Electronic Devices

Ninth Edition

Floyd

Chapter 16

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Feedback Oscillators

Oscillators are electronic circuits that produce a periodic

waveform with only the dc supply voltage as an input. In a
feedback oscillator, a fraction of the output is returned with
no net phase shift. In
Outphase
of phase

IfIfthe
thefeedback
feedbackcircuit
circuit
Vf
returns
returnsthethesignal
signalout
in phase,
of A
Avv VVout
out

phase,
a noninverting
an inverting
amplifier
amplifier
Noninverting
Inverting
produces
producespositive
positivefeedback.
feedback. amplifier
amplifier

Feedback
Feedback
circuit
circuit

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Feedback Oscillators

Feedback oscillators require a small disturbance such as that

generated by thermal noise to start oscillations. This initial
voltage starts the feedback process and oscillations.

Computer simulations, such

as Multisim, use digital
signals, which do not have
thermal noise. This often t0

creates a problem for

computer simulations of
Acl > 1 Acl = 1
oscillators.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

RC feedback is used in various lower frequency sine-wave

oscillators. The text covers three: the Wien-bridge oscillator,
the phase-shift oscillator, and the twin-T oscillator.
The feedback circuit in a Wien-bridge uses a lead-lag circuit. When
the R’s and C’s have equal values, the output will be ⅓ of the input at
only one frequency and the phase shift at this frequency will be 0 o.
C2
R1
Vout
Vin Vout
1
V
3 in

C1 R2

f
fr

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

The basic Wien-bridge uses the lead-lag network to select a

specific frequency that is amplified. The voltage-divider
sets the gain to make up for the attenuation of the feedback
network.
The noninverting amplifier R1
Voltage-
must have a gain of exactly divider
–

3.0 as set by R1 and R2 to R2 Vout

+
make up for the attenuation.
If it is too little, oscillations
R4
will not occur; if it is too R3
C1
C2
much the sine wave will be Lead-lag
network
clipped.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

To produce the precise gain required, the Wien bridge needs

some form of automatic gain control (AGC). One popular
method is shown here and uses a JFET transistor.
The key elements of the AGC
C1 Rf
circuit are highlighted in
–
yellow. The diode charges C3 R1
Vout
to the negative peak of the +
D1
signal. This develops the gate Q1

bias voltage for the JFET that R2 C2

is related to the output level. R3 R4 C3

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

The JFET is operated in the ohmic region and can change its
resistance rapidly if conditions change.
Recall from Chapter 8 that a JFET acts 7
as a variable resistor in the ohmic Ohmic
6 VG = 0 V
region
region. If the output increases, the bias
5
tends to be larger, and the drain-source VG = −0.5 V
ID 4
resistance increases (and vice-versa). (mA)
VG = −1.0 V
In the Wien-bridge, the JFET drain- 3

source resistance controls the gain of 2 VG = −1.5 V

the op-amp and will compensate for 1

any change to the output. 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VDS (V)

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Wien-Bridge Oscillator

When the R’s and C’s in the feedback circuit are equal, the
frequency of the bridge is given by f = 1
r
2πRC

What is fr for the Wien bridge? C1 Rf

4.7 nF 10 kΩ
–
R1
Vout
680 Ω
+
1 D1
fr = Q1
2πRC
R2 C2
1
= = 48.9 kHz
680 Ω 4.7 nF C3
2π ( 680 Ω ) ( 4.7 nF )
R3 R4
1.0 kΩ 10 kΩ 1.0 µF

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

The phase-shift oscillator uses three RC circuits in the

feedback path that have a total phase shift of 180o at one
frequency – for this reason an inverting amplifier is
required for this circuit.
Even with identical R’s Rf
and C’s, the phase shift in
each RC circuit is slightly
– C1 C2 C3
different because of 0V
Vout
loading effects. When all +
R’s and C’s are equal, the R1 R2 R3

feedback attenuates the

signal by a factor of 29.
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Conditions for oscillation with the phase-shift oscillator is

that if all R’s and C’s are equal, the amplifier must have a
gain of at least 29 to make up for the attenuation of the
feedback circuit. This means that Rf /R3 ≥ 29.
Under these conditions,
Rf
the frequency of
oscillation is given by
1 – C1 C2 C3
fr = 0V
Vout
2π 6 RC
+
R1 R2 R3

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Multisim can simulate the phase-shift oscillator, but has

difficulty starting. In the Multisim file for Example 16-3, a
switch is provided to provide a voltage spike to start
oscillations. This is not needed in the actual circuit.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Design a phase-shift oscillator for a frequency of 800 Hz.
The capacitors are to be 10 nF.

Start by solving for the resistors needed in the feedback circuit:

1 1
R= = = 8.12 kΩ (Use 8.2 kΩ.)
2π 6 f r C 2π 6 ( 800 Hz ) ( 10 nF )
Rf
Calculate the feedback
resistor needed: 238 kΩ
– C1 C2 C3
Rf = 29R = 238 kΩ. Vout
+ 10 nF 10 nF 10 nF
R1 R2 R3
The following slide shows 8.2 kΩ 8.2 kΩ 8.2 kΩ

the Multisim check.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Because the Rf is not precise, you will see
the output “grow” in Multisim. In actual
circuits, you can use a potentiometer to
adjust a precise gain, but the circuit will
be sensitive to temperature change.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Phase-Shift Oscillator

You can also use back-to back zener diodes to limit the output. The
output is limited to about 7 Vpp with 1N4372A (3.0 V) zeners.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Twin-T Oscillator

The basic twin-T oscillator combines a low-pass and high-

pass filter to form a notch filter at the oscillation frequency.
An excellent notch filter
can be formed by using R Low-pass
R
R’s and C’s related by a
factor of 2 as shown here. 2C
–
With this relationship, C C
Vout
High-pass
the oscillation frequency + R1

is approximately
R/2
1 R2

fr =
2πRC Twin-T filter

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Twin-T Oscillator

Two improvements to the basic circuit are shown here – adding the
parallel diodes and R6 significantly reduces distortion by attenuating
harmonics. The potentiometer adds output amplitude adjustment.
The frequency is a R6
little higher than the R3 R4 330 kΩ D1 and D2
predicted value of – 1N914A
82 kΩ C 1 82 kΩ 741C
1.94 kHz. With ±15 V R1A
Vout
2.0 nF +
power supplies, the 10 kΩ
R1B
measured values are: C2 C3 10 kΩ Output
Amplitude
f = 2.28 kHz @2.0 Vpp
1.0 nF R5 1.0 nF R2
Amplitude = 0 to 27 Vpp 41 kΩ
220 Ω

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Colpitts Oscillator

LC feedback oscillators use resonant circuits in the feedback

path. A popular LC oscillator is
V
the Colpitts oscillator. It uses A
f
V v out

two series capacitors in the

resonant circuit. The feedback L
voltage is developed across C1.
The effect is that the tank circuit is Out I In
“tapped”. Usually C1 is the larger C1 C2

capacitor because it develops the

smaller voltage. Vf Vout

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Colpitts Oscillator

1
The resonant frequency is found by fr =
2π LCT
If Q > 10, this formula gives good results.
Recall that the total capacitance of two
series capacitors is the product-over- Zin Vout
sum of the individual capacitors.
Therefore, 1
f = r
 C1C2 
2π L  ÷ L

 C1 + C2 
For Q < 10, a correction for Q is C1 C2

1 Q2
fr =
2π LCT Q2 + 1
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Hartley Oscillator

The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts oscillator,

except the resonant circuit consists of two series inductors (or
a single tapped inductor) and a parallel capacitor. The
frequency for Q > 10 is
1 1
fr = = Vf
2π LT C 2π ( L1 + L2 ) C Av Vout

C
One advantage of a Hartley
oscillator is that it can be tuned by
Out L1 L2 In
using a variable capacitor in the
resonant circuit.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The Crystal Oscillator

Crystal oscillators are highly stable oscillators for demanding circuits such
a radio transmitters. Crystals have very high Q. +V CC

Manufacturers prepare natural crystals

(usually quartz) by mounting a very thin slab R1 L
C4
between metal electrodes. When a small ac Vout

voltage is applied, the crystal oscillates at its

own resonant frequency.
R2 R4 C3

The crystal acts as the resonant circuit for

the modified Colpitts oscillator and stabilizes
the oscillations. The capacitors still tap off a XTAL
C1 C2
feedback signal to the CE amplifier.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Relaxation Oscillators

Relaxation oscillators are characterized by an RC timing

circuit and a device that periodically changes state.
The triangular wave oscillator is an example. For this circuit, the device
that changes states is a comparator with hysteresis (Schmitt trigger). The
RC timing device is an integrator. The comparator output can be used as
a square wave output. A square wave
can be taken as C
The trigger points set the an output here.
triangle’s peak-to-peak –
R1
voltage: R  –
VUTP = +Vmax  3 ÷ + Vout
 R2  R2
Comparator +
R  R3 Integrator
VLTP = −Vmin  3 ÷
 R2 

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Relaxation Oscillators

For the triangular wave generator, the frequency is found from:

1  R2 
fr =  ÷
4 R 1 C  R3 

What is the frequency of the circuit shown here?

C
1  R2 
fr =  ÷ –
4 R 1 C  R3  R1 10 nF
–
1  22 kΩ  82 kΩ
=  ÷ + Vout
4 ( 82 kΩ ) ( 10 nF )  10 kΩ  Comparator R2 +
22 kΩ
R3 Integrator
= 671 Hz
10 kΩ

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Relaxation Oscillators

Normally, the triangle wave generator uses fast comparators to avoid slew
rate problems. For non-critical applications, a 741 will work nicely for low
frequencies (<2 kHz). The circuit here is one you can construct easily in
lab. (The circuit is the same as Example 16-4 but with a larger C.)
The waveforms are:
Vout2
Square wave C

– R1 0.1 µF
741 –
10 kΩ 741 Vout1
+
R2
+ Triangle
33 kΩ
R3 wave
Both channels: 5 V/div
250 µs/div 10 kΩ

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Relaxation Oscillators

A sawtooth VCO also uses an integrator to create the ramp

portion of the waveform. In this case, when VC > VG + 0.7 V,
the PUT fires and the capacitor discharges rapidly.
In this circuit, the device that changes VG

state is a PUT and the RC timing circuit PUT

+ Vp
is an integrator. off
discharge
C
–

The frequency is found by: Ri

– charge
V  1  0V Vout
f = IN  ÷ –
4 R i C  V p − VF ÷

VIN
+
+

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

Relaxation Oscillators

Another relaxation oscillator that uses a Schmitt trigger is the

basic square-wave oscillator. The trigger points are set by R2
and R3. The capacitor charges and discharges between these
levels: VUTP = +Vmax  R3 ÷ R 1

 R2 + R3 
VC
 R3  –
VLTP = −Vmax  ÷ Vout
 R2 + R3  C
Vf +
The period of the waveform is given by: R2

 2R 
T = 2 R1C ln 1 + 3 ÷ R3
 R2 

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Summary

The 555 Timer

The 555 block diagram is shown.
Addition of a few external VCC
+VCC

parts forms a versatile (8)

astable multivibrator. R
RAA Upper 555
5 kΩ
comparator
(6)
Threshold (6) +
The frequency and duty Flip-flop
Control (5)
(5)
cycle are given by: voltage
RB
–
RR
(3)
(3)
R1 R Lower Q
Q Output
V
1.44 5 BkΩ comparator
out

fr =
Charging

SS Output
( R1 + 2 R2 ) Cext
+
buffer
2 1 2 1
(2) 2 1 2 1
Trigger (2) –
 R +R  on off on
Duty cycle =  1 2 ÷100% Discharge

 R1 + 2 R2 
(7) path transistor
Discharge (7) Q
Qd d
R2 R
Discharging
C
RC
5 kΩ
2V
2 2 2
3 CC
+
VC C (1) (4)
(4)
– ext (1)
1
V
3 CC
1 1 Gnd Reset
+VCC

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Selected Key Terms

Feedback An electronic circuit that operates with positive

oscillator feedback and produces a time-varying output
signal without an external input signal.
Relaxation An electronic circuit that uses an RC timing
oscillator circuit to generate a nonsinusoidal waveform
without an external input signal.
Positive The return of a portion of the output signal such
feedback that it reinforces and sustains the input signal.

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

1. The Wien-bridge oscillator uses the network shown. If

R’s and C’s are equal, the maximum Vout will be phase-
shifted by
a. 0o R1
C2
Vin Vout

b. 90o
C1 R2
c. 180 o

d. 270o

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

2. The ohmic region of a JFET is the operating region for a

JFET used in a Wien-bridge AGC circuit because the
a. resistance is constant 7

6 VG = 0 V

b. resistance depends on VDS 5

VG = − 0.5 V
ID 4

c. resistance depends on VG (mA)

3
VG = −1.0 V

2 VG = −1.5 V
d. resistance depends on ID
1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
VDS (V)

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

3. Assume the Wien-bridge oscillator shown is operating

normally and the output voltage is a 6 Vpp sine wave. VG
should be
a. 1 Vpp sine wave C1 Rf

–
R1
b. 2 Vpp sine wave +
Vout

D1
Q1
VG
c. +3 VDC R2 C2
C3
d. −2.3 VDC
R3 R4

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

4. The twin-t oscillator uses the network shown. At the

oscillator frequency, the output of this network is phase-
shifted by
a. 0o
b. 90o Vin Vout

c. 180o
d. 270o

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

5. The overall frequency response characteristic of the

twin-t oscillator network shown is that of a
a. low-pass filter
b. high-pass filter
Vin Vout
c. band-pass filter
d. notch filter

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

6. An example of an LC feedback oscillator is a

a. phase-shift oscillator
b. relaxation oscillator
c. Colpitts oscillator
d. Wien-bridge oscillator

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

7. In a crystal oscillator, the crystal acts like a

a. band-pass filter
b. resonant circuit
c. notch filter
d. power source

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

8. The waveforms at Vout1 and Vout2 should be a

a. sawtooth wave and a sine wave
b. triangle wave and a square wave
c. sawtooth wave and a square wave
d. triangle wave and a sine wave
Vout2 C

–
R1
–
+ Vout1
R2
+
R3

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

9. The output waveform from this circuit should be a

a. sawtooth wave
VG

b. triangle wave PUT

+ Vp
C
c. square wave –

Ri
d. sine wave 0V
–
Vout
–
VIN +
+

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
 Quiz

10. To make a basic astable multivibrator using a 555

timer, as a minimum you need
a. one resistor and one capacitor
b. one resistor and two capacitors
c. two resistors and one capacitor
d. two resistors and two capacitors

Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.