Fundamentals of

Electric Circuits
Ning Xie / 谢 宁
[email protected]
SEIEE Building 1-135
Chapter 4 Circuit Theorems
Terminologies
linear circuit 线性电路
homogeneity 齐次性
additivity 可加性
superposition principle 叠加原理
excitation 激励
response 响应
equivalent 等效的
source transformation 电源变换
Thevenin’s theorem 戴维宁定理
Norton’s theorem 诺顿定理
maximum power transfer 最大功率传输
deaden 衰减
quadratic 平方的
principle 原理
Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer
Supplements: Tellegen Theorem and Reciprocity
Analysis methods VS circuit
theorems
 Kirchhoff’s laws are used to analyze a
circuit without changing its original
configuration, but tedious computations
involved in case of complex circuits.
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are used
to analyze a complex circuit by simplifying
its configuration.
Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer
Supplements: Tellegen Theorem and Reciprocity
Overview of linearity property
 Describing a linear relationship between

cause (input) and effect (output)

 Only applying to resistors in this chapter

 Combining of both homogeneity (scaling)

property and additivity property

Homogeneity / Scaling property
If input / excitation is multiplied by a
constant, then output / response is
multiplied by the same constant.
For a resistor: v = iR
Output / Response Input / Excitation
Homogeneity property implies
kiR = kv where k is a constant
Additivity property
Output / response of a sum of input /
excitation is the sum of the outputs
to each input applied separately.
For a resistor, if v1 = i1R and v2 = i2R

Additivity property implies

v = (i1 + i2)R = i1R + i2R = v1 + v2

Linear circuit
A circuit whose output is linearly related (or
directly proportional) to its input consists of
only linear elements, linear dependent sources,
and independent sources.

Linear
i Output /
Input / +
vs –
circuit
R Response
Excitation

Linear element: v-i relationship satisfies both the

homogeneity and the additivity properties
 Practice problems
For the circuit, find Assume that vo = 1 V and
vo when is = 15 A use linearity to calculate the
and is = 30 A. actual value of vo in the
circuit.
12 Ω 12 Ω

+ +
+
is 4Ω 8Ω vo 40 V – 5Ω 8Ω vo
– –

Linear circuit Linear circuit

Practice problem
For the circuit, find Io when vs = 12 V and
vs = 24 V.
2Ω 8Ω
+ – Io
vx
4Ω 4Ω
6Ω
+ –
vs – + 3vx
How to verify a system is linear?
Does y = 2x + 3 represent a linear system?
If x = a1x1 + a2x2, then

y = 2x + 3 = 2(a1x1 + a2x2) + 3

Sum of outputs to each input applied separately is

y1 + y2 = (2a1x1 + 3) + (2a2x2 + 3)

 y ≠ y1 + y2
Power is nonlinearly related to
voltage or current
p = i2R = v2/R
If i1 flowing through R, then p1 = i12R

If i2 flowing through R, then p2 = i22R

If (i1 + i2) flowing through R, then p3 = (i1 + i2)2R

 p3 ≠ p1 + p2
Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer
Supplements: Tellegen Theorem and Reciprocity
Superposition principle
It relies on the linearity property and
states that the voltage across (or
current through) an element in a
linear circuit is the algebraic sum of
the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
NB
 Considering one independent source at a

time while all other independent sources

turned off, i.e., replacing voltage source by
0V(short circuit) and current source by
0A(open circuit).
 Leaving dependent sources as they are.
Steps to apply superposition
principle
Step 1: Turning off all independent sources except
one source and finding output due to that active
source using basic laws and analysis methods.

Step 2: Repeating Step 1 for each of the other

independent sources.
Step 3: Finding total contribution by adding
algebraically all contributions due to independent
sources.
Practice problem 1
Find I in the circuit using the superposition
principle.
2Ω I
6Ω 8Ω

+ 4A +
16 V – – 12 V
Solution

Only 16V-voltage source active:

2Ω i1
6Ω 8Ω

+ 4A +
16 V – – 12 V
Solution

Only 4A-current source active:

2Ω i2
6Ω 8Ω

+ 4A +
16 V – – 12 V
Solution

Only 12V-voltage source active:

2Ω i3
6Ω 8Ω

+ 4A +
16 V – – 12 V
Power supplied by each source?
2Ω I
6Ω 8Ω

+ 4A +
16 V – – 12 V
 Practice problem 2
Use superposition to find vx in the circuit.
20 Ω vx

+
25 V – 5A 4Ω 0.1vx
Pros and cons of superposition
 Reducing complex circuit to simpler one
by replacing independent voltage sources
with short circuits and independent
current sources with open circuits.
 Involving more calculation of analyzing
contributions due to each source.
 Not applying to find power due to each
source.
Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer
Supplements: Tellegen Theorem and Reciprocity
Overview

 Tools for simplifying circuits: series-

parallel combination, wye-delta

transformation, source transformation

 Basic concept: equivalence

 Circuit equivalence
Ieq Ieq
a a
+ +
v v +
Slope = Req Slope = Req –
Veq Veq
i i Req
– –
b b
Thevenin’s
Original circuit Equivalent circuit
Theorem
Two circuits are said to be equivalent if they have
the same i-v relationship at a pair of terminals.
Source transformation
The process of replacing a voltage
source in series with a resistor by a
current source in parallel with a
resistor, or vice versa.
R
a a
v v
Slope = R Slope = R
vs +– ⇔ is R
i i
b b
Requirement for source
transformation
Transformation of independent sources:
R
a a
vs +
– isc = vs / R ⇔ is R isc = is
b b
Transformation of dependent sources:
R
a a
vs +
– isc = vs / R ⇔ is R isc = is
b b

v s = is R or is = vs / R
Practice problem 1
Find io in the circuit using source
transformation.

5V 1Ω
–+
io

6Ω 5A 3Ω 7Ω 3A 4Ω
Solution
Transforming current sources to voltage
sources:

5V
–+
i
2Ω 5A 3A 35/12 Ω
Solution

Applying KVL and KCL to find io:

2Ω 5V 35/12 Ω
–+
i
+ +
10 V – – 35/4 V
Practice problem 2
Use source transformation to find ix in the
circuit.
5Ω

ix
–
24 mA 10 Ω + 2ix
Solution
Transforming dependent voltage source to
current source:

ix

24 mA 10 Ω 5Ω 2ix / 5
Practice problem 3
Find vx in the circuit using source transformation.
4Ω

0.25 vx
2Ω

+
+ +
6V – 2Ω vx – 18 V
–
NB
 Arrow of current source is directed toward

the positive terminal of voltage source.

 An ideal current source (R = ∞) cannot be

replaced by a finite voltage source; an ideal

voltage source (R = 0) cannot be replaced
by a finite current source.
Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer
Supplements: Tellegen Theorem and Reciprocity
Why introducing Thevenin’s
theorem?
Outlet terminal Original circuit:
I a
Linear +
two-terminal V Load
circuit –
b
Fixed part of circuit
Variable
load RTh I a
+
+
Thevenin equivalent circuit: VTh – V Load
–
b
Why introducing Thevenin’s
theorem?
a RTh a
IL + IL
Linear +
RL VTh – VL RL
circuit –
b b
Original circuit Thevenin equivalent
VTh RL
IL , VL ILRL VTh
RTh RL RTh RL
In summary, a linear circuit with a variable
load can be replaced by the Thevenin
equivalent, exclusive of the load.
Thevenin’s theorem
A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTh in
series with a resistor RTh, where VTh
is the open-circuit voltage at the
terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are
turned off.
Finding VTh
a RTh a
Linear + +
+
two-terminal vVoc Load VTh – V Load
circuit – –
b b
Original circuit Thevenin equivalent
VTh = voc

VTh is open-circuit voltage across

two terminals of original circuit.
Finding RTh –
Case 1: no dependent sources
a RTh a
Linear circuit with all
+
independent sources Rin VTh –
set equal to zero
b b
Original circuit Thevenin equivalent
RTh = Rin
RTh is input or equivalent resistance at
the terminals of original circuit when all
independent sources are turned off.
Practice problem
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the equivalent
circuit to the left of the terminals in the circuit.
Then find I through RL = 1 Ω, 15 Ω, 33 Ω.
6Ω 6Ω a
+
I
18 V + 3A 4Ω VRTh RL
– Th

–
b
 Finding RTh –
Case 2: dependent sources exist
io
a a
Linear circuit with all Linear circuit with all +
+
independent sources – vo independent sources vo io
set equal to zero set equal to zero –
b b
Applying voltage source Applying current source
RTh = vo / io
Turning off all sources except dependent
ones and applying a voltage or current
source at terminals.
NB
 vo and io can be assumed any value or

even unspecified.

 RTh may be negative in circuit with

dependent sources, implying power is

supplied.
Practice problem 1
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of
the circuit to the left of the terminals.
5Ω Ix 3 Ω a
+

6V + i1 1.5Ix i2 4Ω VTh
–

–
b
Finding RTh — Method 1
Applying 1A current source at terminals
and using nodal analysis:
5Ω v1 Ix 3 Ω v2 a
+

1.5Ix 4 Ω vo 1A
–

b
Finding RTh — Method 2
Applying unspecified voltage source at
terminals and using mesh analysis:
5Ω Ix 3 Ω a io

i1 1.5Ix i2 4Ω io +
– vo

b
Practice problem 2
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the
circuit at terminals a-b.
2vx
– +

2Ω 2Ω
a
+
5A vx 4Ω 6Ω
–

b
Practice problem 3
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent for the
circuit.
4vx
10 Ω a io
+ –
i1 i2 +
+
vx 5Ω i 15 Ω VTh +
– vo
–
–
b
Practice problem 4
Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the
circuit at terminals a-b.

a
ix
2 ix 4Ω 2Ω

b
Tips for analyzing circuits with
dependent sources
 Only need to find RTh (VTh = 0) if no

independent sources in the circuit.

 “Excited with 1A source + nodal

analysis” or “Excited with 1V source +

mesh analysis”
Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer
Supplements: Tellegen Theorem and Reciprocity
Norton’s theorem
A linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN, where IN
is the short-circuit current through
the terminals and RN is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are
turned off.
Finding IN
a a
Linear
two-terminal isc Load IN RN IN Load
circuit
b b
Original circuit Norton equivalent
IN = isc

IN is short-circuit current at terminals

of original circuit.
Finding RN
a a
Linear circuit with all
independent sources Rin IN RN Load
set equal to zero
b
Original circuit Norton equivalent
RN = Rin
RN is input resistance at the terminals of
original circuit when all sources except
dependent ones are turned off.
 Thevenin and Norton equivalent
Original circuit
a
Linear
circuit
b

Thevenin equivalent Source Norton equivalent

a (Thevenin-Norton) a
RTh
VTh +– IN RN
transformation
b b
Requirements for determining
equivalent circuit
VTh
IN and RN = RTh
RTh
a a a
+ Linear circuit with
Linear Linear
voc isc all independent Rin
circuit circuit
– sources turned off
b b b

Calculate any two of the three using

method that takes the least effort and
get the third one using Ohm’s law.
Open-circuit and short-circuit
tests
voc
VTh = voc and IN = isc  RTh RN
isc
a a
+
Linear Linear
voc isc
circuit circuit
–
b b

They are sufficient to find any Thevenin

or Norton equivalent of a circuit that
contains at least one independent source.
Practice problem 1
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the
circuit at terminals a-b.

3Ω 3Ω a

+
15 V –
i1 4A 6Ω IN

b
Practice problem 2
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the
circuit at terminals a-b.
8Ω
a
4Ω
2A 5Ω
+
– 12 V
b
8Ω
Practice problem 3
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the
circuit at terminals a-b.
2vx
a
+ –
+
+
6Ω 10 A 2 Ω vx vocisc
–
–
b
Practice problem 4
Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit
at terminals a-b by doing the open-circuit and
short-circuit tests.
2ix

5Ω
a
ix
4Ω +
– 10 V

b
A summary Original circuit
a
Linear
two-terminal RL
circuit
b
Thevenin equivalent VTh Norton equivalent
a IN = a
RTh
+ RTh
VTh – RL IN RN RL
RN = RTh
b b

VTh: voc of original circuit

IN: isc of original circuit
RTh = RN: input or equivalent resistance at terminals with
independent sources turned off. When dependent sources exist:
− apply vo or io at terminals and find io~vo or vo~io
− do open-circuit and short-circuit tests and find voc/isc
Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer
Supplements: Tellegen Theorem and Reciprocity
Power transferred to load
RTh p
a
i pmax
VTh + RL
–

b 0 RTh RL
Power delivered to the load 2
2
V Th
p i RL RL
RTh RL
where RL: load resistance
RTh: Thevenin resistance
Maximum power theorem
Maximum power is transferred to the
load when RL = RTh (source and
load are matched).

2
VTh RL = RTh VTh2
p RL pmax
RTh RL 4RTh
Proof
dp 2 RTh RL 2 2RL RTh RL
VTh
dRL RTh RL 4

2 (RTh RL 2RL)
VTh 0
(RTh RL)3

 RL = RTh
d 2p
0  RL = RTh gives the maximum power
dRL2
Q.E.D
Practice problem
Determine the value of RL that will draw the
maximum power from the rest of the circuit.
Calculate the maximum power.
2Ω 4Ω a
+ vx – +

1Ω
+
9V – i vocisc RL
+
– 3vx
–
b
Outline
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Linearity Property
4.3 Superposition
4.4 Source Transformation
4.5 Thevenin’s Theorem
4.6 Norton’s Theorem
4.8 Maximum Power Transfer
Supplements: Tellegen Theorem and Reciprocity
Tellegen Theorem
ik
Passive sign convention (PSC): + –
vk
1. If there are b branches in a lumped circuit, and the
voltage vk, current ik of each branch k apply PSC,
then b
Law of conservation
vkik = 0 of energy
k 1
2. If two lumped circuits have the same topology, and
the voltage vk in one circuit, current ik of each
branch k in another circuit (or ik, vk) apply PSC, then
b b
Quasi-power vkik = 0 or vkik = 0
k 1 k 1
 State 1 State 2
1 2 1 2
         
2Ω 1Ω 1Ω +
– 20 V
5V +
– 5Ω 5A 50 Ω
 
1Ω 5Ω

Please verify: State 1 State 2

6 6 vk(V) ik(A) vk(V) ik(A)

k= 5 1 450/11 9/11
vkik = 0, vkik = 0
k= 2 1 20 20
k 1 k 1 k= 2 2 20 0
6
k= 3 3 230/11 46/11
and vkik = 0
k= 5 4 450/11 5
k 1 k= 2 0 20 174/11
 Reciprocity
1 2 1 2
Reciprocal
I I Reciprocal
+ +
V – A A – V
network network

A two-port network is reciprocal if

interchanging an ideal voltage (current)
source at one port with an ideal ammeter
(voltmeter) at the other port gives the
same reading.
Assignment

Problems 4.3, 4.7, 4.19, 4.29, 4.42,

4.49, 4.51, 4.60