History of Fire Extinguishers

In about 200 BC, Ctesibius of Alexandria invented a hand pump able to deliver water to a fire and it is known that the
Romans used bucket chains, buckets passed hand-to-hand to deliver water to the fire. Then, in the middle Ages,
‘squirts’ began to be used to apply jets of water to fires. The squirt worked rather like a bicycle pump. The nozzle was
dipped into water and about one litre was sucked up by pulling out the plunger. The charged squirt was then directed at
the fire and the plunger pushed home to eject the water. Squirts were used on the 1666 Great Fire of London. The first
version of the modern portable fire extinguisher was invented by Captain George William Manby in 1819, consisting of
a copper vessel of 3 gallons (13.6 litres) of pearl ash (potassium carbonate) solution under compressed air pressure.
Around 1912 Pyrene pioneered the carbon tetrachloride or CTC extinguisher, where the liquid was expelled from a
brass or chrome container by hand pump, onto a fire. The sizes were usually of 1 imperial quart (1.1 L) or 1 imperial
pint (0.6 L) capacity but also made in up to 2 imperial gallon (9 L) sizes. The CTC vapourised and extinguished the
flames by interfering with the chemical reaction. This extinguisher was suitable for liquid and electrical fires and was
popular in motor vehicles for the next 60 years. The vapour and combustion by-products were highly toxic and deaths
did occur from using these extinguishers in confined spaces.
The late 19th century saw the invention of the soda-acid extinguisher, where a cylinder contained 1 or 2 gallons of
water that had sodium bicarbonate mixed in it. Suspended in the cylinder was a vial containing concentrated sulphuric
acid. The vial of acid was broken by one of two means depending on the type of extinguisher. One means involved the
use of a plunger that broke the acid vial, while the second involved the release of a lead bung that held the vial closed.
Once the acid was mixed with the bicarbonate solution, carbon dioxide gas would be expelled and this would in turn
pressurize the water. The pressurized water was forced from the canister through a short length of hose and a nozzle.
The acid was neutralised by the sodium bicarbonate.
Foam extinguisher consisted of the main body of the extinguisher filled with foam producing chemical and a second
container filled with another chemical which reacts when it came into contact with the solution in the main cylinder. To
operate you turned the extinguisher upside down and allowed the two solutions to mix, then hold your finger over the
discharge nozzle and shake the extinguisher to ensure the solution was properly mixed then direct it at the fire.
Middle of the twentieth century the modern type of extinguisher appeared using different extinguishing agents.
Manufacturers of extinguishers generally use some type of pressurized vessel to store and discharge the extinguishing
agent.
First type of fire extinguishers (Fig1) are pressurized with air to approximately 10 bar, five times a car tyre pressure,
from a compressor. A squeeze-grip handle operates a spring-loaded valve threaded into the pressure cylinder. Inside, a
pipe or dip tube extends to the bottom of the extinguisher so that in the upright position, the opening of the tube is
submerged. The extinguishing agent is released as a steady stream through a hose and nozzle, pushed out by the stored
pressure above it.
The second type of fire extinguishers (Fig2) are the “gas cartridge” type operate in the same manner, but the pressure
source is a small cartridge of carbon dioxide gas (CO2) at 130 bars, rather than air. A squeeze-grip handle operates a
spring-loaded device causing a pointed spike to pierce the disc that held back the pressure, releasing the gas into the
pressure vessel. The released CO2 expands several hundred times its original volume, filling the gas space above the
extinguishing agent. This pressurises the cylinder and forces the extinguishing agent up through a dip-pipe, out through
a hose and nozzle to be directed upon the fire. This design proved to be less prone to leak down, loss of pressure over
time, than simply pressurizing the entire cylinder.
For water, foam, dry powder and wet chemical extinguishers, the extinguishing agents can either be put under stored
pressure, or a gas cartridge expeller can be used, however the stored-pressure type is more widely used. Gas cartridge
extinguishers are now mainly used on ships and refineries. Dry powder extinguishers generally use the CO2 cartridge
method to prevent the powder being affected by moist air used for the stored pressure method. In carbon dioxide
extinguishers, the CO2 is retained in liquid form under 50 to 60 bar and is self-expelling, meaning that no other
element is needed to force the CO2 out of the extinguisher. In halon units, the chemical is also retained in liquid form
under pressure, but a gas booster, usually nitrogen, is generally added to the vessel.The nozzles are the main difference;
water has a circular nozzle which forms a solid jet which can penetrate to the heart of the fire. Foam has a miniature
foam nozzle that aerates the foam solution and forms a floppy stream of foam that can be gently applied to the surface
of the liquid. Dry Powder has an elliptical nozzle which spreads the powder and prevents air being entrained. Wet
Chemical has a nozzle that creates a fine spray which allows you to apply the extinguishing agent gently. Carbon
dioxide has a discharge horn which slows down the jet of gas and prevents air being entrained. It is important to choose
CO2 extinguishers with frost-free horns to avoid getting frost-burn.
In 2011 Britannia introduced the first self-maintenance extinguishers, which for the first time in extinguisher history
do not require service engineers to visit sites and maintain them. These P50 Fireworld branded units overcame the
problem of corrosion, lining damage and pressure loss by being designed of composite plastics, Aramid and brass. They
stand higher pressures than ordinary steel extinguishers, cannot corrode and do not require any attention other than
ensuring that the units are not missing, damaged or discharged. They do not require refills after 5 year, either. They are
kitemarked and MED approved.
Return to index§

Extinguishing Agents
Water

Water is the most common agent for

class A fires and is quite effective as one
would imagine. Water has a great effect
on cooling the fuel surfaces and thereby reducing the pyrolysis rate of the fuel. The gaseous effect is minor for these
extinguishers, but water fog nozzles used by fire brigades creates water droplets small enough to be able to extinguish
flaming gases as well. The smaller the droplets, the greater the effect on flaming gases. With this in mind ‘dry’ water
mist extinguishers have bee developed by Jewel Saffire. The unique nozzle that separates the water particles into
microscopic particles makes the extinguisher safe for use on electricity, as it has passed the 35kV test and does not
form puddles that could conduct electricity.
In the past water based extinguishers also contain traces of other chemicals to prevent the extinguisher rusting but are
now lined with plastic. Some also contain surfactants which help the water penetrate deep into the burning material and
cling better to steep surfaces this is known as water with additives.
Water may or may not help extinguishing class B fires it depends on whether or not the liquid’s molecules are polar
molecules. If the liquid that is burning has polar molecules, such as alcohol, there won’t be any problem. If the liquid is
non polar, such as large hydrocarbons, like petroleum, the water will sink through the oil until it reaches the heat layer
and then be immediately converted to steam ejecting the burning contents in a violent eruption, known as a boil over.
Alternately as water being heavier than oil it will sink to the bottom and replace the oil until the flaming oil flows over
the edge of the container thus spreading the fire; this is known as a slop over. This is why you should never use water
on oil fires. The only exception are ‘dry’ water mist extinguishers, which are producing a film so fine, that it never
penetrates the surface of the burning liquid. It forms a cooling water steam above the liquid and stops the supply of
oxygen.
Traditional water extinguishers sprayed on an electrical fire will probably cause the operator to receive an electric
shock. However, if the power can be reliably disconnected, clean water will actually cause less damage to electrical
equipment than will either foam or dry powders. Special spray nozzles, equipped with tiny rotating devices called
spiracles will replace the continuous water jet with a succession of droplets, greatly increasing the electrical resistance
of the jet. Again, dry water mist extinguishers have overcome the issue of conductivity, as the mist cannot conduct
electricity and the use of the mist does not create puddles that could cause electrocution.

Foams

Foams are
commonly
used on class
B fires, and are
also effective
on class A
fires. These are
mainly water
based, with a
foaming agent
so that the
foam can float
on top of the
burning liquid
and break the
interaction
between the
flames and the
fuel surface.
Ordinary
foams are
designed to
work on non
polar
flammable
liquids such as
petrol, but may
break down
too quickly in
polar liquids
such as alcohol or glycol. Facilities which handle large amounts of flammable polar liquids use specialised “alcohol
resistant foam” instead. Alcohol foams must be gently poured across the burning liquid. If the fire cannot be
approached closely enough to do this, they should be sprayed onto an adjacent solid surface so that they run gently onto
the burning liquid. Ordinary foams work better if poured but it is not critical.
Protein foam was used for fire suppression in aviation crashes until the 1960s development of “light water”, also
known as “Aqueous Film-Forming Foam” (or AFFF). Carbon dioxide (later sodium bicarbonate) extinguishers were
used to knock down the flames and foam used to prevent re-ignition of the fuel fumes. “Foaming the runway” can
reduce friction and sparks in a crash landing, and protein foam continued to be used for that purpose, although FAA
regulations prohibited reliance upon its use for suppression.
Foam extinguishers are now mainly used in offices, as foam extinguishers are covering most risks found in offices and
most of them are safe on electricity if they have been certified to 35kV and the operator keeps a safety distance of 1
meter from live electrical equipment.

Dry Powder

Principally
there are two
types of dry
powder
extinguishers
in use, they are
BC and ABC.
Class BC dry
powder is
either sodium
bicarbonate or
potassium
bicarbonate,
finely
powdered and
propelled by
carbon dioxide
or nitrogen.
Similar to
almost all
extinguishing
agents the
powder acts as
a thermal
ballast and
makes the
flames too
cool for the
chemical
reactions to
continue. Some powders also provide a minor chemical inhibition, although this effect is relatively weak. These
powders thus provide rapid knockdown of flame fronts, but may not keep the fire suppressed. Consequently, they are
often used in conjunction with foam for attacking large class B fires. BC Powder has a slight saponification effect on
cooking oils & fats due to its alkalinity and was used for kitchens prior to the invention of Wet Chemical extinguishers.
Where an extremely fast knockdown is required potassium bicarbonate (Purple K) extinguishers are used. A particular
blend also containing urea (Monnex) decrepitates upon exposure to heat increasing the surface area of the powder
particles and providing very rapid knockdown. Sodium bicarbonate powders, unless specially treated, are not
compatible with Foams. Purple-K, Monnex and ABC Powders are generally less damaging, and often are used with
AFFF & FFFP, but compatibility must be borne in mind where powder and foam are used together and a higher
application rate of foam allowed for.
Class ABC Powders are mixtures of ammonium phosphate and ammonium sulphate, ground to selected particle sizes
and treated with flow promoting and moisture repellent additives. In addition to the particle surface extinguishing
effect, ABC powders have low melting/decomposition points in the order of 150°C to 180°C. When these powders are
applied to hot and smouldering surfaces, the particles fuse and swell to form a barrier which excludes oxygen and
thereby completes the extinguishing process and prevents re-ignition. They are acidic in nature and are effective on
Class A (flammable solids), Class B (flammable liquid/liquefiable solids) and Class C (flammable gas) fires. They are
electrically non-conductive; however it is less effective against three dimensional class A fires, or those with a complex
or porous structure. Foams or water are better in those cases. Most dry powder extinguishers in service, except
aerosols, are ABC Powder. Different blends are available, the more ammonium phosphate, the more effective it is.
Powder, specifically ABC powder is not permitted in or near aircraft as it can damage the metal superstructure.
Dry powders can also be used on electrical fires, but provide a significant cleanup and corrosion problem that is likely
to make, especially sensitive electronics and electrical equipment unsalvageable.
Although modern powders are non-toxic, the discharge of a powder extinguisher in a confined space can cause a
sudden reduction of visibility which may temporarily jeopardize escape, rescue or other emergency action. For this
reason water-based extinguishers are to be preferred in hospitals, old people’s homes and hotels. Powder extinguishers
are prohibited to be used in PSV’s and minibuses by UK statute law for the above reason.
When used on class B fires, the powder must extinguish the whole fire area in an uninterrupted application or flashback
will occur, unlike foam there is no physical barrier, it’s all or nothing. The lack of a securing blanket means there is a
re-ignition risk. Also powder has no cooling properties, one of the reasons it is ineffective against class F fires, although
it can extinguish the flame, the heat of the fat will cause immediate flashback.
There were available powders designed for fires in flammable metals and three main types in use were, Sodium
Chloride for fires involving alkali metals such as sodium and potassium, also zirconium, uranium and powdered
aluminium which extinguished metal fire by fusing to form a crust. This excludes oxygen from the surface of the
molten metal and a carbonaceous rafting agent prevents the powder from sinking into the surface of molten metal. A
copper extinguishing agent specially developed by the U.S. Navy for fighting lithium and lithium alloy fires. The
copper compound smothers the fire and provides an excellent heat sink for dissipating heat. Copper powder has been
found to be superior to all other known fire extinguishing agents for lithium. Finally Ternary Eutectic Chloride (TEC),
developed by UKAEA for uranium fires, which works similarly to Sodium Chloride but it, is extremely toxic.

Wet potassium salts (Wet Chemical)

Most class F
extinguishers
contain a
solution of
potassium
acetate,
sometimes
with some
potassium
citrate or
potassium
bicarbonate.
The
extinguishers
spray the agent
out as a fine
mist. The mist
acts to cool the
flame front,
while the
potassium salts
saponify the
surface of the
burning
cooking oil,
producing a
layer of foam
over the
surface. This
solution thus
provides a similar blanketing effect to a foam extinguisher, but with a greater cooling effect. The saponification only
works on animal fats and vegetable oils, so class F extinguishers cannot be used for class B fires (although Gloria has
developed a 3l version§ that also has a B rating). The misting also helps to prevent splashing the blazing oil.
Note: Saponify is a chemistry term which means to become converted into soap by being hydrolyzed into an acid and
alcohol as a result of oil or fat being treated with an alkali.

Carbon dioxide

Carbon
dioxide
extinguishers
(CO2) work on
classes B by
suffocating the
fire. Carbon
dioxide will
not burn and
displaces air.
Carbon
dioxide can be
used on
electrical fires
because, being
a gas, it does
not leave
residues which
might further
harm the
damaged
equipment.
Carbon
dioxide has a
discharge horn
on the end of
the hose which
slows down
the jet of gas
and prevents
air being entrained. Due to the carbon dioxide being expelled from an extinguisher, the horn becomes extreme cold and
should not be touched. Use frost-free horns to avoid injury.
As CO2 disperses after use, CO2 extinguishers have a risk of re-ignition. There is also the risk of asphyxiation when
used in small rooms. The use of CO2 is now mainly focused on server rooms.

Halons
In the UK and Europe halon are illegal, except for certain specific aircraft and law enforcement uses. This appears to be
at least partially in response to the Montreal Protocol and effort by the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) to combat release of quantities of harmful chemicals into the atmosphere.
Halon fire extinguishers are still legal in America and are very versatile extinguishers. They will extinguish most types
of fire except class D & F and are highly effective even at quite low concentrations (less than 5%). Halon is a poor
extinguisher for Class A fires, a nine pound Halon extinguisher only receives a 1-A rating and tends to be easily
deflected by the wind. They are the only fire extinguishing agents that are quite suitable for discharge in aircraft as
other materials pose a corrosion hazard to the aircraft. The major extinguishing effect is by disturbing the thermal
balance of the flame, and to a small extent by inhibiting the chemical reaction of the fire. Halons are
chlorofluorocarbons which cause damage to the ozone layer and are being phased out for more environmentally-
friendly alternatives.
Halon extinguishers were used widely in vehicles and computer suites. It is mildly toxic in confined spaces, but to a far
less extent than its predecessors such as carbon tetrachloride, chlorobromomethane and methyl bromide.
Phosphorous tribromide
Like Halon, phosphorous tribromide interferes with the chemical reaction of the flame, marketed under the brand name
PhostrEx. PhostrEx is a liquid which needs a propellant, such as compressed nitrogen and/or helium, to disperse onto a
fire. As a fire extinguisher PhostrEx is much more potent than Halon making it particularly appealing for aviation use
as a lightweight substitute. Unlike Halon, PhostrEx reacts quickly with atmospheric moisture to break down into
phosphorus acid and hydrogen bromide, neither of which harms the earth’s ozone layer. High concentrations of
PhostrEx can cause skin blistering and eye irritation, but since so little is needed to put out flames this problem is not a
significant risk, especially in applications where dispersal is confined within an engine compartment. Any skin or eye
contact with PhostrEx should be rinsed with ordinary water as soon as practical. PhostrEx is not especially corrosive to
metals, although it can tarnish some. The U.S. EPA and FAA both approved PhostrEx, and the substance will find its
first major use in Eclipse Aviation’s jet aircraft as an engine fire suppression system.

Fluorocarbons
Recently, DuPont has begun marketing several nearly saturated fluorocarbons under the trademarks FE-13, FE-25, FE-
36, FE-227, and FE-241. These materials are claimed to have all the advantageous properties of halon, but lower
toxicity, and zero ozone depletion potential. They require about 50% greater concentration for equivalent fire
quenching.

Specialised materials for Class D

Class D fires involve extremely high temperatures and highly reactive fuels. For example, burning magnesium metal
breaks water down to hydrogen gas and causes explosions. It breaks halon down to toxic phosgene and fluorophosgene
and may cause a rapid phase transition explosion. It continues to burn even when completely smothered by nitrogen gas
or carbon dioxide, in the latter case producing toxic carbon monoxide. Consequently there is no one type of
extinguisher agent that is approved for all class D fires rather there are several common types and a few rarer ones.
Each must be compatibility approved for the particular hazard being guarded. Additionally, there are important
differences in the way each one is operated, so the operators must receive special training.
Some class D extinguishing agents include finely granulated sodium chloride, copper and graphite applied by an
extinguisher, shaker, scoop or shovel. These extinguishing agents are suitable for sodium, potassium, magnesium,
titanium, aluminium, and most other metal fires.
Finely powdered graphite, applied with a long handled scoop, is preferred for fires in fine powders of reactive metals,
where the blast of pressure from an extinguisher may stir up the powder and cause a dust explosion. Graphite both
smothers the fire and conducts away heat.
Finely powdered copper propelled by compressed argon is the currently preferred method for lithium fires. It smothers
the fire, dilutes the fuel, and conducts away heat. It is capable of clinging to dripping molten lithium on vertical
surfaces. Graphite can also be used on lithium fires but only on a level surface.
Other materials sometimes used include powdered sodium carbonate, powdered dolomite and argon.
As a very poor last resort dry sand may be used to smother a metal fire if nothing else is available. It should be applied
with a long-handled shovel to avoid the operator receiving flash burns. Sand is, however, notorious for collecting
moisture and even the smallest trace of moisture may result in a steam explosion, spattering burning molten metal
around.