Civil Engineering

Construction & Graphics

Pre-Construction Works Lecture # 8

Engr. Shad Muhammad

Lecturer
Department of Civil Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad, Sahiwal Campus.
Pre-Construction Works
Table of Content 2
• Construction of Foundation – Depth, Width, Layout and Excavation
• Depth of Foundation
• Width of Foundation / Footings
• Processes involved in Construction of Foundation
• Precautions while designing a Foundation
• Precautions during Excavation for Foundation
• Demarcation / Layout Procedure for Foundation
• Advantages of Layout with the help of marking pillars
• Disadvantages for doing the work without layout
• Materials & Tools used during Setting up of Layout
• Setting out Perpendicular Lines
• Timbering of Trenches

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Construction of Foundation – Depth, Width, Layout and Excavation 3

✓ Procedure for construction of foundation starts with decision on its depth, width and marking
layout for excavation and centerline of foundation.
✓ Foundation is the part of structure below plinth level in direct contact of soil and transmits
load of super structure to soil.
✓ Generally it is below the ground level. If some part of foundation is above ground level, it is also
covered with earth filling. This portion of structure is not in contact of air, light etc., or to say that it is
the hidden part of the structure.
✓ Footing is a structure constructed in brickwork, masonry or concrete under the base of a wall or
column for distributing the load over a large area.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Depth of Foundation 4
Depth of foundation depends on following factors:

1. Availability of adequate bearing capacity

2. Depth of shrinkage and swelling in case of clayey soils, due to seasonal changes which may
cause appreciable movements.
3. Depth of frost penetration in case of fine sand and silt.
4. Possibility of excavation nearby
5. Depth of ground water table
6. Practical minimum depth of foundation should not be less than 50 cm. to allow removal of top soil
and variations in ground level.

Hence the best recommended depth of foundation is from 1.00 meter to 1.5 meter from original
ground level.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Width of Foundation / Footings 5

The width of footings should be laid according to structural design.

For light loaded buildings such as houses, flats, school buildings etc. having not more
than two storeys, the width of foundation is given below:

1. The width of footing should not be less than 75 cm for one brick thick wall.
2. The width of footing should not be less than 1 meter for one and half brick wall.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Processes involved in Construction of Foundation 6

The processes executed in the foundation works are given below:

1. Excavation of earth work in trenches for foundation.
2. Laying out cement concrete.
3. Laying the footing in case of raft or column construction.
4. Laying Anti termite treatment.
5. Laying Brick work up to plinth level.
6. Laying Damp proof course on the walls.
7. Refilling of earth around the walls
8. Refilling of earth in the building portion up to the required height according to plinth level.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Processes involved in Construction of Foundation 7

Fig.1: Excavation for Foundation of Wall

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Processes involved in Construction of Foundation 8

Fig.2: Concrete in foundation

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Processes involved in Construction of Foundation 9

Fig.3: Concrete and Brickwork in Foundation of Wall

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Processes involved in Construction of Foundation 10

Fig.4: Concrete and Brickwork in Foundation Refilling

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Precautions while designing a Foundation 11

1. A foundation should be designed to transmit combined dead load, imposed load and wind load to
the ground.
2. Net loading intensity of pressure coming on the soil should not exceed the safe bearing capacity.
3. Foundation should be designed in such a way that settlement to the ground is limited and
uniform under whole of the building to avoid damage to the structure.
4. Whole design of the foundation, super structure and characteristics of the ground should be studied
to obtain economy in construction work.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Ratio of Cement Concrete and Mortar for Foundation 12

1. The cement concrete 1:8:16 is generally used in the foundation of walls in

construction work.
2. In case of column raft, cement concrete 1:4:8 is the best recommended ratio for it
in the foundation.
3. For brick masonry, cement mortar 1:4 to 1:6 is used as loading condition.
4. In case of column and raft footings up to plinth level cement concrete 1:2:4 or
1:1.5:3 are used.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Soil having Safe Bearing Capacity 13

• Dry coarse and well graded dense sand have maximum shear resistance and
maximum bearing capacity.
• In general submerged soil and clay have less bearing capacity.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Precautions during Excavation for Foundation 14
1. The depth and width of foundation should be according to structural design.
2. The depth of the foundation should not be less than 1 meter in case the design is not available.
3. The length, width and depth of excavation should be checked with the help of center line and level marked
on the marking pillars.
4. The excavated material / earth should be dumped at a distance of 1 meter from the edges.
5. Work should be done on dry soil.
6. Arrangement of water pump should be made for pumping out rain water.
7. The bottom layer of the foundation should be compacted.
8. There should be no soft places in foundation due to roots etc.
9. Any soft / defective spots should be dug out and be filled with concrete / hard material.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Precautions during Excavation for Foundation 15

Fig.5: Excavation for foundation where root of tree exists Fig.6: Excavation of wall in foundation root removed

Fig.7: Pit of root filled with hard material

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Precautions during Excavation for Foundation 16

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Demarcation / Layout Procedure for Foundation 17
1. For layout of a building baseline is marked on the ground either from center line of the road or
from any permanent building nearby. This line helps to mark out the front of a building.

2. Side baseline is also marked with the help of side structure or road, or it can be marked with
the help of first baseline or boundary of the plot.

3. Fix temporary pegs at the center line of walls/columns on both sides of walls and columns in
front and back side.

4. Fix peg at the center line of walls/columns on both sides of wall and columns in left and right
side of front of building.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Demarcation / Layout Procedure for Foundation 18

4. Check diagonals of the square or rectangle formed after fixing pegs.

5. Construct marking pillars with pegs at a distance of 1.5 meter to 2 meters and
their top surface should be plastered.

6. Mark center line on the top of marking pillars with the help of thread (Soot) or
with the Theodolite in big projects and the diagonal and other dimension should
be checked.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Demarcation / Layout Procedure for Foundation 19
7. Level marking pillars on all corners of building and the top level is fixed at a
proposed plinth level.
8. Mark the foundation of walls/columns according to drawing on the ground
with the help of centerline marked on the marking pillars.

9. Mark foundation trenches on the ground with chalk powder.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Demarcation / Layout Procedure for Foundation 20

Excavate the foundation of the walls / columns up to required level and the excavation must be
checked with the help of center line and level marking pillars to avoid any complication later
on.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Advantages of Layout with the help of marking pillars 21

✓ It saves time for measuring and setting of point again and again at the time of construction.
✓ It increases the efficiency of mason and foreman for doing their jobs.
✓ Accuracy can be checked at any time at any step.
✓ If any mistake is found, it can be easily be rectified at early stage. It is very difficult to rectify the
mistake in later.
✓ Cross check can be done by senior engineer in minimum time.
✓ A qualitative work is maintained.

Mason: A skilled worker who builds by laying units of substantial material (such as stone or brick).
Foreman: They are responsible for being the point of contact between the construction workers and supervisors.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Disadvantages for doing the work without layout 22

✓ At some sites of work the contractor brings steel pieces, erects the same on the ground and start
the work of excavation. In due course these steel pieces are just discarded. Thus no proper
reference point is available while doing further jobs.
✓ It involves extra time for measuring the offset again and again.
✓ Accuracy can not be checked at early stage and it will be very difficult to rectify the same in
later stage.
✓ It involves wastage of time and money while doing rectification. This also leads to bad quality of
work.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Materials & Tools used during Setting up of Layout 23
✓ Leveling Instrument
✓ Long Nails
✓ Hammer
✓ Right Angle
✓ Steel Tape
✓ Thin Cotton Thread
✓ Bricks
✓ Cement
✓ Screen Sand
✓ Lime Powder
✓ Theodolite

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Materials & Tools used during Setting up of Layout 24
✓ Leveling Instrument
✓ Long Nails
✓ Hammer
✓ Right Angle
✓ Steel Tape
✓ Thin Cotton Thread
✓ Bricks
✓ Cement
✓ Screen Sand
✓ Lime Powder
✓ Theodolite A Sand Screen is a sieve used to filter fine aggregate by eliminating
larger particles.
Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Setting up Right Angles in Layout – 3-4-5 Method 25

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Setting out Perpendicular Lines: The Rope Method 26

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Setting out Perpendicular Lines: Optical Squares 27

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(1) Site Survey 28
(1) First of all site is surveyed and topographical details are drawn on the site
plan. If the area is small, topographical details are drawn by metal chains but if
it is large, then plane table and theodolite are used for this purpose.

(2) Contouring is done by any suitable method of contouring and the contours are
drawn on the site plan.

(3) Following the contour map, site is leveled doing necessary cuttings and fillings
with the help of any suitable machinery.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(1) Site Survey 29

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(1) Site Survey 30
(4) The datum level is set out.
• It is a level marked on the sections of the drawings, from which all heights and depths are
marked in figures.
• This level is marked by the architect.
• The datum is usually taken as the surface of the finished ground floor, abbreviated on the
working drawing as F.F.L.
• It is set out by a leveling instrument.
• A peg is driven into the ground such that its top is at the F.F.L.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(1) Site Survey 31
(5) The ground floor plan is marked on the ground.
• First of all center lines of all walls are marked on the ground.
• Right angles are taken by cross staff, optical square or more precisely, by a Theodolite.
• The lines showing the intended lines of foundation trenches are marked by driving wooden pegs
along these lines.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(2) Profile Boards 32

• These are horizontal wooden boards fixed on edge at the datum level, outside the
foundation dig for a building.

• The level at which these are fixed is usually basement or ground floor or a
convenient no. of feet, above or below it.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(2) Profile Boards 33

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(2) Profile Boards 34
• Nails or saw cuts in the top edge of these boards show the dig lines, footing lines,
walls lines and other building lines, for setting out the lower part of the building.

• One profile board is set at end of each line, i.e., two for each corner, so that
strings can be stretched between the nails to show any required line at any time.

• Bricks are then laid in the foundation by plumb bob from the extended strings.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(2) Profile Boards 35

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(3) Removal of Top Soil 36
• Before the foundation trenches are excavated, the surface vegetation, roots,
plants, shrubs and usually all the top soil up to a depth of 150 mm to 300 mm will
have to be removed, from the area of the site to be covered by the building.

• This is done to ensure that the ground, upon which the structure is to be built,
will be sterile (free from decomposable material i.e., organic material).

• The removed top soil is valuable for subsequent use in the garden lay-out.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(4) Site Drainage 37
• The building regulations also require that sub-soil of any site to be used for
building must be effectively drained.

• If the natural drainage of surface water through the ground is not sufficient, a line
of agricultural drain pipes (porous pipes) can be laid on the uphill side of the site
to intercept ground water that would, otherwise, flow towards building.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(5) Excavation 38
• When the setting out is completed and the profiles are in position, excavation of the
trenches for the foundation is started.

• The width of the trench is read off from the profiles and the depth of the trench
depends upon finding a suitable sub-soil to give a firm bearing capacity (according to
design).

• The foundation concrete must also be below the depth at which it will not be affected by
seasonal movement of the sub-soil (according to design).

• It is now common practice to use earth moving machines for excavations on all contracts
except on isolated small sites.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(5) Excavation 39
• Machines, which are in most common use are Hydraulic Diggers for excavation
trenches, a Tractor Shovel for reducing levels by excavation and a Dumper for
transporting soil from the site.

• When soil has been tipped by the Digger, it can be lifted by the Tractor Shovel and
put into the Dumper, to be carried away and discharged, where ever it is required
for making up levels on the site.

• Soil, which is used in this way for filling must be placed in layers, well compacted
and allowed to settle for many months, so that it will not subside later, if built
upon.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(6) Safety in Excavation 40
• Accidents in excavation are frequent and include a high proportion of causalities.
• One cubic meter of soil weighs more than a ton and falling through only a short
distance, even a half cubic meter of soil is sufficient to crush and kill a workman.
• Great care should be taken to support the excavation, adequately
• This is done by "Timbering of Trenches", which is the process of supporting the
sides of trenches by means of some wooden or steel members. The timbering is
extended to the full depth of the trenches.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Timbering of Trenches 41

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Timbering of Trenches 42

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Timbering of Trenches 43

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
Timbering of Trenches 44

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(i) Poling Boards 45
The various members used in timbering are:-
(i) Poling Boards
• The members placed vertically on the sides of trenches directly or after providing
sheeting are known as Poling boards.
• The size of poling boards may vary from 1.75 cm x 32 cm. to 22.5 cm. x 4 cm.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(i) Poling Boards 46

Timbering of trenches in Hard Soil

(With a central strut to each pair of Poling Boards)

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(ii) Waling, Wales, or Planks 47
• The members placed horizontally on sides of the
trenches or against Poling boards are known as Waling,
Wales or Planks.

• The various sizes of Waling are 10 x 7.5, 10 x 10, 15 x

15, 17.5 x 5, 22.5 x 5, 22.5 x 7.5 cm.

• Their length may vary from 2.5 to 4.5 m.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iii) Struts 48
• The horizontal members of timber driven across the trenches between Poling
boards or Waling are known as Struts.

• The Struts are driven at a minimum distance of 2 m centre to centre.

• The Struts may be circular , having diameter 7.5 m to 12.5 cm. or square 7.5 cm.
to 10 x 10 cm. in section.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iii) Struts 49

Timbering of trenches in Moderately Hard Soil

(With Waling strutted at alternate Poling Boards )

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iii) Struts 50

Timbering of trenches in Moderately Hard Soil

(With a central Waling strutted at every fourth Poling Board)

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iii) Struts 51

Timbering of trenches in Moderately Hard Soil

(With a simple Waling strutted at 2 m interval)

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iii) Sheeting 52
• The members which are placed horizontally or vertically close to the sides of the
trenches for supporting their sides are called Sheeting.

• The length of sheeting may vary from 2.5 to 4.5 m.

• The horizontal sheeting is supported by Poling boards and the vertical sheeting by
Waling.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iii) Sheeting 53

Timbering of trenches in Loose Soil

(With horizontal sheeting)
Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iii) Sheeting 54

Timbering of trenches in Loose Soil

(With vertical sheeting)

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iii) Sheeting 55

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iv) Runners 56
• The members which are vertically placed behind the Walings instead of the
Poling boards are called Runners.

• The Runners are long planks about 7.5 cm. thick and 1.75 to 22.5 cm wide.

• They are pointed at their lower end and sometimes provided with an iron shoe and
iron cap.

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
Pre-Construction Works
(iv) Runners 57

Timbering of trenches in very loose soil

(With Runners)
Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com
 Thank-you for Listening! 58

Be careful what you are asking for!

(Shad)

Engr. Shad Muhammad, Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS University, Sahiwal. Website: www.mytrustworth.com