SC Chapter 6 - AC Quantities

Electronic Devices
Ninth Edition
Floyd
Chapter 6
Electronic Devices, 9th edition © 2012 Pearson Education. Upper Saddle River, NJ, 07458.
Thomas L. Floyd All rights reserved.
Summary
AC Quantities
V
AC quantities are indicated

with a italic subscript; rms rms
values are assumed unless avg
Vce Vce
Vce
otherwise stated. VCE Vce
The figure shows an example of vce

a specific waveform for the
collector-emitter voltage. Notice
the DC component is VCE and the 0 t
ac component is Vce. 0
Resistance is also identified with a lower case subscript when analyzed

from an ac standpoint.
Summary
Linear Amplifier
A linear amplifier produces an replica of the input signal at

the output. +V CC
Ic
Vb ICQ
VBQ R1 RC
Vce C2
Rs VCEQ
C1 Ib
IBQ
Vs R2 RE RL
For the amplifier shown, notice that the voltage waveform is

inverted between the input and output but has the same shape.
Summary
AC Load Line
Operation of the linear

IC
amplifier can be illustrated
Q
using an ac load line.
IB
Ib
The ac load line is different Ic
than the dc load line because ICQ

Q
a capacitor looks open to dc

but effectively acts as a
short to ac. Thus the 0 V CE
collector resistor appears to Vce
be in parallel with the load VCEQ
resistor.
Summary
Transistor AC Model
The five resistance parameters (r-parameters) can be

used for detailed analysis of a BJT circuit. For most
analysis work, the simplified r-parameters give good
results.
The simplified r-parameters are
C C
shown in relation to the transistor
model. βac Ib βac Ib
An important r-parameter is re'. It re′
B B
appears as a small ac resistance Ib
between the base and emitter. re′
25 mV
re' = E E
IE
Summary
The Common-Emitter Amplifier
In the common-emitter (CE) amplifier, the input signal is

applied to the base and the inverted output is taken from the
collector. The emitter is common to ac signals.
VCC
RC
C3
R1
Vout
C1
Vin
RL
R2
RE C2
Summary
What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.
VCC
 27 kΩ  +15 V
VB =  ÷15 V = 4.26 V
 68 kΩ + 27 kΩ  RC
C3
R1 3.9 kΩ
VE = 4.26 V – 0.7 V = 3.56 V C1
68 kΩ
10 µF
VE 3.56 V
IE = = = 1.62 mA 1.0 µF RL
RE 2.2 kΩ R2 3.9 kΩ
27 kΩ RE C2
2.2 kΩ
25 mV 25 mV 100 µF
r =
e
'
= = 15.4 Ω
IE 1.62 mA
Summary
Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.

What is the gain of the amplifier?
VCC
+15 V
Vout R R PR
Av = = c' = C ' L RC
Vin re re R1 3.9 kΩ
C3
68 kΩ
3.9 kΩ P3.9 kΩ C1
10 µF
Av = = 127
15.4 Ω 1.0 µF RL
R2 3.9 kΩ
27 kΩ C2
The gain will be a little lower if the RE
2.2 kΩ 100 µF
input loading effect is accounted for.
Summary
Greater gain stability can be achieved by adding a swamping resistor

to the emitter circuit of the CE amplifier. The gain will be lower as a
result. V CC
+15 V
What is the gain with the addition R1

RC
3.9 kΩ
C3
of the swamping resistor? (Ignore C1

68 kΩ
10 µF
the small effect on re'.)
1.0 µF
V R R PRL RE1
Av = out = ' c = 'C 33 Ω
RL
Vin re + RE1 re + RE1 R2

3.9 kΩ
27 kΩ RE2 C2
3.9 kΩ P3.9 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 100 µF
Av = = 38.2
15.4 Ω + 33 Ω
Summary

Multisim is a good way to check your calculation. For an input of
10 mVpp, the output is 378 mVpp as shown on the oscilloscope
display for the swamped CE amplifier.
input
output
Summary

In addition to gain stability, swamping has the advantage of increasing
the ac input resistance of the amplifier. For this amplifier, Rin(tot) is given
by Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE1)
VCC
+15 V
RC
C3
What is Rin(tot) for the amplifier if βac R1
68 kΩ
3.9 kΩ
C1
= 200? 10 µF
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE1) 1.0 µF

RE1
RL
33 Ω
3.9 kΩ
= 68 kΩ||27 kΩ||200(15.4 Ω + 33 Ω) R2
27 kΩ RE2 C2
= 6.45 kΩ 2.2 kΩ 100 µF
Summary
The Common-Collector Amplifier

The common-collector amplifier (emitter-follower) has a voltage gain
of approximately 1, but can have high input resistance and current gain.
The input is applied to the base and taken from the emitter.
+VCC
R1
C1
Vin
C2
Iin
Vout
R2
RE RL
Summary

The power gain is the ratio of the power delivered to the input resistance
divided by the power dissipated in the load. This is approximately equal
to the current gain. That is, Ap ≈Ai.
You can also write power gain V CC
as a ratio of resistances:
VL2 R 1
PL RL Rin (tot ) C
Ap = = 2 = Av
2 1
Vin
Pin Vin RL C2
Rin (tot ) Vout
R2
 Rin (tot )  Rin (tot ) RE RL
≅ 1 ÷=
R
 L  RL
The next slide is an example…
Summary
Calculate the power gain to the load for the CC amplifier using a ratio of
resistances. Assume Av = 1 and βac = 200. Use re' = 2 Ω.
VCC
+15 V
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE||RL)
R1
= 39 kΩ||220 kΩ||200(2 Ω + 500 Ω) C1 39 kΩ
Vin
= 24.9 kΩ C2
Vout
0.22 µF
RL = 1.0 kΩ R2
Rin (tot ) 24.9 kΩ 220 kΩ RE 3.3 µF RL
Ap = = = 24.9 1.0 kΩ 1.0 kΩ
RL 1.0 kΩ
Summary

The input voltage-divider in the previous example is not “rock-solid” but
the overall power gain is good. A “rock solid” stiff voltage-divider is not
always the best design. Can you spot the problem illustrated here?
Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE||RL) V CC
+10 V
= 10 kΩ||10 kΩ||200(25 Ω + 3.0 kΩ)
R1
= 4.96 kΩ C1 10 kΩ β = 200
RL = 10 kΩ Vin
C2
Rin (tot ) Vout
4.96 kΩ
Ap = = = 0.496! R2
RL 10 kΩ 10 kΩ RE RL
4.3 kΩ 10 kΩ
The problem is the power gain is
less than 1!
Summary
The Darlington Pair

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected as shown. The two
transistors act as one “super β” transistor. Darlington transistors are
available in a single package. Notice there are two diode drops from base
to emitter. V CC
VCC
R1
RC C1
Vin Q1
Q2
C2
Vout
R2
RE RL
CE Amplifier Darlington CC amplifier Load
Summary
The Sziklai Pair

Another high β pair is the Sziklai pair (sometimes called a complementary
Darlington), in which a pnp and npn transistor are connected as shown.
This configuration has the advantage of only one diode drop between base
and emitter.
+VCC
What is the relation between IE2 and IB1?

Vin βDC1
IB1
βDC2
The DC currents are: IC1
IE2
IC1 is βDC1 x IB1 and is equal to IB2
RE
IE2 is approximately equal to βDC2 x IC1
Therefore, IE2 ≈ βDC1βDC2IB1
Summary
The CB Amplifier
The common-base (CB) amplifier is used in applications where a low input
impedance is acceptable. It does not invert the signal, an advantage for
higher frequencies as you will see later when you study the Miller effect.
What is the purpose of C2?
+VCC
RC C
C2 forces the base R1 3
C2 Vout
to be at ac ground.
RL
C1
Vin
R2 RE
Summary
Multistage Amplifiers
To improve amplifier performance, stages are often cascaded where the
output of one drives another. This an example of a two-stage direct-coupled
amplifier in which the input and V CC
output signals are capacitively +12 V
coupled.
R1 RC RE3 C3
10 kΩ 1.0 kΩ 330 Ω Vout
Q2 10 µF RL
C1 2N3906 330 Ω
V in Q1
2N3904
VS 1.0 µF
100 mV pp R2 RE1
1.0 kHz 4.7 kΩ 100 Ω
RE2 C2
330 Ω 47 µF
Summary
Differential Amplifiers
A differential amplifier (diff-amp) has two inputs. It amplifies the
difference in the two input voltages. This circuit is widely used as the input
stage to operational amplifiers. Differential-mode inputs are illustrated.
+VCC
Vout 1 Vout 2
RC1 RC2
1 2
Q1 Q2
1 2
Vin1 Vin2
RE
–VEE
Summary
Differential Amplifiers
The same amplifier as in the last slide now is shown with common-mode
inputs. Diff-amps tend to reject common-mode signals, which are usually
due to noise. Ideally, the outputs are zero with common-mode inputs.
+VCC
Vout 1 Vout 2
RC1 RC2
1 2
Q1 Q2
1 2
Vin1 Vin2
RE
–VEE
Selected Key Terms
r-parameter One of a set of BJT characteristic parameters

that include αac, βac, re', rb', and rc'.
Common- A BJT configuration in which the emitter is

emitter the common terminal to an ac signal.
ac ground A point in a circuit that appears as

a ground to ac signals only.
Input resistance The resistance seen by an ac source

connected to the amplifier input.
Selected Key Terms
Output The ac resistance looking in at the amplifier

resistance output.
Common- A BJT configuration in which the emitter is

collector the common terminal to an ac signal.
Differential An amplifier in which the output is a function

amplifier of the difference between two input voltages.
Common-mode A condition where two signals applied to

differential inputs are of the same phase,
frequency and amplitude.
Quiz
1. The equation for finding the ac emitter resistance of a

BJT is
25 mV
a. re' =
IB
25 mV
b. re' =
IE
0.7 V
c. r =
e
'
IB
0.7 V
d. re' =
IE
Quiz
2. For a CE amplifier, a swamping resistor will

a. increase the input resistance
b. increase the gain
c. both of the above
d. none of the above
Quiz
3. A well-designed CC amplifier has

a. voltage gain > 1
b. current gain > 1
c. both of the above
Quiz
4. In a CC amplifier, the power gain is approximately

a. one
b. equal to the voltage gain
c. equal to the current gain
Quiz
5. The amplifier shown is a

a. differential amplifier
b. CE amplifier +VCC
c. CC amplifier R1
RC C
3
C2 Vout
d. CB amplifier
RL
C1
Vin
R2 RE
Quiz
6. An advantage to this amplifier is that it

a. has high current gain
b. has high input resistance +VCC
c. is non-inverting R1
RC C
3
C2 Vout
d. all of the above
RL
C1
Vin
R2 RE
Quiz
7. Together, Q1 and Q2 form a

a. Swamped amplifier
b. Differential pair VCC
c. Sziklai pair R1
C1
d. none of the above Q1
Q2
C2
Vout
R2
RE RL
Quiz
8. A CC amplifier with a power gain less than 1 is

a. a buffer
b. an inverting amplifier
c. unstable
d. an example of poor design
Quiz
9. An npn and a pnp transistor acting together as a single

high β transistor is a
a. Darlington pair
b. Sziklai pair
c. Differential pair
d. cascaded amplifier
Quiz
10. If identical signals are applied to both inputs of a

differential amplifier, ideally the output will be
a. zero
b. equal to one of the signals
c. equal to the sum of the two signals
d. very large

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Electronic Devices

AC quantities are indicated

values are assumed unless avg

otherwise stated. VCE Vce

The figure shows an example of vce

Resistance is also identified with a lower case subscript when analyzed

A linear amplifier produces an replica of the input signal at

For the amplifier shown, notice that the voltage waveform is

Operation of the linear

than the dc load line because ICQ

a capacitor looks open to dc

collector resistor appears to Vce

be in parallel with the load VCEQ

The five resistance parameters (r-parameters) can be

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

In the common-emitter (CE) amplifier, the input signal is

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

What is re' for the CE amplifier? Assume stiff voltage-divider bias.

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

Notice that the ac resistance of the collector circuit is RC||RL.

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

Greater gain stability can be achieved by adding a swamping resistor

What is the gain with the addition R1

of the swamping resistor? (Ignore C1

Vin re + RE1 re + RE1 R2

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

The Common-Emitter Amplifier

Rin(tot) = R1||R2||βac(re' + RE1) 1.0 µF

The Common-Collector Amplifier

The Common-Collector Amplifier

The Common-Collector Amplifier

The Common-Collector Amplifier

The Darlington Pair

CE Amplifier Darlington CC amplifier Load

The Sziklai Pair

What is the relation between IE2 and IB1?

output signals are capacitively +12 V

r-parameter One of a set of BJT characteristic parameters

Common- A BJT configuration in which the emitter is

ac ground A point in a circuit that appears as

Input resistance The resistance seen by an ac source

Output The ac resistance looking in at the amplifier

Common- A BJT configuration in which the emitter is

Differential An amplifier in which the output is a function

Common-mode A condition where two signals applied to

1. The equation for finding the ac emitter resistance of a

2. For a CE amplifier, a swamping resistor will

3. A well-designed CC amplifier has

4. In a CC amplifier, the power gain is approximately

5. The amplifier shown is a

6. An advantage to this amplifier is that it

7. Together, Q1 and Q2 form a

8. A CC amplifier with a power gain less than 1 is

9. An npn and a pnp transistor acting together as a single

10. If identical signals are applied to both inputs of a

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