Fukutake. Fukutake made millions out of cram schools, but invested
his wealth in the redevelopment of a former industrial island, Naoshima, in the
Japan’s Seto inland sea. He built museums for his collection (Tadao Ando’s Chi-
chu museum, and a second for contemporary art), and initiated projects to bring
in artists and architects to develop installations in houses and open air sites.
This included Seirensho, the spectacular conversion by artist Yukinori Yanagi
and architect Hiroshi Sambuichi of an old copper refinery on the island of Inu-
jima. It became now a naturally sustainable museum that housed Fukutake’s
collection of Yukio Mishima memorabilia and a series of works by Yanagi.
Although he was initially driven by ideas of tourism and a strong corporate art
philosophy like Mr Mori’s, Fukutake was impressed by Echigo-Tsumari and
brought Kitagawa in, first to manage the museum, then to direct much bigger
plans to create an art festival that would span a number of other abandoned
industrial islands in the area. This became the Setouchi festival, which had its
first outing in summer 2010.
Using the exact same model of
Echigo-Tsumari, and sharing
its environmental and rural re-
investment ideals, it took place
in a much more tourist friendly
location, and became a stun-
ning surprise success. Nearly
1 million visitors crammed
local boats and buses during
the sweltering summer months
to visit the “art islands”. For
Kitagawa it was a doubled-
Artist Chiharu Shiota. Photo by Sunhi Man. Courtesy of Kenji Taka
edged success. Fukutake had Gallery and artist's studio.
also been sponsoring part of

180 PART FOUR

Chiharu Shiota, Farther Memory. House and installation on Teshima island, Setouchi (2010). The rice house
building was formerly the community centre, the installation was made of old windows taken from abandoned
houses around the island. Photos by author.

CHIHARU SHIOTA

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 181
Echigo-Tsumari but he withdrew this sponsorship to concentrate on his legacy
in the inland sea. It was said his personal fortune was so large that – with no
children to pass it on to – his endowment could finance Setouchi festivals ev-
ery three years for the next one hundred. Forced to look for new sponsorship,
Echigo-Tsumari faced a more uncertain future. After March 2011, the mountain
to climb became ever harder – although it could be argued that its vision and
philosophy was needed more than ever.

The style and philosophy of Kitagawa’s festivals obviously changed over time.
The permanent open air installations from earlier editions were often the typi-
cal artificial plastic or steel works so familiar from the global art bubble years.
These toxic monuments sat incongruously in their beautiful surroundings, and
over the years have cost a fortune to maintain. Yet the accent in later editions, at
both Echigo-Tsumari and Setouchi, became one of conservation and renovation
as well as the use of natural products and locations. Parts of the festivals were
organic and community-based, living up to the presentation. Other parts felt top
down and imposed by politics. This mix has always been a familiar one in the
Japanese art world. The logistics as well as the financing involved were daunt-
ing. For example, the 4th Echigo-Tsumari in 2009 had a budget of 900 million
yen, over half of which had to come from paying visitors – meaning between
150,000 and 200,000 paying entrants. That’s a lot of city folk trampling over the
countryside, or driving around in their cars in search of satoyama.

Public art management will always be a macho business in Japan. Fram

Kitagawa is a tough political and financial operator, and the contradictions
in his philosophy are part of the inevitable price of making the vision work.
Scandal also swirled around his management, for example, when he was
forced to resign in early 2010 from his position as director at the Museum of
Niigata. A delivery of priceless classical art they were arranging was found to
be infested with insects. At the same time, other people in the more modernis-
tic, urban planning world, would dismiss him as a “hippy”. There were aspects
too about Echigo-Tsumari and Setouchi that confirmed the possibility of a

182 PART FOUR

new sakoku – the idea that Japan might just be turning in on itself defensively
again, closed off from the world as it did in the pre-modern era. This seemed
the greatest danger in a post-Bubble Japan giving up on its international am-
bitions. It was a trend well in evidence before the earthquake and tsunami of
March 2011. For example, for all their roster of international artists, and the
universal message, Kitagawa’s festivals were almost invisible to the global art
media, and there were virtually never any Western visitors. Setouchi was such
a smash hit because the concept of an “art trip” holiday became hugely fash-
ionable that summer – especially for groups of girl friends and office ladies.
But the rurally focused message of Echigo-Tsumari and Setouchi about reno-
vation and revitalization did transmit something important, even if this was
not being heard much outside of Japan.

In the near past, Japan’s urbanization represented the future. Art and culture was
hitched to this development, whether in driving the building of big new urban
monuments or aiding inner city renewal. In post-Bubble, post-disaster Japan,
that future may be over. But rampant urbanization still rules in many parts of the
planet. In America, the dominance of city life over rural alternatives is absolute.
This will go on as long as there are fresh fields and deserts on which to build
new housing tracks, and still more oil to put in the tank. In Asia, China in par-
ticular, the frenzy of over-development seems unstoppable. Europe faces many
of the same problems that are felt in Japan today. Someday all these places will
sober up. When they do, they may look again at Japan’s recent experiences
for inspiration. Even before the disasters of March 2011, with its post-Bubble
gloom and shocking urban/rural divides, Japan faced urgent issues in manag-
ing its own decline and the social divisions it heralded. Japan in the 1990s and
2000s may be everyone’s future tomorrow. It is, for sure, not a happy prospect.
Echigo-Tsumari and Setouchi helped visitors think about a different kind of
future. It was a future a million miles from the vision Japan gave to the world at
the Osaka Expo in 1970. And it was such a long way from the Cool Japan expe-
rience given to tourists at Roppongi Hills on a clear night in Neo-Tokyo.

ART & THE CITY: HOW ART REPLACED GOD AT THE HEART OF NEO-TOKYO 183
184 PART FOUR
 PART FIVE

After the Gold Rush:

The New Japanese Art Scene
in the 2000s

China Mania
The Japanese art world at the beginning of the 2000s made the mistake of
thinking that it would become the central hub of the Asian art world, and the
gateway for the West to the rest of the region. There were reasons to think it
might have been successful. Japan – and certain Japanese art dealers – had
long been involved in discovering and selling art from other Asian countries.
The key pioneer in this respect for modern and contemporary art in Japan was
Yukihito Tabata at a long established gallery in Ginza, Tokyo Gallery. He was
involved in bringing over avant garde Chinese artists well before Tiananmen.
There were ways of avoiding Chinese taxation if the transaction was routed
through Japan. Tokyo also established some of the first important Asian art

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 185
auctions. Asia was also a key part of Sueo Mitsuma’s strategy as a galler-
ist since the 1990s. He went so far as to open a Beijing gallery with a Chi-
nese partner in 2008. A bi-lingual (Japanese-English) magazine ART-iT was
launched in 2003 by the Real Tokyo arts and culture writer, Tetsuya Ozaki,
to build on the concept of a unified Asian art discussion. Fukuoka opened an
Asian Art Museum (FAAM) that has a very respected Asian Art Triennial,
spearheaded by a visionary curator Raiji Kuroda. The biggest Chinese name
of all, Cai Guo Qiang, in fact lived and worked in Japan for ten years before
becoming a New York artist in 1995. And among leading Japanese artists,
Tsuyoshi Ozawa throughout the 1990s and 2000s continually used pan-Asian
themes in his work: for example, his early Jizo-ing travelogue photography,
or the Xijing Men, his hilarious three man collaboration with Chinese and Ko-
rean partners, which visualized a fictitious unified Asian state centred on the
non-existent “Western capital”.

Yet for all these efforts, as Sueo Mitsuma admits, the assumption about Ja-
pan as a gateway proved naïve. Westerners curators all just flew over, direct
to China or Korea, non-stop, before connecting to other places. By the mid
2000s, whether it was gallery openings, biennials, auctions, or new museums,
it was all China, and beyond that, the rest of Asia beckoned. Anywhere but Ja-
pan, it seemed. Western faces became surprisingly absent from most Japanese
art world events. For a major opening in Shanghai or Hong Kong during these
years, the Chinese hosts would fly in 200 western gallerists and curators – a
who’s who of global art – on an all expenses paid trip to make sure they talked
and wrote about what is going on there. It was summed up for me by Atsuko
Koyanagi, one of the most internationally minded dealers in Tokyo. She asked
me: Why on Earth was I writing a book about the Japanese art world when ev-
eryone knew that China was where the action was?

Why indeed? There seemed little doubt that, commercially speaking, in the
2000s Chinese artists left their Japanese rivals for dead. International auctions
told a clear story. The catalogue from Sotheby’s New York “Contemporary Art

186 PART FIVE

Asia” sale from March 2008 at the height of the global art bubble was a good
indicator. After the financial crash later that year, this became a fascinating
historical document. Of the 290 or so lots listed in this fat and expensive cata-
logue, there were only four Japanese names: a couple of pieces by Kusama,
one Kaikai Kiki girl, a Hiroshi Sugito – a Tomio Koyama artist close in style
to Yoshitomo Nara – and one old piece by avant garde Gutai master from the
50s, Kazuo Shiraga. Apart from two Koreans, the rest were all Chinese, and
much more expensive.

Chinese artists during these years abundantly showed that they could do it
bigger, better and bolder than the Japanese. The Takashi Murakami philoso-
phy in fact made more sense in China with its vastly more favourable econo-
mies of space, production and exhibition. Chinese artists also had the limitless
resources of their historical culture, as well as the whole question of post-
communism, to draw on for imagery. And there was always much more gov-
ernmental investment in the art infrastructure than ever there was in Japan.

For sure, China has also been more interesting if the subject is following
money, second guessing trends in the world art market, or seeking out scan-
dal. The involvement of the Western art world followed a predictable colonial
pattern, as the speed of economic development in China led entrepreneurs to
realize it was the new land of opportunity. The Japanese art world, on the oth-
er hand, never really let in the Western art elite. Even the financial scandals in
art have been kept among Japanese. During the globalization of the late 1990s
and early 2000s Chinese contemporary art in contrast became a fertile soil for
investment schemes that discovered unknown Chinese artists and then inflated
their value to extraordinary levels.

One notorious scandal involved the top Danish museum, Louisiana. Out of the
blue, curators at the museum were offered the chance to show a mysterious,
hitherto unknown collection of 200 major Chinese works called the “Estella
collection”. The museum accepted, preparing a lavish show and accompany-

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 187
ing catalogues in 2007. It got a lot of media attention, and was planned for a
major international tour. The prestigious “collection” was in fact the cover for
an investment fund snapping up Chinese works, headed by a New York dealer
Michael Goedhuis, involving various other American corporate investors. He
used the lure of a major European museum and international touring show to
persuade ten of the top Chinese artists to sell him brand new works at very
low direct sale prices. He assured them that the works would later be donated
to a major museum in the West and that they would be kept together. In fact,
the collection only travelled to Israel, before being sold (for $25 million), then
rapidly “flipped” onto the market, the first half of 108 works appearing for sale
in a great fanfare at Sotheby’s Hong Kong in April 2008, netting $18 million,
$5 million more than expected. The duped artists and curators involved were
understandably upset, having been used to inflate prices and make money for
others. The office dealing with the original negotiations had used a fake address
and numbers, and artists reluctant to participate had been pressurized or offered
bribes, such as mansions in Venice during the Biennale.

This kind of thing has been all in a day’s work for the Western gallerists and
dealers out in China who, along with the superstar curators flying in and out,
were piloting the business behind the China bubble. For some reason, a lot
of them seemed to be Swiss: slick men in suits and expensive watches, who
blend in perfectly to the colonial expat business scene in Shanghai and Bei-
jing. In the specially designated “art villages” of these two cities, there have
been dozens of galleries mass producing copies of Asian and Western modern
art, in every style possible from impressionism to superflat. Early pioneers
in China included the Hong Kong based collectors David Tang and Johnson
Chang. Yet there was no lucrative contemporary art scene in China until fig-
ures such as the Swiss gallerist Lorenz Helbling at ShangArt or collector Uli
Sigg came along in the mid 90s and, together with the curators such as Hans-
Ulrich Obrist and Hou Hanru (a Chinese curator who left to work in Paris
and the US), started to select and validate unknown local artists. The show

188 PART FIVE

by Harald Szeemann in 1999 at the Venice Biennale was then the key tip-
ping point. These Western (or Westernized) entrepreneurs blew up the China
art bubble that made everybody rich. During the 2000s, the ShangArt gallery
space, for example, was bigger than any similar gallery in Tokyo. It was al-
ways ready for sales to the many art world tourists who come by. Look behind
a wall and there would be dozens of copies of works by the gallery’s artists
stacked up like cornflakes packets. A gang of Chinese workers – rounded up
off the streets for a minimal wage – would be stuffing thousands of envelopes
with publicity. They would send them to every known art gallery, curator,
agent, museum, scholar or magazine in the West. This was how to make an art
market out of nothing.

There was never anything like this in Japan, because there was no longer this
kind of opportunity to make money. Japan stopped developing in the 1990s
and so – the global art world thought – Japan was no longer interesting. This
was wrong. After the gold rush – the tao-jin as it is called in Chinese – there
might be something to learn again from the Japanese experience. China and
other parts of Asia are still on an upswing, and so the West continues to be
fascinated by its art and contemporary culture. It is also afraid of the future
competition. But why is non-Western art only interesting when non-Western
countries are developing? There is in fact a strong case to read Japanese con-
temporary art and society as being on a very different, even opposed trajec-
tory to China and the rest of developing Asia. Unlike these nations Japan is
definitively post-development. It is a post-Bubble society. It has finished with
absorbing the lessons of American and European modernity, and by the late
2000s stood more as an alternative to both Western and Asian (Chinese) mo-
dernity. It could be said to have more in common with the declining, decadent
welfare states of Europe than the growth and power obsessed US. And its dig-
nified and calm response to the terrible catastrophes of 2011 demonstrated its
resilience in adversity. Japan’s crisis of confidence in these years might, there-
fore, offer a much better guide to the uncertainties and fragilities of the 21st

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 189
century than the rampant, unsustainable visions of globalization that drove the
last two previous decades.

By the end of the 2000s, China was roughly speaking where Japan was during
the heady years between the 1964 Tokyo Olympics and the 1970 Osaka World
Expo. These were Japan’s own development showcases to the world. For these
events, then, read 2008 Beijing and Shanghai 2010. Of course, many Japanese
politicians wish they could go back to the golden years. Governor Shintaro Ishi-
hara saw what was happening with the Beijing Olympics and thought Tokyo
had to compete. Olympics bids have become part of the routine branding and
development drive of global cities as they try to kick start an economic boom.

Arts and culture were part of the vision for the Tokyo Olympics bid for 2016.
Governor Ishihara put the director of Tokyo Wonder Site, Yusaku Imamura, in
charge of the committee. During the 2000s, Tokyo Wonder Site was an orga-
nization providing new art spaces for young and emerging artists in the city. It
attracted controversy when Ishihara made his “playboy” fourth son, Nobuhiro
– an unsuccessful painter – its chief advisor. Ishihara himself sometimes used
Tokyo Wonder Site’s small Hongo headquarters as a place to have “secret”
meetings away from the Japanese media. But Imamura, who was an architect
and a protégé of Arata Isozaki, used the organization to create interesting ex-
hibitions and new opportunities for young artists, as well as creating an inter-
esting international art residency programme.

The Tokyo Olympics bid was packaged in the language and visuals of Cool
Japan. They created colour brochures and cute characters to promote the bid.
At Schiphol airport in Amsterdam, I picked up a little box of colour crayons
from a pretty Japanese girl in a costume. It was a nice omiage (souvenir) of
an event that was never going to happen. Perhaps there was a dream that the
Olympics would come to Tokyo. They could make Takashi Murakami “creative
director”, like Cai Guo Qiang was in Beijing. After Ai Weiwei’s birds’ nest
stadium at the Chinese Olympics, they could knock down Kenzo Tange’s aus-

190 PART FIVE

tere modernist architecture from 1964, and ask the Mori Building Co. to build
a shiny new Olympics stadium for Tokyo. Murakami could come and fill the
place with happy flowers and mushrooms, and open a meido kissa (maid café)
to serve the thirsty spectators in the hot summer sun.

It was not to be. Tokyo was not cool enough anymore. In October 2009, the
Olympic committee opted for Brazil, and the sexy samba of Rio instead. But Mr
Ishihara could still get what he really wanted. The Tokyo Olympics bid was the
perfect excuse to launch another round of urban development in the city before
he retired. It was the perfect excuse to pull down the cheap municipal housing
in the rich neighbourhood of Omotesando, and build an expressway through
the heart of bohemian Shimo-Kitazawa. It was the perfect excuse to clean the
teenagers and their strange sub-culture performances out of Yoyogi park, and
the African immigrants out of sleazy Roppongi. And it was the perfect excuse to
try and close the famous, but shabby, Tsukiji fish market, and wash the fisher-
men out into the Sumida river – in order to build some new and expensive high
rise properties. It was a clever strategy. He would then collect the votes from
anxious city residents worried about all the change going on around them. He
announced his retirement in 2011; then the earthquake struck. Perfect timing for
Mr Ishihara to “save” the city again. He rejoined the election as a candidate, and
easily won a fourth term as Governor of Tokyo.

The Zero Zero Generation

What was left after Zero Japan, post 2000, and the fading of hopes of the 60s’
born generation? The 2000s were a frustrating decade. The overwhelming focus
internationally on a legacy dominated by Takashi Murakami and Yoshitomo
Nara largely blocked the recognition and emergence of a younger generation.

The one thing for sure about artists born about 1975 and after is that they are
very different to the baby boomers. The experience of coming of age around
1995 and after was nothing short of disastrous. They left school or university

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 191
to a world in economic shock. The opportunities had dried up. No one was
hiring. The wild ambitions of 80s Japan had all disappeared. Tokyo was still
the place to go, because the pain of the provinces was so much greater, and
the culture of the big city provided escape from its economic gloom. Japan’s
post-Bubble decline is most visible far from the lights of Neo-Tokyo, out
in the empty regional towns, or in the shabby lower class shitamachi in the
peripheries of the big city. The best that they could do was to get a freeter
job in a conbini or nomiya, and hold on to their private dreams in some inner
world. The younger Japanese who never knew the Bubble years as adults are
the “lost generation”.

As a result, the sensibility of artists from this generation has been quite dis-
tinctive from the world conquering baby boomers. The video artist, Tabaimo,
who was born in 1975, speaks of the experiences of her generation as those
of the danmen no sedai (the “cross-sectional” or “cut across” generation), so
different to the dankai no sedai (baby boomers) of her father’s generation.
Although she explains the concept quite differently, the idea of this generation
being somehow “cut off” is very appropriate. The baby boomers were born
running. The lost generation had to learn
to crawl again. On the other hand, as they
matured in the 2000s, the artists born after
the early 1970s – the zero zero generation,
or zero nen sedai, as they are also often
referred to – displayed a much less an-
guished relationship with national culture
and identity than older generations. They
were much more at ease with the world,
and their experiences of budget travel in
the West and, increasingly, around Asia
were assimilated as a taken-for-granted
Artist Tabaimo. Courtesy of Gallery Koyanagi. dimension of their global connectedness.
They were much more comfortable with

192 PART FIVE

Tabaimo, installation view of Japanese Kitchen (1999). © Tabaimo. Courtesy of Gallery Koyanagi.

Still from video installation Japanese Kitchen (1999). A salary man sits at a desk in a fridge working
until the mother in the kitchen pulls him out and cuts off his head with knife on the cutting board. ©
Tabaimo. Courtesy of Gallery Koyanagi.

TABAIMO

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 193
new technology. They tried to use its possibilities in the service of their aes-
thetics rather than giving way to the inevitable collapse of art into flat comput-
erized reproduction. There was a clear return to individual craft and technique,
together with a certain sincerity of expression, while assimilating a conscious-
ness of Western conceptualism. And, above all, there was a modesty about
their work. It had an economy born of difficult times, as well as a new kind
of humanism after the nightmares of the “post-modern” or “post-human” 90s.
There was a search for something more sustainable after the extravagances of
the previous generation.

Long before March 2011, the “catastrophe” of the early 90s had already hap-
pened. That was a numb memory now. The question for this generation was,
as art writer Kiki Kudo suggests, how to go from the “no future” of zero
Japan to “post no future”. The one comprehensive account of the post neo-
pop scene in Japan is Midori Matsui’s Micropop (2007 and after), which was
both a series of shows she curated and a book. Matsui has an unusually strong
sociological reading of Japanese contemporary art, and contextualizes the
post-1970s generation in terms quite similar to those above. Influenced by
certain strains of Japanese feminism, she chooses to focus on the small forms
of resistance that can be found in the personal expression of younger artists.
Her accent, though, has been on the defensive inward turn of younger artists
– the return to the inner world of the bedroom – and she was always drawn
particularly to fragile, juvenile and ephemeral styles. With its roots in the
popular culture of shojo (girl) comics and aesthetics, the style was introduced
in contemporary art by Yoshitomo Nara, although he was dropped from later
iterations of Micropop.

During the 2000s, Midori Matsui was seen as a difficult personality to work
with, but was universally admired for her intellect and articulacy. Art cura-
tion is rarely so well theorized, or so thoroughly analyzed in terms of social
change. The inward turn, throwaway creativity and perpetual adolescence of
the post 1970s generation was clearly part of the story of the 2000s, although

194 PART FIVE

there were just as many emerging artists of the same age whose work was, in
contrast, outgoing, conceptually ambitious and psychologically mature. Mat-
sui tended to select artists as channels for her theories, and artists often com-
plained that she did not listen much to their ideas. For years, she remained
ferociously loyal to both Kaikai Kiki and Tomio Koyama in all her shows,
which meant that there was never a clear break from Superflat and the aesthet-
ics of the neo-pop generation and its followers. Matsui herself was an otaku
style thinker. When her shows and writings travelled internationally, it was
inevitably her preference for strange “eye candy” that the foreigners saw first.

As a reaction against the dominance of heavily theoretical curators such as

Noi Sawaragi and Midori Matsui in Japan, artists in the 2000s began to seek
ways to organize their own shows. Partly this was also due to Takashi Mu-
rakami’s example. The younger generation rejected his aesthetics, and cannot
relate to his otaku obsessions, but they absorbed his business lessons very
carefully. One good example was the artist organized show, The Echo, in late
2008. During the Yokohama Triennial, which basically ignored the current
Tokyo art scene, a network based group of semi-established artists, mostly
in their early 30s, put on an alternative show at the public art space ZAIM in
Yokohama. The show was surrounded by energetic talk shows, linked up with
art school volunteers, and brought in Haruka Ito from Magical Art Room, as
a producer. It was a determinedly artist organized show. It refused a curato-
rial line, and focused on the work itself, as well as the sheer physical effort
of transforming the battered old rooms of the ZAIM building into an elegant
series of connected gallery spaces. The Echo, as it was called, was a genu-
ine showcase for new talent, centering on the networks of some of the most
established artists involved: in particular, the Kyoto connections of sculptor
Kohei Nawa, and the Nagoya connections of installation artist, Kengo Kito.
Refusing to impose a curatorial discourse on the show, the idea of networks
and virtual communication in the silver light of a computer screen became
the linking theme.

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 195
The young artists – which included names such as Satoru Aoyama, Kei Take-
mura, Satoshi Ohno, Daisuke Ohba, Taro Izumi, Koichi Enomoto, Hiraki
Sawa and Ichiro Isobe – were particularly incensed by their exclusion from
the Yokohama show. The show was their response: a statement about a Japa-
nese contemporary art scene that the world still didn’t know. It was part of a
wealth of events in Yokohama during the Triennial that were organized out
of frustration with the main event. The Echo was ignored by the international
curators celebrating the opening event on the famous international pier, and
heavily criticized by established art critics in Tokyo for excluding curators
from the presentation. But the show offered a comprehensive survey of many
of the most significant artists of the zero zero generation, showcasing their
concerns with labour intensive craft, sustainable materials, and technological-
ly aware communication. There was nothing introverted, childish or national-
ist about this work.

Many of the artists seen at The Echo were linked with another emerging fea-
ture of the 2000s: a second or even third generation of dynamic commercial
gallerists. Many of these gallerists worked for the first generation pioneers
– Tsutomu Ikeuchi, Masami Shiraishi and Sueo Mitsuma, in particular –
learning their trade from them. They were, overwhelmingly, female galler-
ists, former assistants now with their own companies and art spaces. They
grouped together under the banner “New Tokyo Contemporaries”, and from
the mid 2000s on showed a strong commitment to supporting innovative and
even non-commercial artists. Alongside Yuko Yamamoto’s Yamamoto Gendai
(she worked for Ikeuchi, and is married to art critic Noi Sawaragi), there was
ArataniUrano (Tomoko Aratani and Mutsumi Urano, who worked with Shirai-
shi), Hideki Aoyama’s Aoyama | Meguro (who was at Mizuma), and the edgy
tastes of former Mizuma gallery’s Rika Fujiki at Mujin-to Production. The
emergence of this generation pointed again to the strong feminization of the
scene, with so many of the key curatorial or Japanese art entrepreneurial roles
taken by women.

196 PART FIVE

With many such new galleries opening, and a new global art bubble develop-
ing, the signs for the commercial scene seemed better again in the mid 2000s.
From 2005, the city tried to maximize this energy, through the creation of a
Tokyo Art Week, which centred on the genteel and colourless Art Fair Tokyo
in the middle of the festive hanami season. This was an event dutifully at-
tended by all the galleries, and all the main figures of the Tokyo art world.
It took place in Marunouchi’s International Forum, Tokyo city government’s
famous, big money losing, monster exhibition venue. The fair was said by its
former director Misa Shin, another protégé of Fumio Nanjo, to make respect-
able amounts of money each year, but not much ever left Japan because for-
eign visitors were so rare amongst the crowds. Virtually no foreign galleries
ever participated. In 2010, the event even publicized talk shows to discuss the
“Galapagosization” of the Japanese art world: to muse about how Japan had
become a group of strange islands way off in the Pacific, full of weird and
wonderful creations, but disconnected from everything else in the world. The
organizers then refused to provide translation from Japanese for any interna-
tional visitors who happened to be interested in the discussion.

In 2008, supported by the two most internationally connected stalwarts of the

Tokyo art world, Tomio Koyama and Johnnie Walker, the New Tokyo Contem-
poraries were persuaded to align with a new and exciting art fair that opened
in the shadow of the much larger Art Fair Tokyo: 101 Tokyo. This was an at-
tempt by foreign art enthusiasts, many of them gaijin (foreign) writers based in
Tokyo connected to the online bilingual art magazine Tokyo Art Beat, to create
a more dynamic satellite art fair to the main event, as would be found at any
major international art fair. Above all, they sought to invite young foreign gal-
lerists from Europe and North America to build international appreciation for
the grass roots excitement of the Japanese scene. The myth of London’s Frieze
art fair was running high with a big party launch during art week in 2008 at the
abandoned old Rensei Junior High School near Akihabara. It was a breath of
fresh air in the Tokyo art world, bringing many new foreign visitors to the city.

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 197
 Collector and Tokyo socialite Johnnie Walker holding the first Bacon Prize at 101 Tokyo Contemporary Art Fair
(2008). In background from left, Antonin Gaultier and Agatha Wara, respectively producer and director of 101
Tokyo, with guest artist Joseph Kusuth. Courtesy of Kosuke Fujitaka, Tokyo Art Beat.

Yoshihiro Suda, Rose (2010). Painted on wood. © Yoshihiro Suda. Installation at Gallery Koyanagi booth, Art
Fair Tokyo 2010. Photo by Keizo Kioku. Courtesy of Gallery Koyanagi.

TOKYO ART FAIRS

198 PART FIVE

Sadly, the organizers of Art Fair Tokyo, thought otherwise, seeing only a for-
eign threat, and claiming that it had taken away some of the leading young To-
kyo galleries from the bigger show. The next year, they decided to create their
own well-controlled “satellite” to kill off the rival’s energy. All the main Tokyo
contemporary galleries were then pressganged to join the main events. 101
Tokyo still managed to put together an event, but it collapsed financially soon
after. A gallery assistant at Tomio Koyama Gallery blithely told me that she
had put off a foreign partner gallery who was thinking of coming to 101 To-
kyo: “I told her not to come, as she wouldn’t sell anything”. It summed up the
self-defeating attitude of the mainstream Tokyo art world during these years.
They even stole Johnnie Walker and his famous dog Bacon for the art fair prize
which had been a key motif of the first 101 Tokyo.

Art Fair Tokyo became another hoped for gateway to the world, and particu-
larly, the Asian art boom, that failed. In 2010, several of the major galleries –
including Mizuma, Taro Nasu and Shugo Arts – decided not to show. They bet
instead on a more rarefied gathering under the heading “G12”: a who’s who of
Tokyo leading galleries going back to the 90s originals, that has over the years
been hosted at the Art @ Agnes hotel and at the Mori Tower. Atsuko Koy-
anagi, one of the inner circle, chose to show nothing but a minimalist red rose
by Yoshihiro Suda in her booth at the Art Fair Tokyo in 2010. It was perhaps
a suitable valedictory gesture to a beast that might be dying, as Edan Corkill
suggested in the Japan Times. When disaster struck in March 2011, it derailed
a much hoped for revitalization of the art fair under the youthful leadership of
a younger generation gallerist, Takahiro Kaneshima.

Supported by the ever-hopeful collector Satoshi Okada, the catalogue for

The Echo came out a year and a half after the show in early 2010. The time
lag was typical and pointed to problems of presentation and documentation
of the scene, however interesting it became. After disagreements between
the founders, Magical Art Room closed, and the manager Haruka Ito left
to open her own alternative space “Island” way out of the city in Kashiwa.

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 199
Okada made plans to continue the support for young and emerging artists
in cooperation with Yusaku Imamura of Tokyo Wonder Site, the day when
Governor Ishihara cuts the funds. As always, the scene was surviving by
adapting as best it could to the limited spaces and small finances. The gaijin
writers in Tokyo also re-emerged from the bruising experience of 101 To-
kyo, with Tokyo Art Beat extending its operation to New York and Tokyo Art
Beat writer Ashley Rawlings editing an elegant guidebook to the Tokyo art
world with start-up publisher Craig Mod.

Other developments in the art media were not good. After 24 high quality edi-
tions, ART-iT magazine was forced to go to an online version only, and editor
Tetsuya Ozaki left to concentrate on his Real Tokyo platform. One criticism
of ART-iT was the incestuous nature of the art coverage. The owner, Eijiro
Imafuku, was thought to have interest as a collector in many of the artists cov-
ered, and the magazine tended to reflect a small circle of gallerists and emerg-
ing artists, the self-appointed insider Tokyo scene. Meanwhile, the venerable
magazine Bijutsu Techo (BT) took to interspersing tourist style guide books
and art encyclopedias with more serious art coverage in an attempt to survive.
BT also reflected a closed circle of writers and artists. Indeed, the Tokyo art
world as a whole remained a small world. Another upstart internet magazine,
Kalonsnet, was created by an art enthusiast and entrepreneur, Miyuki Ma-
nabe. Her aim was also to create opportunities for the sort of intellectual criti-
cal writing about culture that used to be such a vibrant feature of the Tokyo
publishing world. It was a culture that was already fading with the decline of
magazine and book publishing that started in the mid 1990s, but the process
intensified dramatically from the mid 2000s onwards. Kalonsnet made a point
of trying to generate coverage of less well known galleries and artists as a way
of challenging the pervasive complacency of the scene.

It seemed, though, that much of the time during these years the Tokyo art
world was simply happy with its smallness and insularity. The folks behind
Art Fair Tokyo, as ultimately at the biggest public museums, seemed to like it

200 PART FIVE

best that way. It was all so much easier when the Japanese were just talking to
themselves and those pushy, noisy foreigners didn’t get involved. That is, just
like when the black ships had gone, and the country could quietly fade back
into a new era of sakoku.

Aida’s Children
The Echo artists were a group of relatively established artists, with galleries
and (in most cases) some kind of name recognition. A number had been fea-
tured in the occasional surveys of emerging young artists put together by Bi-
jutsu Techo to shape the scene. Among the most well known, sculptor Kohei
Nawa for example set up his own art production site, Sandwich, which drew
on students from the Kyoto University of Art and Design, where he taught.
Two other comparable artists by age and style who might also be mentioned
here, installation artist Teppei Kaneuji and video artist Koki Tanaka, could
easily have been part of The Echo with their lo-fi ethos and everyday con-
cerns. They like the others might be considered this generation’s “likely lads”.
Behind them, though, were legions of other young artists caught in the wilder-
ness years between art school and an art career that might never arrive. These
are the “survival artists” that have always populated the base of the Japanese
art world, living hand to mouth, looking for a break.

As Takashi Murakami also discussed in his books, there was always a kind of
fictional classlessness in the Japanese art world, which belied the social dis-
tinctions and social disadvantages that actually run through it. In art worlds
anywhere there are always quite a few artists, curators or collectors with inde-
pendent resources who were simply born to be part of it. Others have to strug-
gle to make their way. Murakami’s modest class origins drove him towards
commercial strategies with a hungry ambition. So when he became successful,
he showed off his success with the gaudy taste of the nouveau riche. His path
through Geidai was exceptional, though. Geidai is in theory strictly egalitarian
– it is a national school with entrance exams anyone can try – but the reality is

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 201
that social connections help a lot in getting a coveted place. Privileged young
hopefuls also spend a fortune on prep school training courses to help them get
ready. This system also provides jobs for the unemployed art school students
coming out the other end. All of the well known names did their time as prep
school teachers when they were still in “survival artist” mode.

During these years, there was one special art school in Tokyo: Bigakko in
Jinbocho, the second hand book neighbourhood. The school had its roots
in avant garde radical art of the 1960s. Genpei Akasegawa and Natsuyuki
Nakanishi of the 60s art unit, Hi Red Center, were involved in setting up the
school in 1969 as an alternative, open art school for students not able to get
into Geidai and who could not afford one of the much more expensive private
art schools. Artists volunteered to do courses there, and the school’s history
has been a parade of illustrious figures over the decades.

On a rainy afternoon during Tokyo art week in 2010, the chaotic meeting
room at Bigakko was alive with a group of this year’s teachers. They were
there to view or experience the graduation works that had just come out. It
was quite a strange collection of bits and pieces, installations and bizarre per-
formances. There was an impromptu after party going on, with rice snacks
and cans of beer; lots of talk and laughter. Looking around, it was almost a
gathering of the original Showa 40 nen kai. Makoto Aida and Hiroyuki Mat-
sukage were vying for attention as always with scurrilous jokes. There were
joined by the charming Parco Kinoshita, a gentle giant of a man. There was
also the younger video artist Jin Kurashige and installation artist Midori Mi-
tamura. Makoto Aida’s wife Hiroko Okada was also present. She is a Mizuma
artist with a similar warped humour to Aida’s, who manages to infuse her
work with an unlikely feminist sensibility. In the past, she has sometimes in-
voluntarily found herself part of Aida’s works: for example, when he started
filming her giving birth, as she explains in her notes “Greetings from the
wife”, for his DVD, Mukiryoku Tairiku. In a series of dubious “girly photos”
Aida did for BT in 2009, one of them presented a naked airbrushed picture of

202 PART FIVE

his wife entitled “38 minus 24 = 14”. Their ten year old son, Torajiro, said to
be a prodigy himself, was running around and playing on a hand-held com-
puter game.

Perhaps the answer to the big Aida question could be found here? With the
inevitable cigarette and can of Sapporo beer in hand, it is possible that Aida
could still have the last laugh. Flicking through the catalogues or the DVD, the
young collaborators and co-conspirators can always be seen crowding round
him in the photos or video footage. Technically extraordinary himself, Makoto
Aida has been an inspiring and generous teacher. Some of the most exciting
things on the Tokyo scene during these years have sat in a direct lineage from
Aida. A blog I posted about him the week of a new opening in Spring 2010
got 2000 hits in a week – from fans and students mainly. It was clear, in other
words, that there was a real “school” of art here, an Aida school, of which his
contemporaries may be jealous. Like a parent slowly resigning himself to the
declining years of middle age, Aida could yet fulfill some of his wildest ambi-
tions – in his children.

During the late 2000s, at least one international curator was alive to the broad
influence that Aida has had on younger artists responding in new ways to the
inspiration of the 1990s and after. Gabriel Ritter’s involvement with Aida has
tried to establish his name correctly in the account of Japanese contemporary
art’s golden years. Ritter worked with Paul Schimmel at MOCA, before start-
ing a PhD at UCLA. While developing his academic credentials in an earlier,
more classical, period of Japanese art, he continued his work as an indepen-
dent curator. In 2007 he brought a sampling of the best of contemporary Japa-
nese video art to MOCA with the show Out of the Ordinary. One of the works
was Tabaimo’s public conVENience (2006), a harrowing animated video she
made for Venice that was set inside a public women’s toilet in Japan. Paul
Schimmel couldn’t believe the asking price: only $20,000. He snapped it up
for the MOCA collection. There was also Aida’s brilliant The Video of a Man
Calling Himself Bin Laden and Staying in Japan (2005), which he performed

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 203
as a joke for friends who said with a beard he looked just like Bin Laden.
While drunkenly enjoying sake at a traditional nomiya style table, Aida told
the world in simple Japanese how he had renounced terrorism and was now
mellowing out living in rural Japan.

In his next project, Ritter raised support to bring a sampling of the best of the
new young action artists to Los Angeles. Working with an alternative art space
funded by Toyota, Tokyo Nonsense (2008) was a showcase of a wacky, reck-
less and energetic new generation of artists who have developed with Aida as
their mentor. The opening drew a crowd of LA hipsters, who might have been
expecting something like Murakami’s famous touring shows, or something
closer to the nearby Royal/T in Culver City, the alternative Japanese pop cul-
ture space and maid café opened
by collector Sue Hancock to
house her impressive collection
of kawaii style pop art. Instead,
they were astonished to find a
feast of urban stunts, explosive
performances, and surreal “gag
art” (comedy art) reflecting To-
kyo in the late 2000s. Aida and
followers’ art had strong roots
in the Japanese popular comedy
tradition, with its raucous and
uncompromising sense of street
humour. It also had a populist,
rabble rousing social dimension
that suggested that after two de-
cades of escape and introversion Ellie-chan of Chim ↑ Pom, holding up t-shirt during auction show
for I'm Bokan, P-House, Roppongi (2007). Photo by author.
young artists were beginning to
CHIM ↑ POM
find a social voice.

204 PART FIVE

Makoto Aida, A Video of A Man Calling Himself Bin Laden Staying in Japan (2005), 8'14". Courtesy of
Mizuma Art Gallery.

Makoto Aida, Edible Artificial Girls, Mi-Mi Chan - Mi-Mi Roll (2001). © AIDA Makoto. Courtesy of
Mizuma Art Gallery.

MAKOTO AIDA

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 205
Central to Ritter’s show were the six person art unit Chim ↑ Pom, who at the
end of the 2000s became the most discussed – and notorious – young artists
on the Tokyo scene. Chim ↑ Pom looked like a pop group. Five perpetually
grinning young guys having a good laugh, and a girl – Ellie chan – a blonde
“airhead” who was a permanently method acting “Shibuya girl”. They were
all in their mid twenties and had been part of Makoto Aida’s group for several
years. They either studied with him at Bigakko, or came along for fun. Ellie
was the model for an infamous Aida painting of a naked girl and salamander
when she was a teenager; the boys were stunt men in several of Aida’s biggest
conceptual experiments.

Chim ↑ Pom made videoed performances of their humourous “Jackass” style

stunts, that offered an oblique comment on the black absurdities of contempo-
rary Tokyo life. In 2006, Chim ↑ Pom went out and caught a bunch of Shibuya
rats, stuffing them and decorating them as Pokemon heroes, while taunting the
company to sue them. The resulting exhibition was called, laughably, Super-
rat. In I’m Bokan (I’m “boom”, 2007), as a homage to Lady Diana, they took
some Takashi Murakami Vuitton bags and other tacky Shibuya girl accesso-
ries to Cambodia and blew them up with landmines, before selling them for
auction to a rapt Tokyo art crowd in the new P-House in Roppongi. In Black
of Death (2008), they videod Ellie-chan on the back of a moped with a dead
stuffed crow in her hand driving around the famous sites of Tokyo early in the
morning. A crowd of angry black crows swarmed in the skies above them as
they careered past Shibuya 109 and the Diet building. Governor Ishihara made
big political capital from vowing to rid the city of its vermin, but the crows
still pick over the remains of the night in the streets of Shibuya when the party
goers have finally gone home with the first light. In autumn 2008, they went
down to Hiroshima and flew an airplane in the blue sky that wrote “Pika”
(flash) in white smoke above the Hiroshima war memorial.

It was this last stunt that really attracted attention. They had been invited to
do a show at the Hiroshima Contemporary Art Museum, and it was wrongly

206 PART FIVE

thought that the Museum itself had sanctioned the airplane “performance”. A
scandal exploded, exposing the chief curator Yukie Kamiya, who had to disas-
sociate the museum from the art group, and cancel the planned show. The iro-
ny was, of course, that superstar Chinese artist, Cai Guo Qiang, was allowed
to more or less do the same thing, with permission, exploding his fireworks in
the sky over Hiroshima as part of an official memorial. Chim ↑ Pom gained
notoriety, and the events were written about in a specially produced book
about them soon after, with art writer Kenichi Abe.

Chim ↑ Pom’s activities have been officially managed by Mujin-to Produc-

tion gallerist, Rika Fujiki, who was delighted to become a quasi music and
video producer for their collectible spin off productions. But some observers
in Tokyo have questioned whether, or to what extent, Chim ↑ Pom were in fact
really a cover and proxy for Makoto Aida’s ever fertile imagination. He often
appeared at talk shows with the group.
Apart from the articulate leader Ushiro,
the rest of the members would sit there
silently while Aida talked for them. Aida
was at least their dominant educational
influence: they were clearly his children.
The game took Chim ↑ Pom to the top of
Bijutsu Techo’s lists of emerging artists
in 2010. It also secured them a very vis-
ible place in the 2010 Roppongi Cross-
ing, which featured several other artists
or units reflecting an active albeit warped
engagement with contemporary Japanese
society and its post-Bubble condition.
Sociologist and Art Writer Yoshitaka Mouri, Tokyo
National University of the Arts. Courtesy of Yoshitaka As Geidai based sociologist, Yoshitaka
Mouri.
Mouri, has analysed in his writings on
ART WRITERS art and social engagement in post-Bubble

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 207
Japan, it is sometimes difficult to discern the clear politics in the art when the
artists looks so much like pop idols playing an empty media game of provoca-
tion and satire. Yet there was a relationship between the Tokyo Nonsense art-
ists and a new kind of street politics that emerged, surprisingly, after the self-
styled nihilism of the 90s generation and the professed numbness of the zero
zero generation, in the late 2000s. Mouri points particularly to the street art
protests that galvanized many artists over plans to remove homeless people
from a Shibuya passageway that was – with the dominant logic of creative
city development – planned for a new set of smart gallery and creative de-
sign spaces. The concerns were prefigured by Aida’s longstanding theme of
homelessness in his work, such as his famous temporary cardboard Shinjuku
Castle (1995) that he installed and left as accommodation for four days in the
shadow of Shinjuku’s monster corporate towers.

But will Makoto Aida’s visions ever translate? Aspects of Chim ↑ Pom’s crude
humour could be easy enough to grasp, and they have been shown internation-
ally in the US and Asia. But they remained a phenomenon that only really
made sense amidst the cultural reference points and consumer overload of
Tokyo. Aida himself has always been condemned by his reluctance to do as
Takashi Murakami and others have done so willingly: to denature the local
origins of the art in order to sell it to the global market. One of Aida’s most
brilliant and funny moves was also one of his most self-defeating: the refusal
to communicate in English. This reached a peak, appropriately during his
Yokohama Triennial show (2001), built around his self-assisting suicide ma-
chine (that didn’t ever work). Aida was right of course. Why should he speak
English? Why should he provide anything more than a battered, half-way use-
less dictionary, for example, to explain his 1997 manga, Mutant Hanako – to
defective observers who happened during the years of Cool Japan to wander
into the vaudeville street show of contemporary Tokyo as naïve, impression-
able foreigners? One had to admire his coglione, as the Italians would say. Yet,
during these years, it was Maurizio Cattelan seen up on the Venice walls, or the

208 PART FIVE

Chapman Brothers celebrated in Venice installations, not Makoto Aida. A lot of
Aida’s best ideas were flattened and amputated as they got transmitted around
the world in a more Western-friendly style. They became part of an art history
called Superflat, appropriated by others and bearing the stamp ©MURAKAMI.

Space for Our Future

The Echo was like Emotional Site at Sagacho, a kind of final hurrah for anoth-
er alternative art space about to disappear on the Tokyo-Yokohama landscape.
The space in question, ZAIM in Yokohama closed down in March 2010. With-
out such spaces new art cannot develop. This was the void in which Murakami’s
GEISAI thrived. In terms of Tokyo’s gallery scene, the situation was obvious.
By the end of the 2000s, Atsuko Koyanagi was no longer actively looking for
new young artists, and SCAI The Bathhouse had mostly restricted their inter-
national art fair shows to local Asian destinations. For years, Tomio Koyama
and Hiromi Yoshii ploughed lines of mainly derivative pop art or kawaii artists
as the only viable growing commercial line. After the 2008 financial crisis,
almost nothing was selling for a while. Artists were giving up and leaving to
go abroad again, passing other older ones who had tried to make it in Berlin,
London or New York but were now giving up and heading home for an easier
middle age. These were lean times for everyone.

The new gallerists, the young survival artists, and the mid career artists had
all been trying to create a space for their own work. Space for a future, when
there had been, since the 90s, no future. The struggle for space has always
been the defining characteristic of the Tokyo art scene, finding a way to de-
velop in the margins of the city. Or, to use a metaphor often used by the 90s
art organizer, Masato Nakamura, as a logic for his urban art interventions, it
was trying to make art and make meaning in the “cracks” of the city, between
the walls of tightly packed buildings, or the small amounts of personal space
between its always hurried residents.

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 209
The fight for space also became the modus operandi of a younger genera-
tion of curators, who were frustrated with the conservatism of the traditional
museum world. Again, as with artists, there had often been a dynamic of first
moving externally out of Japan, in search of the freedom and space of fresh
international experiences, before returning to start fighting for these things in-
ternally. As narrated by one such curator, Mizuki Endo it, Japan’s weak NPO
culture led to a dearth of the kind of political alternative art spaces that were
found everywhere else in most East, South and South East Asian societies.
In these countries, artists were much more engaged as an avant garde social
voice, and art has often been used as a vehicle for protest against repressive
regimes. A case in point is Japan’s close neighbour, South Korea. Fukuoka
curator Raiji Kuroda, the most important supporter of new Asian art trends in
Japan, made his early career as a specialist in Korean contemporary art and its
edgy, highly politicized agenda.

Japan is quite different as a country. Pacified by long years of economic suc-

cess and commercial gratification, art in Japan has typically often sublimated
its political agenda into its methods and techniques. The Echo artists, for ex-
ample, were not overtly political; there was none of the residual anti-Ameri-
can radicalism that could be found in the 60s generation. Yet in their “neutral”
stance, the quiet return to intensive individual technique, and their concern
with avoiding the excesses and waste of the plastic world of reproduction cel-
ebrated by neo-pop, a certain social and political stance was revealed. It spoke
of a more responsible, engaged and sober view of Japan’s future. They offered
a different way of thinking about art in a material world far from Takashi Mu-
rakami’s superflat pop life. It was one much more in tune with environmental
and social issues that those artists working under intense spatial and financial
constraints – unlike global superstars such as Murakami – have to increas-
ingly encounter in their everyday practice.

Although this could be seen in a number of initiatives in Japan, the most strik-
ing example of the new attitude and the new kind of art practices it might lead

210 PART FIVE

Artist Masato Nakamura. Photo by Ryosuke Takeda. Courtesy of 3331 Arts Chiyoda.

Aerial view of 3331 Arts Chiyoda, converted Rensei Junior High School, near Akihabara. Courtesy of
3331 Arts Chiyoda.

MASATO NAKAMURA

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 211
to, could be found in the movement led by the former “likely lad” Masato Na-
kamura after he renounced the illusions of the commercial Western art world
and returned to make a locally-based art in the city. Clearly, it was a move-
ment that paralleled Fram Kitagawa’s visions of environmental art and rural
redevelopment in Echigo-Tsumari. Nakamura, though, has sought to pursue
something similar in the heart of Tokyo, building on his extraordinary powers
of organization and political persuasion. He first persuaded the city ward of
Chiyoda to give him an alternative art space, called Kandada, in an underused
building near Jimbocho. This became the base in 1997 of his art organization
Command N. Teaching at Geidai, he created the “sustainable art” group in the
mid 2000s to foster a new kind of art that broke with the commercial concerns
of his own 60s generation. They put on a number of art shows in and around
Ueno that used abandoned buildings or recycled waste materials, and the units
it fostered participated strongly in the Echigo-Tsumari and Setouchi festivals.
All this was a prologue for the creation in early 2010 of Tokyo’s largest alter-
native art initiative, under Nakamura’s leadership, with the conversion of the
abandoned Rensei Junior High School near Akihabara into a large art centre
called 3331 Arts Chiyoda.

As Masato Nakamura explains, the location of 3331 in Chiyoda ward was

highly symbolic. It is a part of the city where all kinds of lines of transport
come together, a historical meeting point and entrance to the city in the
North East, which has faded over the decades in the dramatic switch of ur-
ban development towards the South and South West boom zones. The world
knows Akihabara, but this unusual electronics hub is distinct from the rather
grey and shabby neighbourhoods around it. Chiyoda is mainly made up of
small businesses and factories that have born the brunt of the city’s decline.
This is one reason for the underuse of property in the area. Then, back in the
late 1990s, when building development started again with a new infusion of
global direct investment, the new buildings that went up in Chiyoda were left
unused because of a sudden over supply of rented space. At the same time,

212 PART FIVE

the population of the ward was declining and ageing sharply, as younger
families moved out. Chiyoda has a bizarrely distorted population profile. A
day time population of 800,000, shrinks to an overnight 40,000 when all the
commuting workers go home. Rensei Junior High School was once a big
inner city school, at which the Mayor of Chiyoda ward, Masami Ishikawa,
himself studied. By 2003 the population of the local district had shrunk so
much due to Japan’s post-Bubble blight of young couples refusing to procre-
ate, that they had to close the school. After his proud memories as a student,
the Mayor decided after long negotiations to invest some sentimental public
money in this old building.

The project galvanized many leading figures of the Tokyo art world not
aligned with Mori or the other major museums. For instance, the graphic
designer Naoki Sato brought his property connections, the Kyoto based aca-
demic Shigeo Goto his aggressive support for new art, and art writer Tetsuya
Ozaki his open minded enthusiasm for Tokyo culture. Numerous other artists
and curators also joined the large circle of people willing to put some commit-
ment into a new idea of art in the city, a long way from the expensive plastic
and steel public art seen in the other, richer half of the city. A new spatial shift
in the Tokyo art world towards the North and East had already been under-
way, first with Kiyosumi, then with the openness of Chiyoda-ku to art initia-
tives and the availability of new spaces in and around Asakusabashi. And to
the North East in the old shitamachi quarter of Mukojima, there was Takaaki
Soga’s Contemporary Art Factory in a converted old family electrics factory,
that has, often in cooperation with the nearby Asahi Art Square Building, long
provided a alternative art space for shows and events in the area with strong
connections to the local community.

The low rent charms of Sumida-ku and Arakawa-ku in the North of Tokyo
have often provided many artists with a base. Yet there, like everywhere in
urban Japan, the atmosphere of “Real Tokyo” found in the shitamachi has,
during these years, been rapidly disappearing. Almost weekly, it sometimes

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 213
 "Tokyo Sky Tree" television tower near Sumida river. Photo by author.

Midori Mitamura, Knitting Woman in the Tenement House (2007). Taken during the Mukojima Art
Project, a month long "knitting" residency (2007), and part of the protest against the television tower
in Sumida-ku. Photo by Art Unit Midori Ikeda (Midori Mitamura + Masanori Ikeda). Courtesy of
Midori Mitamura.

ART IN THE CITY

214 PART FIVE

seems, old kissaten (coffee shops), wooden sento (public baths), or retro din-
ing bars were being torn down or forced out of business, to make way for new
development, and the inevitable arrival of more conbini, pachinko parlours
and McDonald’s. Against this, art became central to local activism. It was par-
ticularly galvanized by the plans for a gigantic new Tokyo Television Tower
(the so-called “Tokyo Sky Tree”) in Sumida being brought in to force new
investment, wiping out the traditional working class neighbourhood around
it. It all looked like a parallel to what had happened with the Roppongi Hills
development in the South East ten years previously. They were like the “twin
towers” of high city politics and corporate power rising up to bury the old city
with a very different kind of vision of the future.

3331 Arts Chiyoda was quite consciously a community project in this lineage.
A part of the activities of the centre were from the beginning dedicated to art
in the community, involving schools, local residents and associations in col-
laborative efforts. Unusually, though, major artists were often involved. For
example, in the early days of the centre in 2010, Katsuhiko Hibino, a well
known pop artist from the 80s, decorated the building with flags stitched by
members of the local community. Masato Nakamura also positioned 3331 at
the centre of a national and increasingly international network of NPO based
art spaces across Japan and in East Asia. 3331 offered a portal and booking
site for the network, as well as a programme for visitors to Japan. Most days,
3331 was also alive with artist organized talks, openings and shows. The logic
is very much to build it on the mass of young artists needing a location and fo-
cus for their careers after art school. They have always been such a hugely un-
derused resource. Perhaps the key part of the school was to provide new kinds
of courses and training in art management that might structure the art world in
a new way less reliant of hierarchical traditions. Nakamura points out that ev-
eryone involved, whether they intend to be an artist, curator or some other art
world role, would all get hands on experience of all aspects of art production,
including raising money or hammering nails in the wall.

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 215
The renovation of the old school, and the creation of a well furnished art
centre with all kinds of commercial, exhibition, and production space, was
funded by Chiyoda ward with a budget of ¥200 million. The centre was given
a five year lease, extendable to ten, under Nakamura’s leadership, once they
had raised ¥30 million themselves. He separated the activities of Command N,
making the original art group an independent NPO under the co-directorship
of his long time collaborator Peter Bellars, and creating Command A as a
management structure for 3331. But the deal was that the Centre had to be
self-supporting, which has meant combining its mission for education and
alternative art with commercial revenue. A number of galleries and shops thus
were also rented rooms in the corridors, as well as paid exhibitions. Everyone
was worried about its financial viability. Chiyoda ward might waver in its
commitment, and Nakamura faced pressure from his main employer, Tokyo
University of the Arts, who saw a conflict in his roles as teacher and manager
of the centre. Yet 3331 has remained a hugely idealistic venture, one fitting for
the corridors of a building that was intended for the education of young chil-
dren who are no longer being born.

In the Spring of 2010, a surprising thing happened. Masato Nakamura was

in the middle of a meeting when a very unexpected visitor dropped in to say
hello. It was Takashi Murakami. Murakami was in town in connection with
his sponsorship of called Chaos Lounge, an event promoting an even younger
new wave of artists at the Takahashi Collection space in Hibiya. It was an-
other attempt by Murakami to rejuvenate his activities by promoting yet more
unknown young pop artists using anime and new technology. As always it had
generated a lot of press attention and buzz, even while every one else in Tokyo
was wondering how he could always get away with such brazen attempts to
detract attention from everything else going on in Tokyo.

Murakami is a Twitter and blogging addict, and he videod the whole story for
his website. Nakamura took Murakami to visit an art student room full of vid-
eo installations. They sat down awkwardly to talk to the camera. Murakami,

216 PART FIVE

who was always the louder and more extrovert of the two, laughed and joked
around with the art students, speaking warmly to “Masato-kun”. They got up
and looked around a couple of other gallery spaces. Murakami, perhaps jok-
ingly, then threatened to sue a fan who was taking a photograph of him. He
exclaimed sugoii ne! (fantastic!) and omoshiroi! (wow, interesting!) a lot as
they walked around. Then, after much persistence, when he finally got Naka-
mura to talk about how the place was financed, he switched off the camcorder
so they could discreetly talk about money.

It was quite a momentous occasion. The relation of these two old friends had
soured badly after 1995. Once Murakami left for New York, he and Nakamura
were set on irrevocably different paths. Nakamura favoured local intervention
and institutional change back home, and slowly but surely created an educa-
tion and community base that might make this possible. He believes in bur-
rowing inside of existing institutions in order to effect change. In the projects
at 3331, and in his experimentations at Geidai and Command N, this could be
witnessed happening. Murakami wanted to just tear everything down. He built
his own corporation to replace traditional galleries and museums and, in GEI-
SAI, a semi-cynical anti-art education system. Each, in other words, built his
alternative art system to respond to the failings of the existing one. It may “just”
be art, but during these years their influence was touching thousands of young
people at a critical moment in their lives and careers.

Masato Nakamura and Takashi Murakami were the brightest of the “likely
lads” of the early 90s, a kind of John Lennon and Paul McCartney of Japanese
contemporary art. Lennon and McCartney were once friends and partners in
creation, but became estranged business moguls exchanging bitter anecdotes
and comments via the media. When McCartney famously showed up with
a guitar at Lennon’s apartment in the Dakota building in New York, Lennon
turned him away saying that he was too busy looking after his kid, Sean. It’s
a sad story. After they split, the two artists were never the same, neither as
powerful, nor as good as when they were together. Nakamura didn’t turn Mu-

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 217
Masato Nakamura, video installation on computer monitors in Akihabara shop during Akihabara TV (1999). Courtesy of
Masato Nakamura and 3331 Arts Chiyoda.

MASATO NAKAMURA

218 PART FIVE

rakami away. It was good to see these two artist friends together again for a
few moments on screen. It was clear a creative reconciliation would be a good
thing for the Tokyo art world.

After a couple of hours, Murakami got back in his taxi and made a second
video reflecting on the meeting. It made for strangely uncomfortably viewing.
Murakami said that he was happy that Nakamura had finally done something.
How good it was, he said, that he had finally positioned himself with an enter-
prise and a company just like his own. Yet while Murakami and his assistants
had been painting happy flowers, and recycling tacky visions of Akihabara
and Cool Japan for the applause of foreigners, Nakamura had, since 1997,
consistently promoted edgy interventionist art in Tokyo. His Akihabara TV in-
terventions of 1999 questioned the changing city and the whole point of doing
contemporary art in it. It didn’t just reproduce Akihabara in a gallery as Mu-
rakami has done. Rather, Nakamura and the other artists he invited intervened
into the everyday functioning of Akihabara by putting avant garde video art
on the shop window television screens and computer minitors around town.
Or his landmark conbini and McDonald’s installations of the late 90s. In
TRAUMATRAUMA (1997) he persuaded the four major convenience store
corporations to let him borrow their mesmerizing shop front neon strip lights,
which he installed at SCAI The Bathhouse. These colours are arguably the
most visible urban iconography of Japanese cities; indeed cities all around
Asia where Japanese convenience stores are found. He extended the idea in
1999, at SCAI, and then Venice in 2001, by borrowing a global icon: McDon-
ald’s golden arches. When asked why, he joked it was “M” for Masato, and
yellow was his favourite colour. But the implication of putting these brand
symbols inside the Japanese national pavilion was clear. The installations not
only predated Murakami’s stunning branding deals with the Mori Building
Co. and Louis Vuitton, but also took a more rigorous theoretical line on how
and why the artist should make contracts with the corporations that dominate
Japanese (and global) consumer identity. At the end of the video, Murakami

AFTER THE GOLD RUSH: THE NEW JAPANESE ART SCENE IN THE 2000s 219
rather ruefully admitted that Nakamura’s community interventions and his
subversive organizational form of art practice had made him think about how
he might pursue more corporate responsibility in the world of capitalism he so
joyfully embraced. Maybe he did have something to learn from the ethics and
politics of Nakamura’s project.

And so the end of 2010 marked the end of another decade. The 1990s, at least
viewed from Tokyo, were arguably best represented by Makoto Aida’s ex-
traordinary production. The 2000s, in contrast, surely did belong to Takashi
Murakami, from the first Super Flat that opened the decade at Parco depart-
ment store, all the way to the thousands upon thousands of confused tourists
who saw his work in the famous royal chambers of Versailles just over ten
years later. Yoshitomo Nara’s decade wasn’t too bad either. He had become
an immortal art guru himself in all his travels. He had gone from the first big
show in Yokohama to becoming the toast of New York City in the Autumn of
2010. This was happening just as Murakami – and the scandal that followed
his show – was filling the press across the water in France. The future might
look gloomy for everyone else but, as the new decade began, Japan was surely
still “cool” for Murakami and Nara.

220 PART FIVE

 EPILOGUE

After the Tsunami

After their triumphant 2000s, the legacy of Takashi Murakami and Yoshitomo
Nara was now, assuredly, art history. They would have their page in the text-
books. But the question remaining at the end of the decade was: How long
would the world continue to be fascinated by their reproduction and recycling
of images from an imaginary Neo-Tokyo or a lost childhood in post-War Ja-
pan, so long after their generation’s heyday in the early to mid-1990s? And
would Japan ever find a next generation? The country needed new ambassa-
dors, and new images in the pavilion.

The staleness of the Western vision of Japanese contemporary art was already
apparent to some critics who questioned the recycling of Nara’s greatest hits
at Asia Society in the Autumn of 2010. And the issue was central to the selec-
tion proposed for David Elliott’s long awaited exhibition, Bye Bye Kitty!!!

221
Between Heaven and Hell in Contemporary Japanese Art, that was to open at
Japan Society in New York, in March of 2011. Elliott was determined to tell a
different story to the one now cast in stone by Murakami: a selection of “other”
important artists of the 1990s and 2000s, centering on the legacy of Makoto
Aida and Mizuma gallery, the rising importance of the somewhat younger
women artists Miwa Yanagi and Chiharu Shiota, and the sculptors Motohiko
Odani and Kohei Nawa. Downbeat and troubled in its mood, Bye Bye Kitty!!!
seemed like a repudiation by Japan Society of Little Boy and the laughing pop
monster it unleashed in 2005. It was not so much farewell to Hello Kitty, as
“Bye Bye Little Boy”. Time was being called on Cool Japan at last.

As it was, any lingering image of Cool Japan would not last long. On March
11th 2011, a little after 3pm in the afternoon, Cool Japan was – along with
many lives and a large part of the Northern Japan coastline – swept away by
a devastating earthquake and tsunami that irrevocably changed Japan once
again. As everybody recognized, it was certainly the end of an era and, as a
beleaguered Prime Minister Naoto Kan noted, high time a new Japan emerged
from the despair.

The atmosphere in post-tsunami Tokyo was strange. On the face of it, it didn’t
take long for Japan to get on its feet. Even as the Fukushima reactors were
spewing unknown quantities of radiation into the air and water, and the politi-
cians dithered, the famed Japanese bureaucratic state quickly got into action
moving populations, building new roads, and restoring much of the country to
a kind of normality. Anxious Tokyoites checked the radiation levels daily on
new internet sites, or felt the aftershocks (over 1000 in the first month after),
but apart from the dimmed lights and reduced air conditioning – and the al-
most total absence of Western tourists – the city didn’t seem so different.

The real change was symbolic, and felt internationally: as the empty transcon-
tinental jet flights underlined. With the government’s struggle to brand Japan in
the newly competitive Asian environment, tourism in Japan had lived off Cool

222 EPILOGUE
Japan for a decade in the 2000s. It had hitched traditional arts and culture to the
weird and wonderful worlds of Akihabara and Shibuya, and elevated all kinds
of creative faces as representatives. In contemporary art, Takashi Murakami
and Yoshitomo Nara were the poster boys – overgrown boys, in fact, confirm-
ing all the other international stereotypes that Japanese was a hopelessly infan-
tillized society refusing to grow up or face up to its demons.

After March 2011, naive celebrations of bizarre Japanese pop culture or futur-
istic Neo Tokyo were going to look tasteless. Cute kids who once looked cool
now looked silly. Murakami tried to plough on regardless: filling the Gagosian
gallery in London that summer with a three metre high maid café waitress
with huge breasts and a pair of massive cartoon genitalia. But the images that
resonated now were the infinite slag-heap piles of salary men etched into Ma-
koto Aida’s massive painting Ash Colour Mountain (2009-10), or Dialogue
with Absence (2010), the virgin’s dress wired up with tubes of blood by post-
cancer-treatment Chiharu Shiota – two of the arresting works chosen by El-
liott for Japan Society that Spring.

That was the art that New York saw, and the intellectual and creative elites
of the city duly turned up and emptied their pockets for the Japan Society’s
immediate charity drive. Either way, though, it was not going to put the tour-
ists back on the planes. Japan might face a decade in which the only images
Westerners would associate with the place would be wobbling skyscrapers,
boats, trucks and people being swept away by terrible waves, and nuclear
reactors exploding. Holidays in wonderland were cancelled – for the foresee-
able future. There was nothing more “uncool” than the thought of being there
in Japan while the Big One rocks Tokyo, or worrying about how invisible
radioactive particles might be poisoning you as you enjoy sake and fish in a
downtown restaurant.

In the Japanese art world, after the tsunami, things were even more depressed
than usual. Art in and around Tokyo shut down for up to two months: museum

223
shows, openings, residencies, fellowships, installations – cancelled. That
year’s Art Fair Tokyo was postponed and Tokyo Art Week in April was wiped
out. It might be a long time before the commercial world would pick up again.
Art world people always party hard. But now, when the openings started up
again, the hard drinking, chain smoking celebrations seemed a little more des-
perate. More than ever people were talking of leaving – or begging foreigners
to come back.

Yet the Japanese art world had perhaps changed, too, in ways that confirmed a
deeper shift that had taken place during the 2000s. The commercial obsession of
that decade seemed out of place now compared to the imperative and obligation
to do something about the disasters. In Japan, and in the major centres of the
Japanese art diaspora such as New York, London and Berlin, artists realized they
had the ability – and leisure – to mobilize. Everywhere, they engaged in events,
donated to auctions, or planned ambitious artist interventions. In all places, the
artists received an outpouring of sympathy and support for Japan; they also
found a sense of community for themselves. The country’s image in eyes of the
world was everywhere seen to be positive and affectionate.

In a sense, the trend confirmed something that perhaps had always been obvious
about the role of contemporary art in this perpetually post-Bubble, post-disaster
society. Art was a kind of welfare for a society unable to to handle its problems
politically, or absorb and utilize the creativity of its youth. It was an alternative
vision to the economic juggernaut that was still polarizing urban and rural soci-
ety, despoiling the landscape, or wiping out the charms of the old city.

Viewed this way, it is easy to make sense of the choices and commitments of
the major artists of the 60s generation: Takashi Murakami’s partners and ri-
vals, the “likely lads”. Community-centred work had long been the practice of
Yukinori Yanagi, Masato Nakamura and Yutaka Sone. Yanagi and Nakamura
indeed explicitly came back to Japan after getting disillusioned with the global
commercial market at the end of the 1990s. On one reading, Yoshitomo Nara

224 EPILOGUE
had also come home and become a community artist. Makoto Aida’s warped
commentaries and his engagement with homelessness issues was also a form
of local politics, interventions that had deeply influenced a younger genera-
tion of artists in Tokyo. The Echigo-Tsunami and Setouchi festivals were mas-
sive community interventions, that invented new roles for artists in unlikely
community settings. Art in the city projects had been mobilized to give new
meaning to culture in deprived or depressed urban areas. But perhaps the sig-
nificance of the communal turn in contemporary art could be appreciated most
clearly through the example of that other “likely lad” from the original Geidai
gang, Tsuyoshi Ozawa.

Tsuyoshi Ozawa was always a quieter member of the Showa 40 nen kai along-
side the extroverts Makoto Aida and Hiroyuki Matsukage. His work since the
early 90s had in fact seen him pioneer a form of “relational art” some time be-
fore this movement in global terms was recognized and named as such by the
art critic Nicolas Bourriaud. His long running series sought to find a meaning
for community art interventions that had been squeezed out of conventional
art spaces. He had been wondering ever since the beginning: What is the point
of art? Who is it really for? How can new spaces for art be created in a hyper-
modernized society where there is no space or time? A milk box for artists
hanging on a street wall was one way. A couple of days out of time with lo-
cal residents shopping and cooking together could be another. What became
obvious after March 2011, in the light of all the other community efforts now
being made by artists, was that Ozawa’s gently humorous, humanistic, com-
municative art work was just the kind of art to find its true place and role in
this situation. This was Ozawa’s moment.

At Düsseldorf Kunsthalle in May 2011 a large show opened of the Showa

40 nen kai – both a retrospective and a presentation of new work. It was the
first time the group of 1965 born artists were recognized in the West as a
major part of the history of Japanese contemporary art in the 1990s and after.
Ozawa contributed a series of historical Nasubi galleries and a special show-

225
 Artist Tsuyoshi Ozawa. Courtesy of Tsuyoshi Ozawa.

Showa 40 nen kai at opening of The Group 1965 - We are Boys! at Düsseldorf
Kunsthalle, May 2010. From top left: Oscar Oiwa, Hiroyuki Matsukage,
Tsuyoshi Ozawa, Parco Kinoshita, Sumihisa Arima. Bottom: Makoto Aida
(left), with Curators Gregor Jansen and Inka Christmann, and (right) Manager
Hitomi Hasegawa. Photo by author.

TSUYOSHI OZAWA AND FRIENDS

226 EPILOGUE
ing of his Museum of Soy Sauce Art (1999): a small purpose built gallery in
which the entire history of Japanese art is retold in works painted or executed
in soy sauce. But his central contribution was a performance on the opening
night, in which he gave a talk and slideshow. It was a kind of poem or chil-
dren’s story, which eventually became a more elaborated video installation.

There was an artist who lived in a big city. It was about 200 km away from
a terrible poisonous fire that was burning. The artist sat at home wondering
what he could do. He always wanted to help people with his art, but it was not
easy. What could be done with art that might make any difference? This time,
he was like everyone else in the big city. He sat there watching the terrible
news on the internet and TV.

One day, about 1000 people – lots and lots of children – arrived in his home-
town. They had had to flee their homes because of the fire, and stayed at the
local school, camping rough. He visited them, to see if he could help. They
were trying to improvize the graduation ceremonies they had missed at their
school, which had had to close down. He proposed to have a workshop mak-
ing kites with the children. They tried to have some fun. After the workshop,
the kids played with the kites, they were happy and smiling again, for a little
while. He was happy to see it.

The artist thought he should visit where these people came from. He knew
some friends there and travelled to this place. He had to take a bus, as there
were no trains working. In the town there was just a few people. The atmo-
sphere was fear. They had to wear masks, and be careful everywhere. The
smell was bad. Still, it was spring. Even here there were flowers blooming,
cherry blossoms. He took some photographs.

The artist talked with his friends. He had an idea. There was an art work he
sometimes made. Strange weapons – guns and bazookas – made out of veg-
etables: the Vegetable Weapon series (begun in 2001). He would travel to

227
different places, in different countries, and meet some locals. They would go
shopping for local vegetables. He would make a gun out of the vegetables,
then take military style photos of girls holding the guns. Then everybody
would get together and cook the vegetables in a big party, according to a lo-
cal recipe. The art work was the whole event: the relations it made or changed
between the people; the small new space in time it created. After he had done
a series of these, in many different countries, he had a cook book made.

He thought he would do another one of these events. The artist went back to
the town. The people living there had had to leave their houses and live in
public refuges. This place, not far away, in fact was famous for its vegetables.
But because of the fire, the people growing the vegetables could no longer
sell them. So the artist and his friends got together with some of the locals
living rough, mostly young people. They bought some of the vegetables they
shouldn’t buy from the farmers. Some of the farmers were desperate: they
were close to giving up because they had lost their livelihood. Some of the
locals were angry: they didn’t understand or appreciate what the artist was do-
ing. Others were happy: it was an important event. The art was relational, and
it was conflictual: an intervention of sorts.

They made two guns, and two sets of photos. They were sitting eating un-
der the cherry blossom. One of the guns they could eat, one of them they
shouldn’t. They cooked everything in a stew, and also made tempura. It was
an art event. He was a famous artist. But he didn’t have any plans for an exhi-
bition of these photos. He needed time to think about it. It was a very delicate
projet. The dinner was fun, though.

That was the end of Tsuyoshi Ozawa’s talk. As always, he had said what he
had to say quietly. His final comment summed up where Japan was in the
long, strange months after March 2011. Nobody knew if, after all this, the
country would get well again or not. Nobody knew. The name of the story was
“Happy Island”: the literal English translation of Fukushima.

228 EPILOGUE
Ozawa’s intervention was just one tiny act in the huge human drama, but it was
paradigmatic. During the 2000s, many other artists similarly started to go out
into the city or to the villages of rural provinces in search of meaning. When
they hadn’t found space or purpose in galleries and museums, they found it in
empty schools, or abandoned country houses. In this sense, Bye Bye Kitty!!!
failed to represent the most important trend of all in Japanese contemporary art
of this period. It was limited by its restriction to the conventional white cube
space, as much by the small scale of Japan Society’s galleries.

As the mobilizations after March 2011 demonstrated, so much else could be

seen to be going on in Japanese contemporary art. Japanese contemporary art
in the 1990s and 2000s had in many ways been a long struggle: a fight against
time, and a fight for space. The most successful version, Superflat, had tried to
stop time, flatten history, and lock visions of Japan into an eternal childhood
of pop culture and otaku obsessions. It had reigned supreme, while others had
sought to engage in different ways with Japanese society. Faced with the limi-
tations of the Japanese museum and gallery world, some had gone looking
for alternatives in unconventional places. By moving out into abandoned rural
provinces or unused pockets of the city, artists had discovered new spaces and
a new sense of freedom. Facing the speeded up time of globalization, and the
problematic consequences of modernization in the country, others had sought
to reinsert art back into a past it had already lost. After the gold rush, artists
had rediscovered purpose beyond the commercial market and the big global
game. After the tsunami, they had faced the silence – of devastation and of
clocks stopped. But artists could also find a purpose here. It might even be
that they had all the time in the world, and all the space they could imagine.
If only its contemporary art could be viewed this way, Japan’s unusual experi-
ences and the extraordinary art it has inspired might have something to show
the rest of the world after all.

229
230
 Sources and Acknowledgements

This book would have been impossible without the help of many friends and
fellow scholars, and the use of innumerable formal and informal sources in
the course of the five years of research in Japan, North America and Europe.
It started life as a research project supported by the Department of Sociology
and the International Institute at UCLA in 2006. Research in Japan in 2007
was made possible by an Abe Fellowship of the Japan Foundation/SSRC
Center for Global Partnership, and research 2008-11 has been supported by
Aarhus University, a Danish government EliteForsk prize funding, and a Eu-
ropean Union Marie Curie International Reintegration Grant.

The intention of the book is to portray the Japanese contemporary art scene in
its full social and economic context during the 1990s and 2000s, and from the
point of view of those active in the Tokyo art world. My aim is to faithfully
reflect as far as possible the voice and viewpoint of the many people I have
met and talked with during my research. It does not seek to present it from the

231
point of view of the two most famous names in the story – Takashi Murakami
and Yoshitomo Nara – as their writings and interviews are already so widely
available. I have, of course, consulted all the available catalogues and litera-
ture by and about these two artists, but theirs is practically the only perspec-
tive ever heard or seen in the West.

As an “outsider” observer of the art world, the sociologist naturally tends to

want to demystify aspects of this world. These are the very things which most
“insider” writings by art critics and art curators tend to reproduce: particularly
the focus on the “genius” of certain artists and the “sublime” status of certain
forms of art. I have my own tastes, of course, but as a sociologist, I have tried
to take a “flat”, non-hierarchical view of the world I encountered. Everyone
I met there, from the lowliest gallery assistant or art student trying to start
out in their career, to the superstar artist jetting from Tokyo to New York and
back, is an important part of the system. I have listened to their stories. The
art world is a complex mix of creators, entrepreneurs, enthusiasts and dogs-
bodies. This is also a reason why artists – particularly famous ones – are not
always the most interesting people to talk to. Ironically, this attitude is the
opposite of what has made curator Hans-Ulrich Obrist – the author of numer-
ous books of interviews with famous artists – so powerful and well known. I
would like to thank everyone who helped along the way, especially those who
made extra time as the project developed to read my drafts, give me advice or
put me right.

I owe a special acknowledgement to several foreign or English language

writing “guides” to the Tokyo art world, who have been involved in the
place far longer than I. Early on the writings of journalist Lucy Birmingham
helped open the world to me; Edan Corkill’s regular bulletin, Japan Art
Scene Monitor (http://jasm.australia.or.jp) is an always invaluable archival
source of information, as are the online writings “Out of Tokyo” by for-
mer ART-iT editor Tetsuya Ozaki (http://www.realtokyo.co.jp), and curator
Roger McDonald’s “Tactical Museum” (http://rogermc.blogs.com). Then, as

232 SOURCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

brilliant guides to the broader cultural and design scenes in Tokyo, there are
the indefatigable “gaijin bloggers”, W. David Marx (http://neojaponisme.
com) and Jean Snow (http://jeansnow.net), as well as the two indispensable
guides to Japanese otaku culture, Patrick Macias and Patrick Galbraith. I
also signal my admiration for the many writers who have been involved in
online English art magazine Tokyo Art Beat (http://www.tokyoartbeat.com),
particularly Ashley Rawlings, now based in New York. I hope my work can
provide an historical companion to the superb city guide book edited by
Ashley Rawlings and Craig Mod, Art Space Tokyo (2nd ed. 2010, see http://
artspacetokyo.com).

This is a journalistic style work, so a full set of references to textual and oral
sources will have to await another more scholarly publication. I can only of-
fer a few basic references here. I have drawn widely on art magazines Bijutsu
Techo and ART-iT, and consulted archives and catalogues held at the library
of the Museum of Contemporary Art (MOT) in Tokyo. Many thanks to edi-
tor Eri Kawade for talking me through some of the key points in BT’s cover-
age of the art scene since the early 1990s, and to Tokyo based artists Peter
Bellars and Mario A. for their advice and taking me through their personal
archives of writings. Curator Dominic Molon kindly offered me sight of his
detailed notes of interviews he made in April 2005 with a series of the same
curators and art world commentators in Japan that I met. I have also learned
much about Japanese politics from long discussions with Kazuto Suzuki of
Hokkaido University.

The starting point for scholarship in English about Japanese modern and
contemporary art is Alexandra Munroe’s Japanese Art After 1945: Scream
Against the Sky (1995), complemented with publications and events linked
to the New York based Post-1945 Japanese Art Discussion Group (PoNJA
GenKon), a list serve organized by Reiko Tomii and Miwako Tezuka (http://
www.ponja-genkon.net). In French, there is Michael Lucken, L’Art du
Japon au XX siècle (2001). Also important are early discussions in a spe-

233
cial edition of Flash Art (1992) on “Japan Today”, by Alexandra Munroe,
Dana Friis-Hansen, Noi Sawaragi and Fumio Nanjo. Not much yet has been
written about the 90s and after in Japan. We are mostly stuck with the heav-
ily airbrushed versions of the Japanese contemporary art world by Takashi
Murakami, and the cloud of work surrounding him and (to a lesser extent)
Yoshitomo Nara. Beyond this, the only other widely available texts in the
West are Midori Matsui, The Age of Micropop (2007), which is strong on so-
ciological analysis but far from representative in its selection of artists, and
Yumi Yamaguchi, Warriors of Art (2007), which is more like an introductory
guide book. There is also Melissa Chiu, Contemporary Asian Art (2010),
which deals in passing with Japan, and in French/English, Sophie Cavaliero,
Nouvelle garde: de l’art contemporain japonais (2011). I have drawn more
directly on Hideki Nakazawa’s excellent but hard-to-find Contemporary
Art History: Japan (2008), as well as some of Midori Matsui’s other writ-
ings, including her two very rich essays “Conversation days: new Japanese
art between 1991 and 1995” (2001) and “Beyond the pleasure room to a
chaotic street: transformations of cute subculture in the art of the Japanese
nineties” (2005). Other excellent curatorial introductions to the Japanese
contemporary art scene can be found in various essays by David Elliott and
Mami Kataoka. In Japanese, I have referred especially to the writings of Noi
Sawaragi (2006), Bijutsu ni nani ga okottaka 1992-2006 (What Happened
to Art 1992-2006), Tamaki Saito (2008), Artist wa kyoukai sen jyo de odoru
(Artists are dancing on the border line), and Kiki Kudo, Post No Future
(2008), as well as the popular “shinsho” style books published by the galler-
ists Tomio Koyama and Hiromi Yoshii. There is also a very useful collection
of interviews by Hiroyasu Yamauchi with leading Tokyo gallerists, G12:
Twelve Gallery Owners (2009), published in English and Japanese.

Parts of this work have been presented at the Asian Studies Conference Ja-
pan, the European Association for Japanese Studies, and American Associa-
tion of Asian Studies conferences, as well as at Akita International Universi-

234 SOURCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ty, Tokyo University of the Arts, Sophia University, Hitotsubashi University,
Waseda University, the Japan Foundation, Tokyo, and as a talk for the exhibi-
tion The Echo at Yokohama ZAIM in September 2008, which later became
a catalogue essay. Many of the chapters started out as essays for my online
ART-iT blog (http://www.art-it.asia/u/rhqiun), which I have been writing
since July 2009. While I cannot here thank everyone in person who has influ-
enced me, nor acknowledge adequately all the scholarship on which I have
drawn, I do owe special thanks to several friends and colleagues: to Gunhild
Borggreen and Anemone Platz, who helped organize the “Visualising Asian
Modernity” project (http://www.vam.ku.dk); to Laura Miller, who opened up
so many aspects of Japanese popular culture to me; to Sharon Kinsella and
her extraordinary writings about contemporary Japan; to Sarah Thornton,
who showed how effectively ethnography could be used in her book Seven
Days in the Art World; to the leading Japanese sociologist of popular culture,
Yoshitaka Mouri, who has advised and assisted me in all kinds of ways; to
James Jack, Olivier Krischer and Julian Worrall, for the numerous discus-
sions we have had; and to curators John Tain and Gabriel Ritter in LA, for
their enthusiastic insider knowledge. Many thanks also to Takashi Machimu-
ra (Hitotsubashi University), Koichi Iwabuchi (Waseda University) and Da-
vid Slater (Sophia University) for their kind hospitality and advice in Tokyo.

I have had fantastic support with research assistance and translation from
Kristin Surak and Misako Nukaga at UCLA, and Motoko Uda Joergensen at
Aarhus University. I also owe thanks to Satomi Verhagen in London for her
help with translation and correction. In the final stages, I must thank again all
the artists, gallerists, gallery assistants, curators and writers, who helped me
piece together access to the images and photos for the book or check facts.

My greatest help and inspiration has been the very many Japanese friends
and acquaintances I have made in the Tokyo art world and elsewhere, who
have shared their news, views, triumphs and frustrations over the years with
me. Many are important characters in the story I tell, others are more anony-

235
mous witnesses, but I must thank everyone who gave their time to talk to me,
who took me to wonderful shows, introduced me to their friends, or took me
along as the curious foreigner to izakaya parties or late night drinks. It was
they who convinced me that this book really needed to be written. In the end,
though, while I have tried to listen to everybody, what is written here is my
interpretation of the recent history of Japanese contemporary art. Any mis-
takes or misinterpretations that remain, therefore, are my own.

236 SOURCES AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

 Cast of Characters / Index

The following is a list of the names of the principle characters who appear in
this book and their roles in the Tokyo art world or their relation to it, as well
as other key informants who are significant figures on the scene. Many other
voices – such as assistant gallerists, art students, and other friends or col-
leagues – I have left anonymous. I talked and/or spent time with about half
the “cast” below; these names appear in bold with dates. Others not in bold
with dates are people I met briefly.

The list contains, in alphabetical order:

Name, role/position (Tokyo unless stated), date of interview/first meeting

(dates in Japanese format), page references (images in italics)

237
Abe Hitoshi, architect (09/05/02) Bacon Francis, artist, Ireland/UK (died 1992) 50
Abe Kenichi, editor & art writer (07/12/15) 207 Banksy, graffiti artist, UK 58, 66
Abe Shinzo, Japanese prime minister (2006-7) Barnes Julia, gallerist & co-director, 101 Tokyo
41, 47 Art Fair (07/10/26)
Aida Makoto, artist (10/04/04) 19, 35, 46, 94, Barney Matthew, artist, US 161, 171-2
96, 97, 107, 113-21, 115, 117, 119-20, 126, 130, Barthes Roland, literary theorist & author,
150, 156, 202-9, 205, 220, 222-3, 225, 226 L’empire des signes (died 1980) 21
Ai Weiwei, artist, China 67, 113, 190 Bellars Peter, artist & former art writer
Akasegawa Genpei, 60s avant garde artist, Hi (07/06/02) 98-9, 216, 233
Red Center art unit & co-founder, Bigakko 94-6, Besher Kara, gallerist & collector (07/12/04)
157, 202 Birmingham Lucy, art writer & journalist
Akita Taka, art producer & owner, P-House 94 (07/07/25) 102, 151, 232
Amano Kazuo, chief curator, Toyota Municipal Birnbaum Daniel, curator 160-2
Museum of Art (10/03/25) Björk, musician, Iceland 171-2
Amano Taro, chief curator, Yokohama Museum Blum Tim, gallerist, Los Angeles (07/01/30) 21,
of Art (07/12/20) 29, 156, 161 27, 34, 87, 121
Amemiya Yosuke, artist (07/10/17) Boesky Marianne, gallerist, New York 22, 30
Ando Tadao, architect 8, 180 Borden Betty, Japan Society, New York
Aoki Jun, architect (09/05/02) 158, 167 (06/10/31)
Aoki Shoichi, photographer & editor FRUiTS Bourriaud Nicolas, curator & theorist of rela-
magazine (07/12/29) 43, 84 tional art 225
Aoshima Chiho, Kaikai Kiki artist 33-4
Aoyama Hideki, gallerist (10/03/20) 196 Cai Guo Qiang, artist, China 67, 186, 190, 207
Aoyama Satoru, artist (07/07/19) 196 Cao Fei, artist, China 161
Araki Nobuyoshi, photographer 35, 59, 105, 166 Cattelan Maurizio, Italy, artist 208
Aratani Tomoko, gallerist (07/11/02) 196 Chagall Marc, modernist artist, Russia (died
Arima Sumihisa, sound artist (11/05/20) 1985) 167
118, 226 Chalayan Hussein, fashion designer, part of Yuko
Arnault Bernard, millionaire, collector & owner Hasegawa's show Space for Your Future 66, 173
of Christie’s auction house, France 57 Chang Johnson, collector, Hong Kong 188
Asada Akira, philosopher & dean of Kyoto Uni- Chapman Brothers, art unit, UK 116-7, 209
versity of Art and Design 19 Chiedo Jeffrey, gallerist (07/07/12)
Asahara Shoko, Aum Shinrikyo cult leader Chim ↑ Pom, art unit (09/06/27) 204, 206-8
(awaiting execution) 85, 109 Cohen Frank, collector, UK 58
Aso Taro, Japanese prime minister (2008-9) 41 Coppola Sofia, film director, Lost in Translation 22
Azumaya Takashi, independent curator Corkill Edan, journalist, Japan Times & former
(09/06/27) public relations officer (MAM) (07/07/23) 144,
199, 232

238 CAST OF CHARACTERS / INDEX

Cornelius (Oyamada Keigo), electronic musi- Gagosian Larry, gallerist 22, 57, 223
cian 84 Glinkowska Aneta, writer, Tokyo Art Beat
(07/10/26)
Darling Michael, curator, Los Angeles 52 Goedhuis Michael, art dealer, New York 188
Deitch Jeffrey, gallerist, New York 39 Gokita Tomoo, artist (08/04/05)
D’Heilly David, independent curator (07/06/04) Goto Shigeo, art writer & professor, Kyoto Uni-
Dumb Type, art unit from 1980s Kyoto art versity of Art and Design 148, 213
scene 152 Groovision, design company, creators of Chap-
Dunst Kirsten, actress & Murakami collaborator, pies, Osaka 20, 47, 66
I’m Turning Japanese (2009) 9
Hanayo, artist (07/12/15)
Eguchi Satoru, artist, New York (11/03/19) Hancock Susan, collector & owner, Royal T,
Eliasson Olafur, artist, Iceland/Denmark 67 Los Angeles (08/04/26) 58, 204
Elliott David, curator & former director, Mori Hara Mikiko, photographer (07/12/01)
Art Museum (08/09/12) 142-6, 145, 150-2, 157, Hara Toshio, museum owner & millionaire 31,
173, 221-3, 234 164-5
Endo Ichiro, artist, part of Gabriel Ritter's show Haring Keith, artist, US 20, 166
Tokyo Nonsense (08/12/20) 204 Hasegawa Hitomi, director, Moving Image
Endo Mizuki, independent curator (10/03/24) Archive & manager, Showa 40 nen kai, Hong
164, 210 Kong, (08/12/17) 226
Enomoto Koichi, artist 196 Hasegawa Yuko, chief curator, Tokyo Metro-
Eubank Donald, writer & formerly journalist, politan Museum of Contemporary Art (MOT)
Japan Times (07/12/11) (07/08/28) 19, 87, 90-1, 94, 112, 159, 164, 169,
169-73
Fairey Shepard, graffiti artist 66 Hatakeyama Hidefumi, manager, Harappa
Foujita Leonard (Tsuguharu), modernist artist NGO, Hirosaki (08/12/24)
116 Hatoyama Yukio, Japanese prime minister (2009-
Friis-Hansen Dana, curator, US 234 10) 179
Fujiki Rika, gallerist, Mujin-To Production Hayashi Fumiko, mayor of Yokohama 162
(07/11/26) 150, 196, 207 Hayashi Toru, artist, New York (10/08/15)
Fujitaka Kosuke, manager & co-founder, Tokyo Helbling Lorenz, gallerist, Shanghai 188-9
Art Beat (07/10/26) Hibino Katsuhiko, artist 65, 215
Fujiwara Hiroshi, cultural entrepreneur & 90s Higashionna Yuichi, artist (10/03/19)
kuriieita guru 84 Hiro Rika, curator, Getty Institute & correspon-
Fukuda Miran, artist (07/10/12) dent, Bijutsu Techo, Los Angeles (08/03/14)
Fukutake Soichiro, founder Naoshima art island Hiromix, photographer 32-3, 84
& Setouchi, millionaire 180, 182 Hirst Damien, artist, UK 9, 21, 50, 51, 53, 55,
62, 67, 69, 92

239
Hitsuda Nobuya, professor of art, Aichi City & gallerist, Island (07/07/17) 148, 195, 199
University of Art, Nagoya 59 Ito Toyo, architect 158,
Honda Osamu, Japan Foundation (07/06/18) Izumi Taro, artist (09/09/01) 196
Hoshi Yukihiro, gallerist, Marunouchi Gallery
(07/04/12) Jacobs Marc, fashion designer 21-22
Hosokawa Eiichi, journalist, Art Collector Jopling Jay, gallerist, owner of White Cube, Lon-
(07/04/12) don 21, 91, 116
Hou Hanru, curator, China/US 188
Hozumi Hisashi, psychiatrist & collector, Kamiya Yukie, chief curator, Hiroshima City
Akita 107 Museum of Contemporary Art, 07/12/08 207
Kan Naoto, Japanese prime minister (2010-11)
Ichihara Kentaro, art writer (07/10/20) 148 222
Ichikawa Kosuke, artist (08/12/18) Kanehira Hikotaro, independent curator
Iemura Kayoko, Tokyo Wonder Site (07/05/11) (07/12/20)
Ikeda Masanori, photographer (10/04/02) 214 Kaneko Miwa, Japan Foundation (09/06/22)
Ikeda Mitsuhiro, artist (10/04/02) Kaneshima Takahiro, executive director, Art
Ikeda Osamu, director, BankArt, Yokohama Fair Tokyo (10/03/19) 199
(07/12/29) 156 Kaneuji Teppei, artist (10/03/19) 201
Ikeuchi Tsutomu, gallerist, Röntgen (07/10/20) Kanno Sachiko, Japan Foundation (07/06/18)
19, 87, 91-2, 93, 102, 103, 104-5, 148, 196 Kappos Marina, artist, Tokyo Wonder Site resi-
Imafuku Eijiro, owner, ART-iT magazine 200 dency (2007) (07/05/11)
Imamura Yusaku, architect & director, Tokyo Kasahara Emiko, artist, New York 39
Wonder Site (07/05/11) 190, 200 Kataoka Mami, chief curator, Mori Art Mu-
Ishigami Junya, architect 158, 173 seum (09/06/28) 144, 145, 151, 234
Ishihara Etsuro, gallerist, ZEIT photo salon 105 Kato Izumi, artist (07/12/01)
Ishihara Nobuhiro, son of Ishihara Shintaro, art- Kawade Eri, editor, Bijutsu Techo (07/11/28)
ist & chief advisor to Tokyo Wonder Site 190 233
Ishihara Shintaro, Governor of Tokyo 13, 166-7, Kawakubo Rei, fashion designer 82
172, 190-1, 200, 206 Kawamata Tadashi, artist 24, 159
Ishii Junichiro, artist, Paris (10/08/15) Kawara On, artist 179
Ishikawa Masami, mayor of Chiyoda-ku 213 Kawasaki Yoshi, director, 2K by Gingham, LA
Ishikawa Naoki, photographer (07/11/16) & Fukuoka (07/01/26) 60
Isozaki Arata, architect (10/04/03) 80, 158-9, Kawauchi Taka, publisher & art producer, New
164, 190 York (09/11/02)
Isshiki Yoshiko, art manager for Miwa Yanagi 36, Kelly Mike, artist, US 161
132, 136 Kelts Roland, writer, New York and Tokyo
Itadani Ryu, artist (07/02/28) (07/05/05)
Ito Haruka, editor & manager, Magical Artroom Kibukawa Ei, gallerist, eitoeiko, and former

240 CAST OF CHARACTERS / INDEX

auction house copy writer (07/11/02) Kubota Kenji, independent curator (07/10/17)
Kimura Erika, curator, Yokohama Museum of 116, 152, 164, 166
Art (07/12/20) Kudo Kiki, writer, 09/11/07 87, 89, 90, 194,
Kinoshita Chieko, independent curator 234
(10/03/27) 152 Kunikata Mahomi, Kaikai Kiki artist 35, 75
Kinoshita Parco, artist, 10/04/04 96, 97, 100, Kurashige Jin, video artist & TV producer
202, 226 (07/10/17) 202
Kitade Chieko, curator, 21st Century Museum Kuriyama Hitoshi, artist (07/11/24)
of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa (11/01/21) Kuroda Raiji, curator, Fukuoka Asian Art Mu-
Kitagawa Fram, art producer & director, Art seum (09/09/13) 186, 210
Front Gallery (09/06/22) 150, 159, 174-183, Kurosawa Hiromi, senior curator, 21st Cen-
176, 212 tury Museum of Contemporary Art, Kanazawa
Kitagawa Tomoaki, curator, Toyota Municipal (09/06/25)
Museum of Art (10/03/25) Kurosawa Shin, curator 19, 96, 100, 110, 113, 164
Kitano Takeshi “Beat”, TV personality, film di- Kusama Yayoi, artist 17, 23, 107, 127, 143, 147,
rector & Murakami collaborator 43, 56, 68-9 148, 157, 187
Kitazawa Hiromi, curator, Nanjo and Associ- Kusumi Kiyoshi, editor of Bijutsu Techo in
ates (07/07/18) 1990s 19, 113
Kito Kengo, artist (07/10/20) 195
Kobata Kazue, independent curator (07/12/04) Lambie Jim, visiting artist in Tokyo, UK
Kohmoto Shinji, curator 156 (07/07/18)
Koike Kazuko, curator and co-founder Sagacho Lennon John, musician, UK (murdered 1980)
102-3, 108 143, 217
Kojima Sako, artist, Berlin (11/02/07) Lichtenstein Roy, artist, US 165
Kon Izumi, artist (08/09/14) Lucas Sarah, artist, UK 92
Kondo Kenichi, curator, Mori Art Museum Lynch David, filmmaker & artist, US 105
(10/03/27) 152
Kondo Seiichi, diplomat and architect of Japa- Machida Kumi, artist (08/10/07)
nese “soft power” policy (09/03/28) Mai + Naoto, art unit (08/12/17)
Koons Jeff, artist, US 9, 20, 50, 53, 55, 62, 67- Manabe Miyuki, publisher & director, Ter-
8, 69, 91 aKalon (09/06/22) 200
Koyama Tomio, gallerist (07/06/02) 19, 21, Manray Hsu, curator, Taipei (10/03/19)
27, 54, 57-61, 87, 88, 101, 103, 104, 105-6, 117, Mario A, artist & art writer (07/07/18) 115, 233
124, 148, 150, 152, 173, 187, 195, 197, 199, 209, Matsuhisa Nobu, chef 43,
234 Matsui Erina, artist, 08/06/08
Koyanagi Atsuko, gallerist & co-founder of Matsui Midori, writer and curator, founder of
Sagacho (07/12/20) 102-3, 104, 106, 108, 134, Micropop (07/11/15) 27, 32-5, 61, 75, 110, 194-
147-8, 150, 173, 186, 192-3, 198, 199, 209 5, 234

241
Matsukage Hiroyuki, artist & photographer Mori Taikichiro, father of Minoru Mori 140
(08/09/13) 96, 97, 100, 104, 113, 115, 117, 118, Mori Yoshiko, chairperson, Mori Art Museum
150, 202, 225, 226 143, 153
McCartney Paul, musician, UK 31, 217 Morikawa Kaichiro, cultural studies professor
McDonald Roger, curator, art writer & co- and curator of Otaku (2004) 42
director, Arts Initiative Tokyo (07/07/18) 232 Morimura Yasumasa, artist (09/03/19) 24, 81,
McGray Douglas, journalist, San Francisco 82, 103
(07/01/29) 42, 85 Moriyama Daido, photographer 59, 105
Minemura Ayumi (Are You Meaning Com- Mouri Yoshitaka, professor of sociology and
pany), artist, Berlin (10/08/15) curator, Tokyo University of the Arts (07/06/22)
Mishima Yukio, novelist and nationalist hero 207, 207-8, 235
(committed ritual suicide 1970) 128, 180 Mr., Kaikai Kiki artist 54
Mitamura Midori, artist (07/10/17) 202, 214 Munroe Alexandra, curator, Guggenheim Mu-
Mitsuma (Mizuma) Sueo, gallerist & gallery seum, New York 121, 233-4
(07/06/08) 104, 106-7, 115, 115-18, 120, 126, Murakami Takashi, artist 8-13, 15-24, 27, 29, 30,
130, 150-1, 186, 196, 199, 202, 205, 222 31-5, 37-40, 42-7, 49-58, 60-9, 72-7, 79, 84, 87-
Miyake Akiko, director, Centre for Contempo- 95, 88, 93, 95, 98-101, 105, 109-10, 116-19, 121,
rary Art, Kita-Kyushu (08/09/12) 160, 162, 170 123, 140, 147, 151, 153, 157, 163, 179, 187, 190-
Miyake Issey, fashion designer 43, 82 1, 195, 201, 204, 206, 208-10, 216-24, 232, 234
Miyake Shinichi, gallerist, Miyake Fine Arts Murakami Takaaki, auctioneer, Christie’s Ja-
(11/06/08) 111-12, 125, 128 pan (07/11/15)
Miyajima Tatsuo, artist 24, 81, 82, 105, 164 Murayama Ruriko, artist (07/10/17)
Miyawaki Shuichi, vinyl toys designer 53 Murayama Yasuko, director, Towada Art Center
Miyazaki Hayao, anime director 18, 43, 167 (08/12/27) 167, 168, 171
Miyazaki Tsutomu, “otaku” serial killer (execut- Murray Bill, actor, Lost in Translation 22, 53
ed 2008) 85
Mizuma, see Mitsuma Nagashima Yurie, photographer 84,
Mizusawa Tsutomu, chief curator, Museum of Nagoya Satoru, art writer (07/04/12)
Modern Art, Kamakura & Hayama (08/12/22) Nakada Hiroshi, mayor of Yokohama 155
160-2 Nakahara Kodai, artist and professor, Kyoto City
Mod Craig, publisher (08/04/02) 200, 233 University of Arts 92, 110
Mori Akira, developer & CEO, Mori Trust 140 Nakamura Eric, editor & co-director, Giant Ro-
Mori Mariko, artist 9-11, 18, 24, 36, 37-41, 67, bot (06/07/21) 44-5
68, 79, 103, 105, 147 Nakamura Hiromi, curator, formerly at Metro-
Mori Minoru, developer, CEO, Mori Building politan Museum of Photography (07/05/19)
Co & founder Mori Art Museum, 13, 16-18, 39, Nakamura Kengo, artist (07/12/20)
58, 59, 89, 123, 127, 139-48, 145, 151-4, 157-8, Nakamura Kyoko, amateur artist & winner GEI-
164, 176, 178-9, 180, 191, 199, 213, 219 SAI 11 75

242 CAST OF CHARACTERS / INDEX

Nakamura Masato, artist & director 3331 Arts Obrist Hans-Ulrich, curator, Swizerland 154,
Chiyoda, Command N (07/07/06) 19, 87, 88, 160-2, 171, 188, 232
88-90, 93, 94-101, 95, 99, 105, 110, 119, 131, Odani Motohiko, artist 24, 113, 222
209, 211, 212-20, 218, 224 Ohayon Shai, independent curator (11/06/08)
Nakamura Nobuo, art writer, curator & author, Ohba Daisuke, artist (07/11/24) 196
Shonen Art 90, 156 Ohno Satoshi, artist (09/06/27) 196
Nakanishi Natsuyuki, artist, Hi Red Center art Ohtake Shinro, artist 65-6, 121
unit & co-founder Bigakko 94-6, 202 Ogawa Junko, director, Magnum Photos
Nakazawa Hideki, artist & art writer (10/03/31) (07/10/31)
59, 87, 89, 93, 94-6, 95, 98, 234 Ogawa Tadashi, Japan Foundation (07/06/18)
Nara Yoshitomo, artist 9-13, 17, 23-32, 34, 25, Okabe Miki, curator, Japanisches Kulturinstitut,
28, 37, 43-6, 53, 55, 56-68, 72.3, 76-7, 79, 81, Köln (09/09/04)
105, 118, 119, 124, 140, 151, 153, 157, 164, 167, Okada Hiroko, artist (07/07/18) 115, 202-3
187, 191, 194, 220-1, 223, 224-5, 232, 234 Okada Satoshi, collector, publisher, psychia-
Nanjo Fumio, director, Mori Art Museum & trist & socialite (07/10/20) 107, 108, 148, 150,
Nanjo and Associates (07/07/23) 82, 144, 145, 199-200
150-1, 153, 155-7, 159, 161, 167, 170, 174, 178, Okada Toshio, otaku writer and critic, Tokyo
197, 234 109
Nariai Hajime, curator, Fuchu Art Museum Okamoto Taro, modernist artist 116, 121
(08/12/28) Oiwa Oscar, artist, New York (11/05/17) 96,
Nasu Taro, gallerist 103, 199 97, 226
Nauman Bruce, artist, US 67 Okutsu Ayaka, artist, Berlin (11/07/12)
Nawa Kohei, artist (07/04/12) 24, 137, 195, Ono Yoko, artist 23, 143, 166, 167
201, 222 Onuki Kensho, dj 84
Neto Ernesto, artist, Brazil (07/07/19) 39, 67 Orimoto Tatsumi, artist, 10/10/24 157
Nigo, fashion designer 84, 141 Osaka Eriko, Director, Yokohama Museum of
Ninagawa Mika, photographer (07/10/26) 17, Art (08/09/10) 59, 151, 162
84, 173 Oshima Yuki, vinyl toys designer 42-3
Nishi Tatzu, artist (07/12/08) Ozaki Tetsuya, publisher & writer (10/03/19)
Nishihara Min, writer, Los Angeles (09/11/07) 186, 200, 213, 232
19, 87, 90-1, 93, 94, 96, 98, 101, 110, 113, 114 Ozawa Yuichiro, art producer & director Higure
Nishiyama Yuko, deputy director, Nanjo and 17-15 gallery (08/09/14)
Associates (10/04/03) Ozawa Tsuyoshi, artist (11/05/20) 19, 93, 94-
Nishizawa Ryue, architect (SANAA) 158, 167, 96, 97, 99-101, 100, 113-14, 129, 151, 156, 186,
168, 169, 173 225-9, 226
Norton famly, collectors, Los Angeles 106
Nose Yoko, curator, Toyota Municipal Museum Perrotin Emmanuel, gallerist, France 21
of Art (10/03/25) Pinault François, millionaire & collector, France

243
8, 21, 57, 75, 117 Schnabel Julian, artist 166
Poe Jeff, gallerist, Los Angeles (07/01/24) 21, Sejima Kazuyo, architect (SANAA) 112, 158, 168,
27, 34, 121 169, 173
Presneill Max, curator, Torrance Art Museum, Senna Ayrton, racing car driver and idol for Ta-
Torrance, LA (11/03/29) kashi Murakami, Brazil 44, 66
Puffy Ami Yumi, J-pop stars 41 Sherman Cindy, artist and photographer, New
Pyuupiru, artist (07/12/22) York 37
Shiga Lieko, photographer (11/05/20)
Rawlings Ashley, art writer & editor, formerly Shimizu Jio, artist (09/12/10)
Tokyo Art Beat & Art Asia Pacific (07/05/05) 200, Shin Misa, former executive director, Tokyo Art
233 Fair (08/04/04) 197
Rist Pipilotti, artist, Switzerland 67 Shin Myeong-Eun, artist, Korea 94
Ritter Gabriel, independent curator, Los Ange- Shiobara Masashi, collector (07/05/11)
les (09/28/04) 203-4, 206, 235 Shiota Chiharu, artist (07/10/18) 135, 156, 180-
Rubell family, collectors, Florida 58 1, 222-3
Shiraga Kazuo, artist, Gutai movement 82, 187
Sakamoto Ryuichi, musician 141 Shiraishi Masami, gallerist, SCAI The Bath-
Sakemoto Akemi, curator, Ueno Royal Museum house (07/05/10) 20, 27, 36, 81, 88, 97, 103-6,
(07/11/02) 104, 117, 131, 137, 196, 209, 219
Saito Tomoyo, collector (07/10/26) Shiraishi Saya, consultant on Japanese cul-
Sano Makoto, art producer (08/12/18) 171 tural exports and professor, Tokyo University
Sasaguchi Kazz, artist (07/06/02) (07/03/19)
Sasahara Yuka, gallerist (08/06/08) Sigg Uli, collector, Hong Kong 188
Sasao Chigusa, art producer, Coco Laboratory, Slotover Matthew, director, Frieze Art Fair
Akita (08/06/08) (07/08/31) 153, 197
Satani Shugo, gallerist, Shugo Arts (07/06/02) Soga Takaaki, director, Contemporary Art Fac-
103, 106, 199 tory (07/10/26) 213
Sato Kashiwa, design consultant 84 Sone Yutaka, artist, Los Angeles, 09/11/07 96,
Sato Naoki, art producer 213 97, 113, 114, 133, 156, 171, 224
Satom Saki, artist, London (07/11/05) Suda Yoshihiro, artist 101, 198, 199
Sawa Hiraki, artist (11/01/21) 196 Sugimoto Hiroshi, artist and photographer
Sawai Kiyoyuki, gallerist, Art-U Room (07/12/20) 24, 39, 103, 151, 157
(07/04/12) Sugita Sudahiro, consultant on Japanese cul-
Sawaragi Noi, art writer 19, 32, 87, 89, 90-4, tural industries, METI (07/06/13)
102, 110, 119-21, 152, 195, 234 Sugito Hiroshi, artist 187
Schimmel Paul, curator, Los Angeles Museum Sugiyama Hiro, artist & director, Enlightenment
of Contemporary Art (09/05/04) 22, 49, 52, 62, art unit (07/12/18) 65-6, 148
74, 79, 113, 121, 143, 203

244 CAST OF CHARACTERS / INDEX

Sumitomo Fumihiko, curator, formerly MOT & Tanaka Kakuei, Japanese prime minister (1972-4) 179
co-director, Arts Initiative Tokyo (09/09/20) Tang David, collector, Hong Kong 188
Sumiyoshi Chie, journalist & Traumaris bar & Tange Kenzo, architect 190-1
gallery owner (07/07/18) 149, 150 Taro Chiezo, artist 35, 92
Suzuki Sarah, curator, Museum of Modern Art, Tatehata Akira, curator, formerly director of
New York (09/11/04) Osaka National Museum of Art and dean of
Suzuki Shunichi, former Governor of Tokyo 166 Kyoto City University of the Arts (10/04/03)
Szeeman Harald, curator, Switzerland 189 156-7, 159, 165, 165, 172
Tauchi Mario, artist & literary agent (09/06/20)
Tabaimo, artist (08/10/07) 24, 103, 134, 157, Tezuka Miwako, curator, Asia Society, New
165, 192, 192-3, 203 York (09/11/03) 233
Tabata Kouichi, artist (09/06/27) Thornton Sarah, art writer & journalist
Tabata Yukihito, director, Tokyo Gallery (09/02/09)
(09/06/19) 185 Tochka, art unit (07/02/22)
Taguchi Yukihiro, artist (09/03/19) Tomii Reiko, independent curator & art writer,
Takahashi Jun, fashion designer 84 New York (09/11/02) 233
Takahashi Miwa, editor, Bijutsu Techo Toyoshima Hideki, installation artist & designer,
(07/07/18) director, Graf art unit, 29-30
Takahashi Ryutaro, collector & psychiatrist Trofimchenko Rodion, independent curator
107-8, 116, 216 (10/04/01)
Takahashi Mizuki, curator, Art Tower Mito Tsubaki Noboru, artist 157, 167, 168
(09/06/23) Tsukamoto Yoshiharu, architect, director of Ate-
Takano Aya, Kaikai Kiki artist 33-4 lier Bow Wow 158
Takano Ryudai, photographer (11/06/03) Tsutsumi Seiji, CEO & owner Saison Museum
Takayama Nobuhiko, art producer (07/12/28) 102
Takeda Miwako, gallerist & collector, Nagoya
(10/04/03) Uematsu Yuka, curator, Osaka National Mu-
Takei Masakazu, publisher, Foil Co., 07/05/19 seum of Art (10/03/26)
59-60 Ueno Natsumi, manager, “The Six” art school
Takekawa Junko, Japan Foundation, London consortium (08/12/28)
(11/09/09) Ujiie Seiichiro, TV CEO and temporary director
Takemura Kei, artist (08/06/08) 138, 196 of MOT 167
Tanaami Keiichi, 60s cult artist 17, 65 Ujino Muneteru, artist 98, 99
Tanada Koji, sculptor (11/06/08) Urano Mutsumi, gallerist (07/11/02) 196
Tanaka Kakuei, Japanese prime minister (1972-4) Usuki Kunie, founder, Design Festa 70
175-6
Tanaka Koki, artist (10/04/12) 201 Viktor and Rolf, fashion design unit 66
Tanaka Makiko, Niigata politician & daughter of

245
Wako Kiyoshi, gallerist 103 Yonehara Yasumasa, photographer, editor egg
Walker Johnnie, collector, socialite & director, magazine 33, 84
Artist Residency Tokyo (07/05/18) 150, 197, Yoshii Hiromi, gallerist (07/06/02) 106, 148,
198, 199 150, 209, 234
Wara Agatha, director, 101 Tokyo Art Fair Yoshitake Mika, curator, Museum of Contem-
(08/04/05) 198 porary Art, Los Angeles (06/07/20) 52
Warhol Andy, artist, US (died 1987) 9, 20, 22,
23, 49, 53-5, 62, 69, 166 Zenshi Mikami, gallerist (07/06/02)
Watanabe Go, artist (07/12/20)
Watari Etsuko, founder of Watari Museum (Wa-
tarium) 165
West Kanye, rap musician & Murakami collabo-
rator, Graduation (2007) 22, 69
Westwood Vivienne, fashion designer 37
Wong Martin, co-director, Giant Robot, Los
Angeles (08/04/30) 45

Yabumae Tomoko, curator, Tokyo Metropolitan

Museum of Contemporary Art (10/03/24)
Yamade Tamotsu, mayor of Kanazawa 169
Yamaguchi Akira, artist (07/07/18) 116
Yamaguchi Yumi, art writer (08/12/26) 53, 234
Yamamoto-Masson Nine, independent curator,
Berlin (11/07/14)
Yamamoto Yohji, fashion designer 82
Yamamoto Yuko, gallerist (07/11/14) 87, 89,
152, 196
Yamashita Yuji, professor of art history & art
writer (09/04/01)
Yanagi Miwa, artist 24, 35, 36, 132, 136, 157,
222
Yanagi Yukinori, artist (07/12/08) 92, 110, 111-
12, 125, 128, 180, 224
Yanobe Kenji, artist 92, 121
Yokoo Tadanori, 60s cult artist 17, 65, 121
Yoneda Tomoko, artist & photographer
(10/06/29)

246 CAST OF CHARACTERS / INDEX