Cultural

Anthropology
Fifteenth Edition

Carol R. Ember
Human Relations Area Files at Yale University

Melvin Ember

330 Hudson Street, NY, NY 10013

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Ember, Carol R., author. | Ember, Melvin, author.

Title: Cultural Anthropology / Carol R. Ember, Melvin Ember.
Description: Fifteenth Edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : Pearson Education,
[2019] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017047227| ISBN 9780134732831 | ISBN 0134732839
Subjects: LCSH: Ethnology.
Classification: LCC GN316 .E45 2019 | DDC 306—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017047227

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 Brief Contents
1 What Is Anthropology?  1 10 Marriage and the Family  227

2 Culture and Culture Change  15 11 Marital Residence and Kinship  256

3 Culture and the Individual  49 12 Associations and Interest Groups  281

4 Understanding and 13 Political Life: Social Order

Explaining Culture 74 and Disorder  299

5 Communication and Language  94 14 Religion and Magic  327

6 Getting Food  125 15 The Arts  351

7 Economic Systems  147 16 Health and Illness  369

8 Social Stratification: Class, 17 Practicing and

Ethnicity, and Racism  179 Applying Anthropology 389

9 Sex and Gender  203

iii

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 Box Contents
Current Research Applied Anthropology
Researcher at Work: Alyssa Crittenden 6 Development Programs and Culture Change:
Researcher at Work: Timothy Bromage 8 A Bedouin Case Study 35

How Much Can Government Change Culture? Schools: Values and Expectations 65
A Look at China 29 There Is Nothing Like Evidence to Shake
Emotional Expressiveness: What Accounts for Mistaken Beliefs 90
Cultural ­Differences? 62 Can Languages Be Kept from Extinction? 101
Evaluating Alternative Theories 79 The Effect of Food-Getting on the Environment 140
Does Communal Ownership Lead to Economic Disaster? 151 Unequal in Death: African Americans Compared with
Love, Intimacy, and Sexual Jealousy in Marriage 247 European Americans 196

One-Parent Families: Why the Recent Increase? 251 Economic Development and Women’s Status 217

Do Neolocality and Rebellious Teenagers Go Together? 273 From Cross-Cultural Research to Archaeology:
Reconstructing Marital Residence in the Prehistoric
Why Do Street Gangs Develop, and Why Are They
U.S. Southwest 271
Often Violent? 290
Rock Art: Preserving a Window into the Past 353
Religion: A Force for Cooperation and Harmony? 336
Exploring Why an Applied Project Didn’t Work 373
Do Masks Show Emotion in Universal Ways? 360
Eating Disorders, Biology, and the Cultural
Construction of Beauty 384
Global Issues
General Motors: Creating a Better Business Culture 400
Refugees Are a Global Social Problem 10
Accelerating Climate Change—Will It Accelerate
Perspectives on Diversity
Culture Change? 43
Why Are “Mother Tongues” Retained, and for
The Effects of Climate Change on
How Long? 103
Food-Getting Strategies 136
Do Some Languages Promote Sexist Thinking? 119
Deforestation and Climate Change 176
Food on the Move 132
Inadequate Housing and Homelessness 186
Working Abroad to Send Money Home 174
Global Inequality 191
Why Do Some Societies Allow Women to Participate
NGOs: Powerful National and International Interest
in Combat? 213
Groups in the Modern World 295
Women’s Electoral Success on the Northwest Coast 215
Democracy and Economic Development 308
Arranging Marriages in the Diaspora 242
Terrorism314
Variation in Residence and Kinship: What Difference
Ethnic Conflicts: Ancient Hatreds or Not? 324
Does It Make to Women? 266
The Spread of Popular Music 358
Do Separate Women’s Associations Increase
Impact of Violence on Children’s Mental Health Women’s Status and Power? 294
and Well-Being 381
New Courts Allow Women to Address Grievances in
Worldwide Sea-level Rise and Effects on Papua New Guinea 318
Human Societies 397
Colonialism and Religious Affiliation 344
Women and Development Programs 392

iv

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 Contents
Box Contents iv Cultural Diversity in the Future 45
Preface  ix Summary and Review  46 • Think on it  48

About the Authors  xv

3 Culture and the Individual 49
The Universality of Psychological Development 50
1 What Is Anthropology? 1 Research on Emotional Development  51  • 
Research on Cognitive Development  52
What Is Anthropology? 2 The Anthropology of Childhood 54
The Scope of Anthropology 2 Explaining Variation in Childhood and Beyond  55
The Holistic Approach 3 Cross-Cultural Variation in Childrearing 57
Anthropological Curiosity 3 Parental Responsiveness to Infants and
Fields of Anthropology 4 Baby-Holding 57 •  Parent–Child Play  59  • 
Biological Anthropology  4  •  Cultural Parental Acceptance and Rejection of Children  59  • 
Anthropology 5 Compliance or Assertiveness  60  •  Attitudes Toward
■■ Current Research  Researcher at Work: Alyssa Aggression 60 •  Task Assignment  61
Crittenden6 ■■ Current Research  Emotional Expressiveness: What
■■ Current Research  Researcher at Work: Timothy Accounts for Cultural Differences? 62
Bromage8 Children’s Settings  62
Applied (Practicing) Anthropology 9 ■■ Applied Anthropology  Schools: Values and
Specialization10 Expectations65

■■ Global Issues  Refugees Are a Global Social Problem 10 Psychological Variation in Adulthood 66
The Relevance of Anthropology 11 Perceptual Style: Field Independence or
Summary and Review  13 • Think on it  14
Dependence 67 •  Expression of Aggression  68
Psychological Explanations of Cultural Variation 69

2 Culture and Culture Change 15 Individuals as Agents of Cultural Change

Summary and Review  72 • Think on it  73
70

Defining Culture 16
Culture Is Commonly Shared  17  •  4 Understanding and
Culture Is Learned  17  •  Controversies About Explaining Culture 74
the Concept of Culture  18
Cultural Constraints 19 Explanations 75
Attitudes That Hinder the Study of Cultures 20 Associations or Relationships  75  •  Theories 76
Cultural Relativism 21 Why Theories Cannot Be Proved 76
Human Rights and Relativism 22 A Brief History of Anthropological Theory 77
Describing a Culture 22 Early Evolutionism  78  •  “Race” Theory  78  • 
Culture Is Patterned 25 Boasian Anthropology  78  •  Ecological
Approaches 78
Culture Is Cumulative  26  •  Culture Is
Imperfectly Patterned  27 ■■ Current Research  Evaluating Alternative Theories 79
How and Why Cultures Change 27 Interpretive Approaches  80  •  Advantages
and Disadvantages of Theoretical Orientations  80
■■ Current Research  How Much Can Government
Evidence: Testing Explanations 81
Change Culture? A Look at China 29
Operationalization and Measurement  82  • 
Diffusion 31 •  Acculturation 33
Sampling 82 •  Statistical Evaluation  83
■■ Applied Anthropology  Development Programs
Types of Research in Cultural Anthropology 84
and Culture Change: A Bedouin Case Study 35
Ethnography 85 •  Within-Culture
Revolution 36 Comparisons 89 •  Regional-Controlled
Culture Change and Adaptation 38 Comparisons 89 •  Cross-Cultural Research  89
Globalization: Problems and Opportunities 40 ■■ Applied Anthropology  There Is Nothing Like Evidence to
■■ Global Issues  Accelerating Climate Change—Will Shake Mistaken Beliefs 90
It Accelerate Culture Change? 43 Historical Research  91
Ethnogenesis: The Emergence of New Cultures 43 Summary and Review  92 • Think on it  93

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 vi Contents

5 Communication and Language 94 Technology 153

The Conversion of Resources 154
Communication 95 Types of Economic Production  154  •  Incentives for
Nonverbal Human Communication  95  •  Labor 155 •  Forced and Required Labor  157  • 
Nonhuman Communication  97 Division of Labor  158  •  The Organization of
The Origins of Language 99 Labor 159 •  Making Decisions About Work  160
Pidgin and Creole Languages  100 The Distribution of Goods and Services 161
■■ Applied Anthropology  Can Languages Be Kept Reciprocity 161 •  Redistribution 166 •  Market or
from Extinction?      101 Commercial Exchange  167
Children’s Acquisition of Language  102 The Worldwide Trend Toward Commercialization 171
Migratory Labor  171  •  Nonagricultural Commercial
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Why Are “Mother
Production 173
Tongues” Retained, and for How Long? 103
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Working Abroad to
Descriptive Linguistics 104
Send Money Home    174
Phonology 104 •  Morphology 106 • 
Syntax 107 Supplementary Cash Crops  175  •  Introduction
of Commercial and Industrial Agriculture  175
Historical Linguistics 108
■■ Global Issues  Deforestation and Climate Change    176
Language Families and Culture History  109
Summary and Review  177 • Think on it  178
The Processes of Linguistic Divergence 112
Relationships Between Language and Culture 113
Cultural Influences on Language  113  •  Linguistic 8 Social Stratification: Class, Ethnicity,
Influences on Culture  116 and Racism 179
The Ethnography of Speaking 117
Social Status and Speech  117  •  Gender Differences Variation in Degree of Social Inequality 180
in Speech  118 Egalitarian Societies 181
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Do Some Languages Rank Societies 183
Promote Sexist Thinking? 119 Class Societies 184
Multilingualism and Code-Switching  120 Open Class Systems  184
Writing and Literacy 121 ■■ Global Issues  Inadequate Housing and
Summary and Review  122 • Think on it  124 Homelessness        186
Recognition of Class  187  •  Caste Systems  188
6 Getting Food 125 ■■ Global Issues  Global Inequality 191
Foraging 126 Slavery 192
The Ngatatjara of Australia  127  •  The Inupiaq Racism and Inequality 193
of the North American Arctic  128  •  General Race as a Construct in Biology  194  • 
Features of Foragers  129  •  Complex Race as a Social Category  195
Foragers 130 ■■ Applied Anthropology  Unequal in Death: African
Food Production 130 Americans Compared with European Americans 196
Horticulture 130 Ethnicity and Inequality 197
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Food on the Move 132 The Emergence of Stratification 199
Intensive Agriculture  134 Summary and Review  201 • Think on it  202
■■ Global Issues  The Effects of Climate Change on
Food-Getting Strategies
Pastoralism 138
136
9 Sex and Gender 203
■■ Applied Anthropology  The Effect of Food-Getting Gender Concepts 205
on the Environment 140 Physique and Physiology 205
Environmental Restraints on Food-Getting 141 Gender Roles 206
The Origin of Food Production 142 Who Does What Work?  206
The Spread and Intensification of Food Production 144 Relative Contributions to Work: Who Works More? 209
Summary and Review  145 • Think on it  146 Overall Work  210  •  Subsistence Work  210

7 Economic Systems 147

Political Leadership and Warfare
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Why Do Some Societies
212

The Allocation of Resources 148 Allow Women to Participate in Combat? 213

Natural Resources: Land  149 The Relative Status of Women 214
■■ Current Research  Does Communal Ownership Lead to ■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Women’s Electoral
­Economic Disaster? 151 Success on the Northwest Coast    215

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 Contents vii

Personality Differences 216 Regulating Marriage  266  •  Economic Functions  267  • 

■■ Applied Anthropology  Economic Development Political Functions  267  •  Religious Functions  267
and Women’s Status    217 Ambilineal Systems 268
Sexuality 220 Explaining Variation in Residence 269
Cultural Regulations of Sexuality: Permissiveness Neolocal Residence  269  •  Matrilocal Versus Patrilocal
Versus Restrictiveness  220  •  Reasons for Sexual Residence 269
Restrictiveness 223 ■■ Applied Anthropology  From Cross-Cultural Research
Summary and Review  224 • Think on it  226
to Archaeology: Reconstructing Marital Residence
in the Prehistoric U.S. Southwest 271
10 Marriage and the Family 227 Bilocal Residence  271  •  Avunculocal Residence  272
Marriage 228 ■■ Current Research  Do Neolocality and Rebellious
Teenagers Go Together? 273
The Na and Nayar Exceptions  229  •  Same-Sex
Marriages 230 The Emergence of Unilineal Systems 274
Why Is Marriage Nearly Universal? 230 Explaining Ambilineal and Bilateral Systems 274
Gender Division of Labor  230  •  Prolonged Infant Kinship Terminology 275
Dependency 231 •  Sexual Competition  231  •  Inuit, or Eskimo, System  275  •  Omaha System  275  • 
A Look at Other Mammals and Birds  231 Crow System  276  •  Iroquois System  277  • 
How Does One Marry? 232 Sudanese System  277  •  Hawaiian System  278
Marking the Onset of Marriage  232  •  Economic Summary and Review  278  •  Think on it  280
Aspects of Marriage  234
Restrictions on Marriage: The Universal Incest Taboo 236 12 Associations and
Childhood-Familiarity Theory  237  •  Freud’s Interest Groups 281
Psychoanalytic Theory  238  •  Family-Disruption
Theory 238 •  Cooperation Theory  239  •  Inbreeding Characteristics of Associations 282
Theory 239 Nonvoluntary Associations 283
Whom Should One Marry? 240 Age-Sets 283 •  Unisex Associations  286
Arranged Marriages  241  •  Exogamy and Voluntary Associations 289
Endogamy 241 Military Associations  289  •  Regional
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Arranging Marriages Associations 290
in the Diaspora 242 ■■ Current Research  Why Do Street Gangs Develop, and
Levirate and Sororate  243 Why Are They Often Violent? 290
How Many Does One Marry? 244 Ethnic Associations 291 • Rotating Credit
Polygyny 244 Associations 292 • Multiethnic Associations 293
■■ Current Research  Love, Intimacy, and Sexual Jealousy ■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Do Separate Women’s
in Marriage 247 ­Associations Increase Women’s Status and Power? 294

Polyandry 248 Other Interest Groups  294

The Family 249 ■■ Global Issues  NGOs: Powerful National and
Adoption 249 •  Variation in Family International Interest Groups in the Modern World 295
Form 250 •  Extended-Family Households  250 Summary and Review  297 • Think on it  298

■■ Current Research  One-Parent Families: Why the

Recent Increase? 251 13 Political Life: Social Order
Possible Reasons for Extended-Family Households 252 and Disorder 299
Summary and Review  253  •  Think on it  255
Variation in Types of Political Organization 300
Band Organization 301 • Tribal
11 Marital Residence and Kinship 256 Organization 302 • Chiefdom Organization 304 • 
State Organization 305 • Nation-State, Nationalism,
Patterns of Marital Residence 257 and Political Identity  307
The Structure of Kinship 259 ■■ Global Issues  Democracy and Economic Development 308
Types of Affiliation with Kin  260 Factors Associated with Variation in
Variation in Unilineal Descent Systems 263 Political Organization 308
Patrilineal Organization  264  •  Matrilineal The Spread of State Societies 310
Organization 265 Variation in Political Process 310
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Variation in Residence Getting to Be a Leader  311  •  Leadership in
and ­Kinship: What Difference Does It Make More Complex Societies  312  •  Political
to Women? 266 Participation 313
Functions of Unilineal Descent Groups 266 ■■ Global Issues  Terrorism314

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 viii Contents

Resolution of Conflict 314 Summary and Review  367 • Think on it  368

Peaceful Resolution of Conflict  315
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  New Courts Allow Women 16 Health and Illness 369
to Address Grievances in Papua New Guinea 318
Violent Resolution of Conflict  319  •  Explaining Cultural Understandings of Health and Illness 370
Warfare 321 •  War and a Culture of Violence  323  •  Concepts of Balance or Equilibrium  371  • 
■■ Global Issues  Ethnic Conflicts: Ancient Hatreds
Supernatural Forces  371  •  The Biomedical
Paradigm 372
or Not? 324
■■ Applied Anthropology  Exploring Why an Applied
Political and Social Change  325
Project Didn’t Work` 373
Summary and Review  325  •  Think on it  326
Treatment of Illness 374
Medical Practitioners  374
14 Religion and Magic 327 Political and Economic Influences on Health 377
The Universality of Religion 328 Health Conditions and Diseases 377
The Need to Understand  329  •  Reversion AIDS 377  •  Mental and Emotional Disorders  380
to Childhood Feelings  329  •  Anxiety ■■ Global Issues  Impact of Violence on Children’s
and Uncertainty  330  •  The Need for Mental Health and Well-Being 381
Community 330 •  Need for Cooperation  331 ■■ Applied Anthropology  Eating Disorders, Biology,
Variation in Religious Beliefs 332 and the Cultural Construction of Beauty 384
Types of Supernatural Forces and Beings  332  • Malnutrition 385  •  Obesity 385  • 
The Character of Supernatural Beings  334  •  Undernutrition 386
Structure or Hierarchy of Supernatural Summary and Review  387 • Think on it  388
Beings 334 •  Intervention of the Gods
in Human Affairs  335  •  Life After Death  335
■■ Current Research  Religion: A Force for Cooperation 17 Practicing and Applying
and Harmony? 336 Anthropology389
Variation in Religious Practices 337
Ethics of Applied Anthropology 390
Ways to Interact with the Supernatural  337  • 
Magic 339 •  Types of Practitioners  340 ■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Women and
Development ­Programs    392
Religion and Adaptation 342
Religious Change 343 Evaluating the Effects of Planned Change 393
Religious Conversion  343 Difficulties in Instituting Planned Change 394
Anthropologists as Advocates and
■■ Perspectives on Diversity  Colonialism and
Collaborators 395
Religious ­Affiliation 344
Environmental Anthropology 396
Revitalization 346
■■ Global Issues  Worldwide Sea-level Rise and Effects
Summary and Review  349 • Think on it  350
on Human Societies 397
Business and Organizational Anthropology 398
15 The Arts 351 ■■ Applied Anthropology  General Motors: Creating
a Better Business Culture 400
Body Decoration and Adornment 353
Cultural Resource Management 400
■■ Applied Anthropology  Rock Art: Preserving a Window Museum Anthropology 402
into the Past 353
Forensic Anthropology 403
Explaining Variation in the Arts 354 Summary and Review  405 • Think on it  406
Visual Art  355  •  Music 357
■■ Global Issues  The Spread of Popular Music 358
Glossary407
■■ Current Research  Do Masks Show Emotion in
Universal Ways? 360 Bibliography410
Folklore361
Notes432
Viewing the Art of Other Cultures 364
Artistic Change, Culture Contact, and Global Trade 365 Index  438
“Tourist” Art and “Fine” Art 365

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 Preface

O
ne approach to studying cultural anthropology is in the division of labor by gender, cross-cultural predictors
to explore a few topics in depth; for example, gen- of the relative contribution of women and men to ­primary
der, human use of the environment, or globaliza- subsistence, and predictors of more restrictive rules about
tion. In Cultural Anthropology, Fifteenth Edition, we take a heterosexual and homosexual behavior.
different approach and focus on the unique ways anthro- Finally, we have always tried to go beyond descrip-
pologists look at humans, regardless of the topic. First, our tions to explain not only what humans are and were
chapters consider the scope of human history. Second, we like, but also how they became that way, in all their va-
take seriously the approach that culture needs to be con- riety. This edition is no different. An important part of
sidered in a broader context—this means considering the ­updating is finding new explanations and new evidence.
environments in which people live as well as the biologi- We take the effort to provide the most current evidence
cal attributes that human populations possess. Third, an- and explanations because we believe that ideas, includ-
thropology is broadly a comparative and global discipline, ing ideas put forward in academic materials, should not
paying greater attention than most disciplines to variation be accepted, even tentatively, without supporting tests
in all world regions. Wherever possible, we include re- that could have gone the other way. While we have al-
search that tests theory across time and with a worldwide ways taken this ­approach in Cultural Anthropology, we
scope. Finally, in discussing the constants and variables of feel our evidence-based approach is particularly im-
human life, we take a holistic approach, considering many portant today since students need to be able to discern
facets of life to give as a more contextual picture. for themselves what are—and what are not—evidence-
In other words, our textbook is holistic, biocultural, based u ­ nderstandings and explanations of both social
historical, and cross-cultural. This approach and philoso- and physical phenomena.
phy has characterized all of our editions. The fact that our
emphases have not changed over editions does not mean
that our content and organization has not improved with
each new edition. It has. Indeed, we realized with the help
What’s New to This Edition
of some very savvy reviewers that streamlining our mate- A Streamlined Organization
rials by removing the part sections, eliminating a chapter, In the last edition, we did a close reexamination of the
and trimming some content will help make the material text and added new pedagogy. Users responded very fa-
easier to navigate. With the inclusion of these changes, we vorably to those changes. For this edition, our reviewers
hope the organization of this edition is clearer than it may asked that we take a closer look at the overall organiza-
have been previously. And, as in every edition, we update tion as well as the length. Recognizing how difficult it is to
the text with new research. In this edition, we have added cover all aspects of cultural anthropology in one semester
nearly 200 new references. or quarter, we decided to eliminate the global problems
We recognize that some topics are very important chapter and integrate that material into the remaining
at this time—topics for which cultural anthropology content. By placing global issues in context, our hope is
provides important insights. In Cultural Anthropology, that instructors will be able to illustrate the anthropologi-
Fifteenth Edition, we not only increased coverage of these cal approach to these problems and cover more material
topics in the chapter text, but we also used our box fea- in less time. We also eliminated the part structure since
tures to highlight topics of current importance. Our boxes many reviewers told us it often made it difficult for them
focus on diversity—gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation; to determine how best to develop their syllabi.
global issues—including climate change and environmen-
tal degradation; applied anthropology; as well as current
­research on issues of particular importance to the field. Restructured Boxes Focusing on
In contrast to other anthropological textbooks, ­Issues Relevant in Today’s World
Cultural Anthropology, Fifteenth Edition, is more com-
While we have always discussed global issues and
parative and cross-cultural. This means that we not only
diversity, in this edition we have highlighted these
­
provide a variety of concrete ethnographic examples to
­important topics further with boxes spread throughout the
give students a vivid picture of cultural variation, but we
text. Thus, we have added new Perspectives on Diversity
also integrate the results of more than 800 cross-cultural
and Global Issues boxes to better reflect issues of concern
hypothesis-testing studies to give the broadest possible
in the world today.
information about the universality of a trait or the general
predictors of variation. We are aided in this endeavor by • Global Issues Boxes.  Global Issues boxes discuss
a new database that the Human Relations Area Files pro- worldwide social problems such as terrorism, the
duces called Explaining Human Culture. So, for example, in ­effects of violence on children, global inequality, prob-
Chapter 9: Sex and Gender, we discuss general patterns lems faced by refugees, environmental degradation,

ix

A01_EMBE2831_15_SE_FM.indd 9 12/22/17 1:59 PM

 x Preface

and accelerating climate change and its effects on cul- students nationwide, Revel is a fully digital and highly en-
ture. While some of these boxes are new, many were gaging way to deliver respected Pearson content.
adapted from material in the global problems chapter Revel enlivens course content with media interactives
of the last edition. and assessments—integrated directly within the authors’
• Perspectives on Diversity Boxes.  These boxes consider narrative that provide opportunities for students to read,
issues pertaining to gender, ethnicity, and the move- practice, and study in one continuous experience. This in-
ment of people, both in anthropology and e­ veryday life. teractive educational technology boosts student engage-
Examples include the discussion of migrants working ment, which leads to better understanding of the concepts
abroad to send money home, ­sexism in language, ar- and improved performance throughout the course.
ranging marriages in the diaspora, u ­ nequal treatment Learn more about Revel at http://www.pearson-
of African Americans in medicine, and women in com- highered.com/revel.
bat. All have been closely ­evaluated for this edition.
• Applied Anthropology Boxes.  These boxes provide Highlights of the Text
students with a better understanding of the vast range
of issues to which anthropological knowledge can be Chapter 1: What Is Anthropology?  Chapter 1 introduces
usefully applied. Anthropology is not a discipline fo- the student to anthropology. We discuss what we think is
cused on pure research. Most anthropologists want distinctive about anthropology in general and about each
their work to be actively used to help others. And, in of its subfields in particular. We outline how each of the
our increasingly interconnected world, it would seem subfields is related to other disciplines such as biology, psy-
that anthropological knowledge has become increas- chology, and sociology. We direct attention to the increasing
ingly valuable for understanding others. Examples importance of applied anthropology and the importance of
include keeping languages from extinction, how sub- understanding others in today’s globalized world. To em-
sistence practices affect the environment, preserving phasize the importance of research, we include two Current
rock art, eating disorders and cultural ideas about Research boxes on individual researchers (an ethnographer
beauty, and creating better business cultures. and a physical anthropologist); and, to illustrate how an-
thropological research can provide i­nsights into current is-
• Current Research Boxes.  Current Research boxes
sues, we’ve added a new Global ­Issues box on refugees.
focus on pure research. Examples include asking
whether communal ownership leads to economic di- Chapter 2: Culture and Culture Change  After introducing
saster; variation in love, intimacy, and sexual jealousy the concept of culture and some of the controversies sur-
in the husband–wife relationship; emotion expressed rounding the concept, we emphasize that culture is always
in masks; and whether religion is a force for coopera- changing. Throughout the chapter, we discuss individual
tion and harmony. variation and how such variation may be the beginning of
new cultural patterns. We also discuss attitudes that hinder
Updated Research the study of culture, cultural relativism and the issue of hu-
man rights, patterning of culture, culture and adaptation,
The world is constantly changing, so taking a closer look and mechanisms of culture change, before getting to the
at the references and citations is always essential to a new emergence of new cultures and the impact of globalization.
edition, and we did our best to update wherever possible. We have added a new section on the cumulative nature of
The seminal works remain, but we have included current culture, updated the discussion of acculturation to empha-
citations and updates to ensure students are receiving the size its generally coercive nature, and updated our discus-
latest information. We have added coverage on issues sion of the Arab Spring in discussing political change. The
such as whether language promotes sexist thinking in first box is a Current Research box on how much the Chi-
Chapter 5. There is also new information on environmen- nese government has been able to change culture. The sec-
tal and climate change in Chapters 2, 5, and 6 and updated ond Applied Anthropology box, now u ­ pdated, discusses
and new content on global inequality in Chapter 8. These an applied anthropologist’s attempts to accommodate Bed-
are just a few of the many updates you will find in Cultural ouin needs in designed change programs with the Oman
Anthropology, Fifteenth Edition. government. The new Global I­ssues box asks how much
accelerating climate change will ­accelerate culture change.
Revel™ Chapter 3: Culture and the Individual  In this chapter, we
Educational technology designed for the way today’s students discuss some of the universals of psychological develop-
read, think, and learn ment and the processes that contribute to differences in
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more ef- childhood experience and personality formation and have
fectively and perform better in their courses. This simple updated the section on children’s work. We then turn to
fact inspired the creation of Revel—an interactive learning how understanding psychological processes may help us
experience designed for the way today’s students read, understand cultural variation. The chapter closes with a
think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and section on the individual as an agent of culture change.

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 Preface  xi

The Current Research box addresses research on appar- about by local and global political and economic forces. This
ent cultural differences in emotional expressiveness. The chapter begins with a discussion of how societies vary in
Applied Anthropology box discusses the degree to which the ways they allocate resources, convert or transform re-
schools in different societies teach different values. sources through labor into usable goods, and distribute and
perhaps exchange goods and services. The sharing section
Chapter 4: Understanding and Explaining Culture  In this and the section on cooperative work organization among
chapter, we focus on what it means to explain and what kinds pastoralists has been updated. The Current Issues box ad-
of evidence are needed to evaluate an explanation. We provide dresses the controversy over whether communal owner-
a brief introduction to some of the major ideas that have his- ship leads to economic disaster. The updated Perspectives
torically guided anthropological explanations in the United on Diversity box discusses the impact of working abroad
States and then turn to the major methods used in cultural and sending money home. The completely reworked Global
anthropology to gather evidence to test explanations. The two
Issues box illustrates the impact of the world system on lo-
boxes focus on evidence and explanation: The first Current
cal economies, with special reference to the deforestation of
Research box evaluates alternative theories; a second Applied
the Amazon.
Anthropology box illustrates how evidence from anthropology
can help international development organizations implement Chapter 8: Social Stratification: Class, Ethnicity, and Rac-
­effective policies. ism  This extensively revised chapter explores the varia-
tion in degree of social stratification and how the various
Chapter 5: Communication and Language  To place lan- forms of social inequality may develop. We point out con-
guage in perspective, the chapter begins with a broader cepts of how “race,” racism, and ethnicity often relate to the
discussion of communication, including nonverbal human inequitable distribution of resources. A new Global Issues
communication and communication in other animals. We box addresses the worldwide problem of inadequate hous-
discuss how language differs from other forms of commu- ing and homelessness. The second Global Issues box that
nication and ideas about the origins of language. We then addresses the degree of global inequality and why the gap
turn to some fundamentals of descriptive linguistics and between rich and poor countries may have widened has
linguistic divergence. We have added new research on tonal been extensively revised. The Perspectives on Diversity box
languages to the phonology section and in the section on discusses why there are disparities in death by disease be-
processes of linguistic divergence extensively revised our tween African Americans and European Americans.
discussion of the origin of Indo-European languages and
the origin and spread of Bantu language families. ­Toward Chapter 9: Sex and Gender  This chapter opens with a sec-
the end of the chapter, we discuss the postulated relation- tion on culturally varying gender concepts, including di-
ships between language and other aspects of culture, add- versity in what genders are recognized. After discussing
ing new research on language’s effects on culture. Finally, universals and differences in gender roles in subsistence
we discuss the ethnography of speaking, writing, and liter- and leadership, we turn to theories about why men domi-
acy. The updated Applied Anthropology box discusses lan- nate political leadership and what may explain variation in
guage extinction and what some anthropologists are doing relative status of women and men. We have updated how
about it. The updated Perspectives on Diversity box asks much housework women do compared to men and the se-
why some immigrant groups are more likely to retain their clusion of women in certain cultures and its influence on
native languages. And, to stimulate thinking about the pos- women’s ability to work. The chapter continues with a dis-
sible impact of language on thought, we ask in the consid- cussion of the variation in attitudes and practices regarding
erably revised Perspectives on Diversity box whether some various types of sexuality. The homosexuality section has
languages promote sexist thinking. been revised in light of different gender concepts in differ-
ent societies. In the updated Perspectives on Diversity box,
Chapter 6: Getting Food  This chapter discusses how so- we examine why some societies allow women to partici-
cieties vary in getting their food, how they have changed pate in combat. The Perspectives on Diversity box discusses
over time, and how this variation seems to affect other research on why women’s political participation may be
kinds of cultural variation. Our updated Perspectives on increasing in some Coast Salish communities of western
Diversity box explores where particular foods came from Washington State and British Columbia now that they have
and how different foods and cuisines spread around the elected councils. The Applied Anthropology box examines
world as people migrated. Our new Global Issues box ad- the impact of economic development on women’s status.
dresses the effects of climate change on food getting, and
our updated Applied Anthropology box deals with the Chapter 10: Marriage and the Family  After discussing vari-
negative e­ nvironmental effects of irrigation, animal graz- ous theories and evidence about why marriage might be
ing, and overhunting in preindustrial times. universal, we move on to discuss variation in how one mar-
ries, restrictions on marriage, whom one should marry, and
Chapter 7: Economic Systems  Not only does this chap- how many one should marry. We updated the section on
ter describe variation in traditional economic systems and couples choosing to live together, added a section on oth-
how much of it has been linked to ways of getting food, er types of marriage transaction, and updated the section
but there is also integrated discussion of change brought on parallel cousin marriage. We close with a discussion of

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 xii Preface

variation in family form and customs of adoption. To bet- on leadership in complex societies, a culture of violence,
ter prepare students for understanding kinship charts in and what a culture of peace would look like. The first Glob-
the chapter that follows, we have a diagram explaining dif- al Issues box is on the cross-national and cross-cultural
ferent types of family structures. Our first Perspectives on relationship between economic development and democ-
Diversity box discusses arranged marriage and how it has racy. We also added two new Global Issues boxes—one on
changed among South Asian immigrants in England and terrorism and one on ethnic conflicts. The Perspectives on
the United States. The updated Current Research box dis- Diversity box deals with how new local courts among the
cusses variation in love, intimacy, and sexual jealousy. The Abelam of New Guinea are allowing women to address
Global Issues box discusses why one-parent families are on sexual grievances.
the increase in countries like ours.
Chapter 14: Religion and Magic  The chapter opens with
Chapter 11: Marital Residence and Kinship  Rather than a discussion of how the concepts of the supernatural and
jumping right into principles of kinship, we broadly dis- natural have varied over time and space and then turns to
cuss the different functions of kinship, the consequences of theories about why religion is universal. We go on to dis-
different kinship systems, and how the importance of kin cuss variation in the types, nature, and structure of gods,
changes with economic fortunes. In addition to describ- spirits, and forces; human/god interactions, concepts of life
ing the variation that exists in marital residence, kinship after death; ways to interact with the supernatural; and the
structure, and kinship terminology, this chapter discusses number and types of religious practitioners. A major por-
theory and research that try to explain that variation. We tion of the chapter deals with religious change, religious
now discuss alternative theories about what may explain conversion and revitalization, and fundamentalist move-
variation in marital residence. The Perspectives on Diver- ments. We have updated our discussion of religion among
sity box ­explores how variation in residence and kinship hunter-gatherers and our discussion of gods and their role
affects the lives of women. The Applied Anthropology in moral behavior. The revised Current Research box raises
box, now updated, discusses how cross-cultural research the question of whether, and to what degree, religion pro-
on the floor area of residences in matrilocal versus patrilo- motes moral behavior, cooperation, and harmony. The Per-
cal societies can be used to help archaeologists make infer- spectives on Diversity box discusses the role of colonialism
ences about the past. The Current Research box discusses in religious change.
the possible relationship between neolocality and adoles-
Chapter 15: The Arts  After discussing how art might be de-
cent rebellion.
fined and the appearance of the earliest art (now u ­ pdated),
Chapter 12: Associations and Interest Groups  We dis- we discuss variation in the visual arts, music, and folklore
tinguish associations by whether they are nonvoluntary and review how some of those variations might be ex-
­(common in more egalitarian societies) or voluntary, and plained. In regard to how the arts change over time, we dis-
whether they are based on universally ascribed characteris- cuss the myth that the art of “simpler” peoples is timeless as
tics (like age and sex), variably ascribed characteristics (like well as how arts have changed as a result of European con-
ethnicity), or achieved characteristics. New data on the im- tact. We address the role of ethnocentrism in studies of art
pact of social media has been added. The Current Research in a section on how Western museums and art critics look at
box discusses why street gangs may develop and why they the visual art of less complex cultures. Similarly, we discuss
often become violent. The updated Perspectives on Diversi- the problematic and fuzzy distinctions made in labeling
ty box addresses the question of whether separate women’s some art negatively as “tourist” art versus more positively
associations increase women’s status and power and the as “fine” art. The thoroughly revised Applied Anthropology
updated Global Issues box looks at the importance of non- box explores ancient and more recent rock art and the meth-
governmental organizations in bringing about change at the ods that can be used to help preserve it. We updated and re-
local and international levels. worked material into a Global Issues box that discusses the
global spread of popular music. The Current Research box
Chapter 13: Political Life: Social Order and Disorder  In
deals with universal symbolism in art, particularly research
this extensively revised chapter, we look at how societies
on the emotions displayed in masks.
have varied in their levels of political organization, the
various ways people become leaders, the degree to which Chapter 16: Health and Illness  This extensively revised
they participate in the political process, and the peaceful chapter examines cultural understandings of health and
and violent methods of resolving conflict. We emphasize illness, the treatment of illness (particularly from a biocul-
change, including what may explain shifts from one type tural rather than just a biomedical point of view), varying
of organization to another, such as how colonialization and medical practitioners, and political and economic influences
other outside forces have transformed legal systems and on health. To give a better understanding of what medical
ways of making decisions. We then discuss the concepts of ­anthropologists do, we focus on AIDS, mental and emo-
­nation-states, n
­ ationalism, and political identity. We have tional disorders ­(particularly susto and depression), and
expanded discussion of becoming a leader in egalitarian malnutrition, including both obesity and undernutrition. We
societies, added research on state terrorism, and expanded discuss alternative forms of medicine in the United States,
the section on explaining warfare. We added new sections include sections on placebos and nocebos, more thoroughly

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 Preface  xiii

discuss the controversy about culture-bound syndromes, “Think on it” Critical Assessment Questions.  Each chapter
and in the section on depression include additional research concludes with thought-provoking questions that ask stu-
on links for economic deprivation and inequality. We have dents to take concepts presented in the chapter and move
updated the section on political and economic influences beyond rote answers. The questions engage students at a
on health, updated the section on HIV, and reoriented and metacognitive level asking them to think critically about the
expanded the discussion of undernutrition and obesity as questions posed to formulate their own responses.
forms of malnutrition. The Current Research box discusses
Key Terms and Glossary.  Important terms and concepts ap-
an ­anthropologist’s attempt to evaluate why an applied
pearing in boldface type within the text are defined in the
medical project didn’t work, a new Global Issues box ad-
margins where they first appear. All key terms and their def-
dresses the impact of violence on children’s mental health
initions are repeated in the glossary at the end of the book.
and well-being, and the updated Applied Anthropology box
explores eating disorders, biology, and the cultural construc- End-of-Chapter Summaries.  In addition to the previously
tion of beauty. mentioned learning objectives, each chapter ends with a
detailed summary organized in terms of the learning objec-
Chapter 17: Practicing and Applying Anthropology  In this
tives that will help students review the major concepts and
extensively updated chapter, an introductory section dis-
findings discussed.
cusses specializations in practicing and applied anthropol-
ogy. We move on to evaluating the effects of planned change End-of-Book Notes.  Because we strongly believe in the
and difficulties in bringing about change. Since most of the importance of documentation, we think it essential to tell
examples in the first part of the chapter have to do with our readers, both professionals and students, upon what our
development, the remainder of the chapter gives an intro- conclusions are based. Usually, the basis is published
duction to a number of other applied specialties, including ­research. The abbreviated notes in this edition provide in-
environmental anthropology, business and organizational formation to find the complete citation in the bibliography
anthropology, museum anthropology, cultural resource at the end of the book.
management, and forensic anthropology. We have updated
our discussion of collaborative anthropology, revised our
section on ethics, and updated the cultural resources sec- Supplements
tion as well as the forensic anthropology section. The ex- This textbook is part of a complete teaching and learning
tensively revised Perspectives on Diversity box considers package that has been carefully created to enhance the top-
how women were and are treated by development pro- ics discussed in the text.
grams. The new Global Issues box addresses the effects of
Instructor’s Resource Manual with Test Banks.  For each
worldwide sea-level rise on the viability of some societies.
chapter in the text, this valuable resource provides a detailed
The extensively revised Applied Anthropology box is a case
outline, list of objectives, discussion questions, and class-
study of anthropologists who worked with General Motors
room activities. In addition, test questions in multiple-choice
to develop a better business culture.
and short-answer formats are available for each chapter; the
answers to all questions are referenced to the text.
Student-Friendly Pedagogy MyTest.  This computerized software allows instructors
Readability.  We derive great pleasure from attempting to
to create their own personalized exams, to edit any or all
describe research findings in ways that introductory stu- of the existing test questions, and to add new questions.
dents can understand. We do our best to minimize technical Other special features of this program include random
jargon, using only those terms students must know to ap- generation of test questions, creation of alternate versions
preciate the achievements of anthropology and to take ad- of the same test, scrambling question sequence, and test
vanced courses. We think readability is important not only preview before printing.
because it will enhance the reader’s understanding but be- PowerPoint™ Presentation Slides.  These PowerPoint
cause it should make learning about anthropology more en- slides combine text and graphics for each chapter to help
joyable. When new terms are introduced, they are set off in instructors convey anthropological principles in a clear and
boldface type and defined in the text, set off in the margins engaging way.
for emphasis, and of course they also appear in the glossary
Strategies in Teaching Anthropology, Sixth Edition (0-205-
at the end of the book.
71123-5).  Unique in focus and content, this book concentrates
Learning Objectives.  Each chapter begins with learning on the “how” of teaching anthropology across all four fields
objectives that indicate what students should know after and provides a wide array of associated learning outcomes
reading the material. The learning objectives are tied to each and student activities. It is a valuable single-source compen-
major heading within the chapter and are reinforced at the dium of strategies and teaching “tricks of the trade” from
end of each chapter in the summaries. The learning objec- a group of seasoned teaching anthropologists, working in
tives also signal to students what topics they might have to a variety of teaching settings, who share their ­pedagogical
reread to comprehend the material presented. techniques, knowledge, and observations.

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 xiv Preface

Acknowledgments Honeycutt, Rowan Cabarrus Community College; Nzinga

Mezger, Florida A & M University; and Larry Ross, Lincoln
In preparing this edition, we want to thank the team at University of Missouri.
Ohlinger Publishing Services and Integra, especially Barbara We continue to appreciate reviewers from previous edi-
A. Heinssen and Jessica Wang-Strykowski, who have ably tions: Alice Baldwin-Jones, City College of New York; Richard
guided this revision. Carol Ember is also grateful to Kathy E. Blanton, Purdue University; James L. Boone, University of
Ember Levy for her assistance in preparing the cultural New Mexico; Beau Bowers, Central Piedmont Community
chapters. Recognizing that any new edition rests on a critical College; Andrew Buckser, Purdue University; Gregory
foundation from the past, we want to thank our long-time Campbell, University of Montana; Wanda Clark, South Plains
editor, Nancy Roberts, for her long and steadfast steward- College; Garrett Cook, Baylor University; Shepherd Jenks,
ship over many editions. And we especially are grateful for Albuquerque TVI Community College; Heidi Luchsinger,
the words and spirit that are still present from Mel Ember’s East Carolina University; Daniel R. Maher, University of
contributions before his death. Always the optimist, Mel Arkansas-Fort Smith; Jim Mielke, University of Kansas;
believed there were laws governing human behavior that Kristrina Shuler, Auburn University; Max E. White, Piedmont
could be found if you thought hard enough, worked hard College; Jean M. Wynn, Manchester Community College
enough, and tested ideas against the anthropological record. Thank you all, named and unnamed, who gave us advice.
We want to thank the following people for review-
ing our chapters and offering suggestions for the fifteenth Carol R. Ember and
edition: Kanya Godde, University of LaVerne; Kenda Melvin Ember

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 About the Authors
CAROL R. EMBER began her career as a chemistry MELVIN EMBER majored in anthropology at Columbia Col-
­major at Antioch College. She began taking social science lege and went to Yale University for his PhD. His mentor at
courses because some were required, but she soon found Yale was George Peter Murdock, an anthropologist who was
herself intrigued. There were lots of questions without instrumental in promoting cross-cultural research and build-
answers, and she became excited about the possibility ing a full-text database on the cultures of the world to facili-
of a research career in social science. She spent a year in tate cross-cultural hypothesis testing. This database came to
graduate school at Cornell studying sociology before con- be known as the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) be-
tinuing on to Harvard, where she studied anthropology, cause it was originally sponsored by the Institute of Human
primarily with John and Beatrice Whiting. For her PhD Relations at Yale. Growing in annual installments and now
dissertation, she worked among the Luo of Kenya and distributed online as eHRAF World Cultures and eHRAF Ar-
studied the possible effects of task assignment on the so- chaeology, the HRAF databases currently cover more than 400
cial behavior of children. For most of her career, she has cultures and traditions, past and present, all over the world.
conducted cross-cultural research on topics such as vari- Melvin Ember did fieldwork for his dissertation in
ation in marriage, family, descent groups, and war and American Samoa, where he conducted a comparison of
peace, mainly in c­ ollaboration with Melvin Ember, whom three villages to study the effects of commercialization on
she married in 1970. All of these cross-cultural studies political life. In addition, he did research on descent groups
tested theories on data for worldwide samples of socie- and how they changed with the increase of buying and sell-
ties. Her recent research funded by the National Science ing. His cross-cultural studies focused originally on varia-
Foundation focuses on possible effects of climate-related tion in marital residence and descent groups. He has also
hazards on cultural institutions and practices. done cross-cultural research on the relationship between
From 1970 to 1996, she taught at Hunter College of economic and political development, the origin and exten-
the City University of New York. She has served as presi- sion of the incest taboo, the causes of polygyny, and how
dent of the Society of Cross-Cultural Research and was archaeological correlates of social customs can help us draw
one of the directors of the Summer Institutes in Compara- inferences about the past.
tive Anthropological Research, which were funded by After four years of research at the National Institute of
the National Science Foundation. She has recently served Mental Health, he taught at Antioch College and then Hunt-
as President of the Society for Anthropological Sciences. er College of the City University of New York. He served as
Since 1996, she has been at the Human Relations Area president of the Society for Cross-Cultural Research. From
Files, Inc., a nonprofit research agency at Yale University, 1987 until his death in September 2009, he was president of
first serving as Executive Director and, since 2010, as Pres- the Human Relations Area Files, Inc., a nonprofit research
ident of that organization. agency at Yale University.

xv

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