Université Catholique de Louvain

Département MILA
Unité de Genie Rural

Améliorations foncières:

Part irrigation (BRES2201)

Guido Wyseure
2005

Faculty of bioscience engineering, K.U.Leuven

Kasteelpark Arenberg 21
3001 Heverlee

1
 1. Objectives, summary , planning and coordinates
General objectives: To be able to design and to manage an irrigation system. Within the
framework of the “Bio-ir”-education this course focuses on the field application methods
for irrigation at a smaller to medium scale. The course also aims at developping a
problem-solving attitude towards design and operation by a good understanding of basic
principles of water needs and hydraulics. Selected examples and projects are worked out
rather than a systematic study of all possible systems.

Summary

1. Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling. (2 hrs)

2. Short and qualitative review of irrigation techniques. (1 hrs)

3. Performance indicators in irrigation, like uniformity, adequacy, efficiency etc.. (1 hrs)

4. Refresher Bernouilli equation and short review of continuous and local head losses in
pipes. Hydraulics of an irrigation pipe lateral with sprinklers or drip emitters. (Pipe)
system curve. Pumps and performance characteristics. Matching pipe system and
pump curves. Selection of pump and pipe diameter. (2 hrs)

5. Design principles for sprinkler and drip irrigation at field/farm level. Selection of
sprinkler. (4hrs)

6. Design of surface irrigation systems at scheme level. The surface irrigation in the
field as illustrated by furrow irrigation. Refresher Manning equation for uniform flow
and short review of typical hydraulic and flow measurement structures for irrigation.
Flow control philosophies in irrigation distribution systems. (5 hrs)

Useful handbook: L.G. James. 1988. Principles of farm irrigation system design. John
Wiley & Sons. NY. (Referred to as James, 1988.)

Planning

UCL 14h to 16h (15 hours theory: 7 to 8 lectures of 2 hours; 9 hours of practicals)

Mon 19 Sep 2005 (opening academic year)

Wed 21 Sep 2005
Mon 26 Sep 2005
Wed 28 Sep 2005
Mon 3 Oct 2005

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Wed 5 Oct 2005 (VLIR –IUC)
Mon 10 Oct 2005
Wed 12 Oct 2005
Mon 17 Oct 2005
Wed 19 Oct 2005

Coordinates

Lecturer: Guido Wyseure, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven

E-mail: [email protected]

Address at KULeuven:
Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, KULeuven
Department of Land Management and Economics
Division Soil and Water Management,
Kasteelpark Arenberg 21,
B-3001 Heverlee, Belgium

Tel: +32 16 329661 Fax: +32 16 321964

2. Table of contents
Améliorations foncières: ....................................................................................................1
Part irrigation (BRES2201).................................................................................................1
1. Objectives, summary , planning and coordinates............................................................ 2
2. Table of contents.............................................................................................................. 3
3. Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling. ....................................................... 4
3.1. Introduction to water requirements and irrigation scheduing................................... 4
3.2. Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo); definition............................................... 4
3.3. ET computed from meteorological data................................................................... 5
3.4. ET estimated from pan evaporation.......................................................................... 5
3.5. Crop evapotranspiration (ETc)................................................................................. 8
3.6. Irrigation requirements ...........................................................................................11
3.7. Irrigation water requirements under saline conditions............................................12
3.8. Water storage in the root-zone................................................................................ 17
3.9. Irrigation scheduling and design capacity...............................................................22
4. Short and qualitative review of irrigation techniques. (1 hrs) ...................................... 23
5. Performance indicators in irrigation (1 hrs)................................................................... 23
6. Refresher Bernouilli equation for pipe systems and pumps (2hrs)................................ 24
7. Design of sprinkler and drip irrigation at field/farm level ............................................ 24
8. Design of surface irrigation systems at scheme and field level. ................................... 25
8.1. Conveyance and distribution systems for surface irrigation................................... 25
8.2. Flow Control technology........................................................................................ 27
8.3. Types of flow control in surface systems............................................................... 27
8.4. Conclusion............................................................................................................. 35

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 3. Crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling.
3.1. Introduction to water requirements and irrigation scheduing.

General objectives of chapter: understanding and estimation of the crop water

requirements as a basis for irrigation scheduling.

Required prerequisite knowledge:

• understanding of evapotranspiration, its estimation and the factors influencing
evaporation (course hydrology)
• elementary soil water retention concepts ( course soil science and soil physics)

Specific objectives and competences: calculation of irrigation schedules and estimation of

crop water requirements.

Major references:
Relevant chapters in James (1988) and Allen et al (1998).

Details on calculation of crop water requirements see: Part A - Reference

evapotranspiration (ETo) of FAO-ID56 and course in hydrology.

Allen, R.G, Pereira, L.S., Raes, D. and Smith,M., 1998: Crop evapotranspiration -
Guidelines for computing crop water requirements - FAO Irrigation and drainage paper
56, FAO, Rome.

(referred to as FAO-ID56 or Allen et al., 1998 and available on-line:

http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/X0490E00.htm )

3.2. Reference crop evapotranspiration (ETo); definition

Definition: the evapotranspiration rate from a reference surface, not short of water, is
called the reference crop evapotranspiration or reference evapotranspiration and is
denoted as ETo.

The reference surface is a hypothetical grass reference crop with specific characteristics.
The use of other terms such as potential ET is strongly discouraged due to ambiguities in
their definitions.

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 3.3. ET computed from meteorological data

Owing to the difficulty of obtaining accurate field measurements, ET is commonly

computed from weather data. A large number of empirical or semi-empirical equations
have been developed for assessing crop or reference crop evapotranspiration from
meteorological data. Some of the methods are only valid under specific climatic and
agronomic conditions and cannot be applied under conditions different from those under
which they were originally developed.

Numerous researchers have analysed the performance of the various calculation methods
for different locations. As a result of an Expert Consultation held in May 1990, the FAO
Penman-Monteith method is now recommended as the standard method for the
definition and computation of the reference evapotranspiration, ETo. The ET from crop
surfaces under standard conditions is determined by crop coefficients (Kc) that relate ETc
to ETo. The ET from crop surfaces under non-standard conditions is adjusted by a water
stress coefficient (Ks) and/or by modifying the crop coefficient.

From the original Penman-Monteith equation and the equations of the aerodynamic and
canopy resistance, the FAO Penman-Monteith equation (not derived here) is:

(6)

where: ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm day-1], Rn net radiation at the crop surface
[MJ m-2 day-1], G soil heat flux density [MJ m-2 day-1], T air temperature at 2 m height
[°C], u2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s-1], es saturation vapour pressure [kPa], ea actual
vapour pressure [kPa], es - ea saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa], ∆ slope vapour
pressure curve [kPa °C-1] and γ psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1].

The FAO Penman-Monteith equation determines the evapotranspiration from the

hypothetical grass reference surface and provides a standard to which
evapotranspiration in different periods of the year or in other regions can be compared
and to which the evapotranspiration from other crops can be related. For more
information see Allen et al., 1998.

3.4. ET estimated from pan evaporation

Evaporation from an open water surface provides an index of the integrated effect of
radiation, air temperature, air humidity and wind on evapotranspiration. However,
differences in the water and cropped surface produce significant differences in the water
loss from an open water surface and the crop. The pan has proved its practical value and
has been used successfully to estimate reference evapotranspiration by observing the
evaporation loss from a water surface and applying empirical coefficients to relate pan
evaporation to ETo.

5
The evaporation rate from pans filled with water is easily obtained. In the absence of rain,
the amount of water evaporated during a period (mm/day) corresponds with the decrease
in water depth in that period. Pans provide a measurement of the integrated effect of
radiation, wind, temperature and humidity on the evaporation from an open water
surface. Although the pan responds in a similar fashion to the same climatic factors
affecting crop transpiration, several factors produce significant differences in loss of
water from a water surface and from a cropped surface. Reflection of solar radiation from
water in the shallow pan might be different from the assumed 23% for the grass reference
surface. Storage of heat within the pan can be appreciable and may cause significant
evaporation during the night while most crops transpire only during the daytime. There
are also differences in turbulence, temperature and humidity of the air immediately above
the respective surfaces. Heat transfer through the sides of the pan occurs and affects the
energy balance.

Notwithstanding the difference between pan-evaporation and the evapotranspiration of

cropped surfaces, the use of pans to predict ETo for periods of 10 days or longer may be
warranted. The pan evaporation is related to the reference evapotranspiration by an
empirically derived pan coefficient:

ETo = Kp Epan

Where: ETo reference evapotranspiration [mm/day], Kp pan coefficient [-] and Epan pan
evaporation [mm/day].

Pan coefficient (Kp)

Different types of pans exist. Class A pan, the most common one, is shown in figure
below. As the colour, size, and position of the pan have a significant influence on the
measured results, the pan coefficients are pan specific.

Pan readings are taken daily in the early morning at the same time that precipitation is
measured. Measurements are made in a stilling well that is situated in the pan near one
edge. The stilling well is a metal cylinder of about 10 cm in diameter and some 20 cm
deep with a small hole at the bottom.

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Figure: Class A pan

In selecting the appropriate pan coefficient, not only the pan type, but also the ground
cover in the station, its surroundings as well as the general wind and humidity conditions,
should be checked. The siting of the pan and the pan environment also influence the
results. This is particularly so where the pan is placed in fallow rather than cropped
fields. Two cases are commonly considered: Case A where the pan is sited on a short
green (grass) cover and surrounded by fallow soil; and Case B where the pan is sited on
fallow soil and surrounded by a green crop (see Figure).

FIGURE (from FAO-ID56). Two cases of evaporation pan siting and their
environment

Pan coefficients

Depending on the type of pan and the size and state of the upwind buffer zone (fetch),
pan coefficients will differ. The larger the upwind buffer zone, the more the air moving
over the pan will be in equilibrium with the buffer zone. At equilibrium with a large

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fetch, the air contains more water vapour and less heat in Case A than in Case B. Pan
coefficients for the Class A pan are presented in FAO ID-56
Where data are missing, wind speed can be estimated by taking a global value of u2 = 2 m
s-1. RHmean , if missing, can be approximated from air temperature as RHmean = 50
e°(Tmin)/e°(Tmax) + 50.

Table: Typical values for daily water need of standard grass during irrigation season
(mm/day)
Climatic zone Mean daily temperature
low medium high
(less than 15°C) (15-25°C) (more than 25°C)
Desert/arid 4-6 7-8 9-10
Semi arid 4-5 6-7 8-9
Sub-humid 3-4 5-6 7-8
Humid 1-2 3-4 5-6

3.5. Crop evapotranspiration (ETc)

The crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) refer to crops grown in
large fields under excellent agronomic and soil water conditions. The crop
evapotranspiration differs distinctly from the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) as the
ground cover, canopy properties and aerodynamic resistance of the crop are different
from grass. The effects of characteristics that distinguish field crops from grass are
integrated into the crop coefficient (Kc). In the crop coefficient approach, crop
evapotranspiration is calculated by multiplying ETo by Kc.
Differences in evaporation and transpiration between field crops and the reference grass
surface can be integrated in a single crop coefficient (Kc) or separated into two
coefficients: a basal crop (Kcb) and a soil evaporation coefficient (Ke), i.e., Kc = Kcb + Ke.
In this notes we limit ourselves to the single crop coefficient approach. The two
coefficient approach can be relevant to certain non-standard situation ( see FAO-ID56).
In the single crop coefficient approach the crop evapotranspiration, ETc, is calculated by
multiplying the reference crop evapotranspiration, ETo, by a crop coefficient, Kc:
ETc = Kc ETo
where : ETc crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1], Kc crop coefficient [dimensionless] and
ETo reference crop evapotranspiration [mm d-1].

Most of the effects of the various weather conditions are incorporated into the ET o
estimate. Therefore, as ETo represents an index of climatic demand, Kc varies
predominately with the specific crop characteristics and only to a limited extent with
climate. This enables the transfer of standard values for Kc between locations and
between climates.

8
The reference ETo is defined and can be calculated using the FAO Penman-Monteith
equation or by the Pan evaporation approach. The crop coefficient, Kc, is basically the
ratio of the crop ETc to the reference ETo, and it represents an integration of the effects of
four primary characteristics that distinguish the crop from reference grass.

These crop characteristics are:

• Crop height. The crop height influences the aerodynamic resistance term, ra, of
the FAO Penman-Monteith equation and the turbulent transfer of vapour from the
crop into the atmosphere.
• Albedo (reflectance) of the crop-soil surface. The albedo is affected by the
fraction of ground covered by vegetation and by the soil surface wetness. The
albedo of the crop-soil surface influences the net radiation of the surface, Rn,
which is the primary source of the energy exchange for the evaporation process.
• Canopy resistance. The resistance of a crop to vapour transfer is affected by leaf
area (number of stomata), leaf age and condition, and the degree of stomatal
control. The canopy resistance influences the surface resistance, rs.
• Evaporation from soil, especially exposed soil. The soil surface wetness and the
fraction of ground covered by vegetation influence the surface resistance, rs.
Following soil wetting, the vapour transfer rate from the soil is high, especially
for crops having incomplete ground cover. The combined surface resistance of the
canopy and of the soil determines the (bulk) surface resistance, rs. The surface
resistance term in the Penman-Monteith equation represents the resistance to
vapour flow from within plant leaves and from beneath the soil surface.

The Kc predicts ETc under standard conditions. This represents the upper envelope of
crop evapotranspiration and represents conditions where no limitations are placed on crop
growth or evapotranspiration due to water shortage, crop density, or disease, weed, insect
or salinity pressures.

For Kc values see James (1988) and FAO ID-56.

Figure: growth stages in crops

9
Figure: typical Kc’s at mid-season

Table Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs

Crop Crop water need
(mm/total growing period)
Alfalfa 800-1600
Banana 1200-2200
Barley/Oats/Wheat* 450-650
Bean 300-500
Cabbage 350-500
Citrus 900-1200
Cotton 700-1300
Maize 500-800
Melon 400-600
Onion 350-550
Peanut 500-700
Pea 350-500
Pepper 600-900
Potato 500-700
Rice (paddy) 450-700
Sorghum/Millet 450-650
Soybean 450-700
Sugarbeet 550-750
Sugarcane 1500-2500
Sunflower 600-1000
Tomato 400-800

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* Winter-wheat in Western/northern Europe about 10 ton of grains/ha using 5000 tons (=
500 mm/ha) of rainfed water. So 500 tons of water to 1 ton of grain!!

3.6. Irrigation requirements

The crop water requirement Etc can be supplied to the crops in various ways:

· by rainfall only (rainfed crop)

· by irrigation only or
· by a combination of irrigation and rainfall (irrigated crop)

Concept of effective rainfall: part of the total rainfall minus runoff; minus evaporation
and minus deep percolation . In other words only the water retained in the root zone
which can be used by the plants, and represents what is called the effective (from the crop
point of view) part of the rainwater. The term effective rainfall in irrigation is used to
define this fraction of the total amount of rainwater useful for meeting the water need of
the crops. (remark: in surface hydrology sometimes the runoff is taken as the effective
rain).

Very simple FAO calculation:

Pe = 0.8 P if P > 75 mm/month

Pe = 0.6 P if P < 75 mm/month

With P = rainfall or precipitation (mm/month) and Pe = effective rainfall or effective

precipitation (mm/month). Pe is always equal to or larger than zero and cannot be
negative.

As a quick approximation :

Irr = Etc- Pe

In some cases residual soil water is available before the growing season and should be
taken into account. Residual water content is calculated as:

RW=Dr*(θi-θpwp)

Where Dr is the rooting depth, θi the initial volumetric water content and θpwp the
permanent wilting point water content.

Irr = Etc- Pe – RW

The irrigation application has a limited application efficiency (eff, see later)). Therefore
only a proportion of the irrigation water will be stored into the rootzone and the gross
irrigation requirement will be: Irrg = (Etc- Pe – RW)/eff. A detailed discussion of

11
efficiency follows later. Surface systems with open earth canal distribution can easily
have efficiencies below 50%. A pipe pressurized system, like drip or sprinkler,

3.7. Irrigation water requirements under saline conditions

Salinity is of great concern in the irrigated lands of arid and semi-arid zones because of
the small contribution of rainfall to leaching and the often poor quality of irrigation
water. It is well established that soil salinity does not reduce crop yield significantly until
a threshold level is exceeded. Beyond this threshold, yield decreases almost linearly as
salinity increases as shown in the first section.

Salt in the soil is the assembly of negatively and positively charged ions, the anions and
cations respectively. Seawater salt is mainly Sodium-chloride (NaCl). The ions are then
cation Na+ and anion Cl-. Salinity under arid circumstances, where the salts are due to
evaporation exceeding the rainfall and/or irrigation are normally not caused by NaCl. This
salinity originates from other chemicals in the irrigation water. In addition the roots release
CO2 which contributes to carbonates. One of the effects of salinity in the soil is an osmotic
potential in the soil water. Other effects, like sodicity and toxicity, will be discussed later.
This osmotic potential is function of the total amount of dissolved electric charges. The
ions dissolved in the soil water are conducting the electric current. The electrical
conductivity is therefore a function of the total amount of dissolved ions. As a consequence
there is a close relation between the osmotic potential (O) and the electrical conductivity:

O = EC * 36 (kPa)

where EC is the electrical conductivity (dS.m-1). The old units of mmhos.cm-1 are identical
to the recommended unit dS.m-1.
Salinity is measure by monitoring the electrical conductivity. A usual DC-multimeter is
unsuitable for this purpose as polarization of the ions in the soil will occur. Frequencies of
alternating current from 100 Hz to 1 kHz are recommended. The net AC-current has only
50 Hz. Batteries deliver DC-current (0 Hz). A review of soil salinity measurements is given
by Dasberg and Nadler (1988). A so-called salinity meter is normally a conductivity meter.
The TDS (mg/L of Total Dissolved Solids) given by a salinity meter is based on the
conductivity and assumes standard seawater ( mainly NaCl).
An important complication is that the soil as a complex multi-phase medium contains
ions under different forms: dissolved in the soil water, adsorbed to the negatively charged
clay particles and precipitated as crystals. Dynamic equilibria exists between the three
fractions. The adsorpted ions on the negatively charged clay particles consist of different
ions competing for each other on the limited charges. The total amount of negative charges
available for adsorption is called the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) and is expressed in
meq/100g. Pure kaolinite-clay contains a CEC of around 10 meq/100g, while
montmorillonite can have up to 150 meq/100g. Sandy soils with little clay could have 5
meq/100g. A heavy clay topsoil has rather 50 meq/100g. The higher the charge the stronger

12
the attraction is and within a group of equal charge the smaller (lower molecular weight )
the better attracted:

Al+++ > Ca++ > Mg++ > H+ > K+ > Na+

Bivalent cations are preferred above monovalent ones. When monovalent cations are in
large quantities adsorbed (Na+) then the soil will tend to disperse and will loose its
structure. The bivalent ions (Mg++ and Ca++) will cause flocculation of aggregates which is
beneficial to the soil stability and structure.

The Gapon-equation gives the dynamic equilibrium between the Ca, Mg and Na in
adsorbed and in dissolved state:

+
Na
[ ++ ] ads
=
++
Ca + Mg 1

+
Na
=K [ ] diss
++ ++
Ca +Mg
2

where ads means adsorbed, diss means dissolved and K is a constant (0.015). Since the
adsorbed quantities are important for the soil structure but difficult to measure, the
dissolved concentrations are determined and used to quantify the Sodium Adsorption Ratio
(SAR):

+
Na
SAR = [ ] diss
++
Ca + Mg
++
(3)
2

The SAR is based on quantities dissolved in the soil solution, but relates to the adsorbed
Sodium. Based on the assumption that the CEC is occupied mainly by Na, Mg and Ca it is
possible to estimate the Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) with following formula:

100 (0.015 * SAR)

ESP = (%) (4)
(1 + 0.015 SAR)

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Alternatively all ions on the CEC are replaced by another ion e.g. NH+ and brought into
solution and than the Na+ and other ions are measured in the water extract. The ESP is then
(Na+)ads / CEC in %.

Soils are classified on the basis of ESP and EC.

Table : US-Salinity Laboratory soil classification.

EC<= 4 ds/m EC> 4 dS/m
ESP<=15 Non-saline Saline
% &
Non-sodic
ESP>15% Sodic Saline and Sodic

A salt balance can be linked to the moisture balance of the rootzone. The moisture balance
centres around the storage SM in the rootzone:
SM = RD θ (mm) (5)

where RD is the rooting depth (mm), Θ is the average volumetric moisture content in the
rootzone. Incoming into the reservoir are irrigation I, capillary rise CP and rainfall R (mm).
Outgoing are actual evaporation Ea and percolation P. A number of simplifications can be
made. Percolation can only happen when the soil is at field capacity (Θfc) and the soil
cannot become wetter than field capacity. Actual evaporation is estimated on the basis of
crop water requirements and availability of water in the rootzone. The full crop water
requirement is extracted from the rootzone when there is more water than the critical limit.

In order to link the salt balance to the moisture balance a number of additional
assumptions are made:
1) the Θ is homogeneous in the rootzone,
2) the rootzone is mixing reservoir; this means that the concentration of the percolation
water is equal to the concentration of the soil water in the rootzone and
3) a linear adsorption isotherm relates adsorbed ions with the dissolved, so Ss = K' Cs,
where Ss is the adsorbed salt (meq/100g dry soil), Cs is the concentration of salt dissolved
(meq/l soil water) and K' the adsorption constant.

The total amount of salts TS in the rootzone is the sum of the dissolved and the adsorbed
ones:

TS = θ L C s + L ρ K ′ S s
ρ is the dry bulk density and (6)
L is the depth of the layer (mm)

This can be rearranged to:

14
 ρ K′
TS = θ L (1 + )C s
θ

ρ K′ (7)
grouping R = results in
θ

TS = θ L (1 + R) C s

R is defined as the retardation factor.

The balance of salts is made by :

d(TS)
= I.C i - P.C s (8)
dt

The rainfall and the evaporation contributions to the salt balance are negligible. On a daily
basis the equation 8 can easily be worked out in a spreadsheet.
When the soil is below field capacity the percolation is 0. Then the irrigation water is
adding salt to the rootzone without removal. Under further depletion of water in the
rootzone the salts concentrate and the salinity increases.
Percolation will only occur at field capacity. If the field capacity is caused by rainfall then
the salinity will diminish. In the absence of rain a field capacity caused by irrigation leads
eventually to the salinity of the rootzone to be equal to the salinity of the irrigation water.
The phreatic water table receives the percolation water. This can lead to a rise in the water
table. An initial very deep water table can gradually rise to the proximity of the rootzone
and cause considerable water-logging and capillary rise of saline water. It is important to
control this because an initial successful irrigation project can fail when water table
becomes too high. The rise can be allowed for some time after which a drainage system has
to be provided. This two stage process can be modelled by coupling a non-steady
subsurface drainage formula ( e.g. De Zeeuw, see chapter 2: subsurface drainage) to the
moisture balance of the rootzone. The percolation from the rootzone becomes the recharge
for the subsurface drains. Before the installation of the drainage system the reaction factor
is the natural small one and after the drainage is installed a faster reaction is achieved and
the water table fluctuates in controlled manner. As a rule of thumb a saline water table
should be kept at a larger depth then 1.75 m. In addition a similar input-output balance for
salt can be made for the phreatic water table to evaluate the predict the drain-outflow. The
size of the mixing reservoir has to be determined experimentally rather than theoretically.

To avoid yield loss when salt concentration exceeds the crop tolerance limit, excess salts
must be leached below the root zone. In areas where rainfall rate and regime are not
adequate to provoke that process, irrigation water must be applied in excess. Therefore,

15
when calculating the irrigation depth, an additional amount of water according to the
salinity level should be added for leaching.

The leaching requirement (LR) is usually defined, assuming steady state regime, as:

where Dd is the depth of water passing below the root zone as drainage water, Di is the
depth of applied irrigation, Cd is the salt concentration of the drainage water above which
yield reduction occurs, and Ci is the salt concentration of the irrigation water.
It should be kept in mind that excessive leaching of salts might also lead to leaching of
nutrients. In managing irrigation under saline conditions one should consider the salt
concentration of the irrigation water, the salt tolerance of the crop, the long-term annual
rainfall, the depth to the water table and the drainage facilities.
Salt tolerance of many crops increases during the growing season. Leaching might not be
required during the season. If salinity levels are low enough during the seedling stage and
adequate amounts of low salt water are applied, soil salinity can be permitted to increase
over time until the next crop. Rainfall or pre-plant irrigation can replenish soil water and
leach accumulated salts to permit irrigation of the next crop without further leaching.
Leaching might be required during the growing season. If the irrigation water was saline,
rainfall and pre-planting irrigation might be insufficient to prevent yield loss. One should
bear in mind that leaching is required only when the salt concentration exceeds the
threshold value, and that it can be applied at each irrigation or less frequently, such as
seasonally or at even longer intervals, provided soil salinity levels are kept below that
value.

It has long been assumed that more frequent irrigation (excluding drip irrigation) reduces
the effect of salinity. Higher soil water content would partly reduce the osmotic potential,
but there was no improvement in yield to support this assumption. The actual
evapotranspiration rate (ET) stays at its potential level until the allowable depletion is
reached. If the soil surface is wetted frequently, soil evaporation will stay high most of
the time and will result in concentration of salts in the surface layers. Moreover, the root
water uptake takes place preferentially from the upper soil layers when they are
frequently wetted, while the uptake proceeds in deeper layers if the soil surface is
allowed to dry under less frequent irrigation. Both processes of evaporation and water
uptake tend to concentrate salts closer to the surface layers under frequent irrigation. Drip
irrigation is an exception where the localized water displaces the salts towards the
boundaries of the wetted zone. Here the leaching process dominates over
evapotranspiration and water uptake. Increasing the amount of applied water for salinity
control is the only acceptable measure.

Impact of shallow, saline groundwater: Salinity can be caused by the upward movement
of saline water of shallow water tables and its subsequent evaporation from the soil
surface. Under these conditions, irrigation systems must be managed with special care.
Both rate of evaporation and upward flow from the water table are important factors. A

16
drainage system to lower the water table can be used to prevent salinization and to
provide adequate aeration to crop roots.

Varying water quality for irrigation: When water resources are limiting and the cost of
non-saline water becomes prohibitive, moderate to high salt tolerance crops can be
irrigated with saline water especially at later growth stages. The irrigation water can be a
mixture of saline with non-saline water when this is scarce (blending). Saline water can
be applied in cycles with non-saline water, using it to irrigate salt tolerant crops or to
irrigate a salt sensitive crop during a salt tolerant growth stage (non-saline water at all
other times). The use of drainage water for irrigation has an environmental advantage. It
reduces the amount of non-saline water required for salt tolerant crops and it decreases
the volume of drainage water that needs disposal or treatment.

3.8. Water storage in the root-zone

Crop water requirements determine how much water is needed for potential growth,
whereby water is not a limiting factor. More water can cause yield reduction and even
water-logging. The plants takes up the required water by extracting from the soil matrix.
The water in a soil is held by capillary forces. These forces, caused by a suction or negative
pressure retaining the water, can be expressed in units of water potential. A convenient unit
for water potential is the equivalent height of water column in cm. The negative pressure or
suction corresponds to an energy per unit of water mass or weight. As the range is very large
for convenience the decimal logarithm of the water column height in cm is used and is
called “pF”.
Depending on the atmospheric demand, the potential crop evaporation or requirement, a
crop starts experiencing difficulty of extracting water at a certain suction (e.g as from pF 3
or 1000 cm water column). Irrigation will add water to the soil in order to reduce the suction
and hence diminish the water extraction problems.
Soil moisture retention curves or pF-curves relate the volumetric moisture content to the
suction by which the water is held by the soil matrix. At saturation the suction is
approaching zero. The suction increases with decreasing water content or increasing empty
pore space.
Although the suction is very low when the soil is close to saturation the roots experience
difficulty by lack of oxygen. The extraction process is aerobic, i.e. needs O2. The low
solubility and diffusion of oxygen in water causes a quick depletion of the oxygen in the
soil. The oxygen in the soil is mostly consumed by bacteria. Therefore the higher the
temperature the more active the bacteria and the more oxygen is consumed. A minimum
empty pore space of 5 to 10% is needed for sufficient O2 exchange. Aerobic circumstances
are also important for a proper biological life in the soil, to advert denitrification and to
avoid some crop diseases like stem and root rot.
The damage done to the root zone by complete saturation is a function of the temperature.
Lower temperatures are accompanied by low microbiological activity and low evaporation

17
demands. A soil saturation and flooding during several days under cold circumstances is less
harmful than under hot temperatures.
Rice and reeds also have aerobic roots. However, the oxygen is transferred by aerenchym
tissue from the leaves down to the roots. Therefore flooding which completely submerges
the leaves of the plant will block the air entries in the leaves. In such case the aerobic root
activity is equally hampered.
An important function of soil drainage is to allow sufficient empty pore space for the
oxygen transport in the root zone.
Soil water availability refers to the capacity of a soil to retain water available to plants.
The concepts of field capacity and wilting point are often used in irrigation, so that a very
simple water reservoir balance can be used.

Fig Simple soil water balance model.

After heavy rainfall or irrigation, the soil will drain until field capacity is reached. Field
capacity is the amount of water that a well-drained soil should hold against gravitational
forces, or the amount of water remaining when downward drainage has markedly
decreased. In the absence of water supply, the water content in the root zone decreases as
a result of water uptake by the crop. As water uptake progresses, the remaining water is
held to the soil particles with greater force, lowering its potential energy and making it
more difficult for the plant to extract it. Eventually, a point is reached where the crop can

18
no longer extract the remaining water. The water uptake becomes zero when wilting
point is reached. Wilting point is the water content at which plants will permanently wilt.

As the water content above field capacity cannot be held against the forces of gravity and
will drain and as the water content below wilting point cannot be extracted by plant roots,
the total available water (TAW) in the root zone is the difference between the water
content at field capacity and wilting point:

TAW = 1000(θ FC - θ WP) Zr

Where: TAW the total available soil water in the root zone [mm], θ FC the water content
at field capacity [m3 m-3], θ WP the water content at wilting point [m3 m-3], Zr the rooting
depth [m].

Where the soil is sufficiently wet, the soil supplies water fast enough to meet the
atmospheric demand of the crop, and water uptake equals ET c. As the soil water content
decreases, water becomes more strongly bound to the soil matrix and is more difficult to
extract. When the soil water content drops below a threshold value, soil water can no
longer be transported quickly enough towards the roots to respond to the transpiration
demand and the crop begins to experience stress. The fraction of TAW that a crop can
extract from the root zone without suffering water stress is the readily available soil
water:
RAW = p TAW
Where: RAW the readily available soil water in the root zone [mm], p average fraction of
Total Available Soil Water (TAW) that can be depleted from the root zone before
moisture stress (reduction in ET) occurs [0-1]. The fraction p of TAW , also called
depletion factor, is a function of the potential evapotranspiration. At higher demands the
p becomes lower. A major consequence is that under arid circumstances stress will occur
more rapidly.
Fig; Depletion factor p as a function of potential evapo-transpiration.

19
The water stress to a crop can be expressed by the ration between the actual water uptake
by the crop and the demand.

Table Soil water depletion fraction (p) as a function of potential evapotranspiration of a

closed crop canopy for different crop groups (Doorenbos et al., 1978).

ET0 in cm d-1
crop group 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
1 0.45 0.38 0.30 0.25 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.15
2 0.60 0.50 0.43 0.35 0.30 0.28 0.25 0.23 0.20
3 0.75 0.65 0.55 0.45 0.40 0.38 0.33 0.30 0.25
4 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.55 0.50 0.48 0.43 0.38 0.35
5 0.92 0.85 0.75 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.48 0.45

Table Example of crops in the different crop groups (Doorenbos et al., 1978).
leaf vegetables,
1 1-2 cabbage, onion
strawberry
clover, carrot, early
2 2-3 banana, pepper
tobacco
3 grape, pea, potato 3-4 bean, sunflower, tomato, water melon, grass
citrus, groundnut, alfalfa cotton, tobacco, cassava, sweet potato,
4 4-5
pineapple grains
5 olive, safflower, sorghum, soybean, sugarcane

Fig Water stress coefficient as function of water content in the soil.

20
The estimation of Ks requires a daily water balance computation for the root zone.
Schematically, the root zone can be presented by means of a container in which the water
content may fluctuate. To express the water content as root zone depletion is useful.
It makes the adding and subtracting of losses and gains straightforward as the various
parameters of the soil water budget are usually expressed in terms of water depth.
Rainfall, irrigation and capillary rise of groundwater towards the root zone add water to
the root zone and decrease the root zone depletion. Soil evaporation, crop transpiration
and percolation losses remove water from the root zone and increase the depletion. The
daily water balance, expressed in terms of depletion at the end of the day is:

Dr, i = Dr, i-1 - (P - RO)i - Ii - CRi + ETc, i + DPi

where Dr, i root zone depletion at the end of day i [mm], Dr, i-1 water content in the root
zone at the end of the previous day, i-1 [mm], Pi precipitation on day i [mm], ROi runoff
from the soil surface on day i [mm], Ii net irrigation depth on day i that infiltrates the soil
[mm], CRi capillary rise from the groundwater table on day i [mm], ET c, i crop
evapotranspiration on day i [mm] and DPi water loss out of the root zone by deep
percolation on day i [mm].
Some terms in the equation are difficult to estimate unless one is using a “physical
deterministic” model solving the Richards equation, which is a partial differential
equation governing water flow under unsaturated conditions (see Soil Physics). In
practice irrigation calculations will be based on a simple reservoir concept with Field
Capacity as maximum storage limit, neglecting capillary rise. Deep percolation is the
water in excess to θFC . Runoff could be calculated by an infiltration model, however very
rarely one has rainfall intensity. When the soil is dryer then θFC the DP is neglected. ET
is potential as long as there is more then RAW (θi more then θt ) in the soil.

Table. Available soil water in mm/ m soil depth for different soil textures

Total available water in mm per metre of soil depth

Texture class Range Average
Sand 30 - 65 49
Sandy Loam 90 - 123 106
Loam 155 - 172 164
Light Clay Loam 172 - 180 172
Clay Loam 155 - 172 164
Heavy Clay Loam 137 -155 147

One important complication for the simple soil water balance is that the rootzone for a
emerging crop is shallow (e.g. 10 cm). During the growing season the roots will
penetrate the soil until the maximum rooting depth. The residual water (θres > θpwp) below
the initial rootzone is explored by the root penetrating deeper soil can be subtracted from
the depletion. Residual water is estimated by:

21
RW = (θres - θpwp) *ΔZr
with ΔZr the increment in rooting depth during the time-interval i. In arid climates the
residual water contribution can be neglected.

The balance can be written as:

Di = Di-1 - (PE)i - Ii + ETc, i + RWi
subject to D <= Dmax (=PWP) and D > 0 (=FC).

This simple calculations can be implemented in spreadsheet.

3.9. Irrigation scheduling and design capacity

Irrigation schedule are designed to either provide a full or a partial crop water
requirement. In case of a full cover the soil water reservoir should be between FC and
RAW. At the end of an irrigation the reservoir is filled up to FC and an irrigation should
be started just before RAW is depleted. In that case the evapotranspiration is potential
and no water stress is experienced by the crop.

The critical point for irrigation corresponds ideally to the RAW but not necessarily. Some
stress could be tolerated. The allowed deficit is called the Management Allowed Deficit
(MAD) and is estimated as:
MAD = (θAD - θpwp) *Z
Whereby θAD is the water content corresponding to the allowed deficit at which irrigation
is started.

Calculation exercises.

Calculate: simple soil water balance and irrigation scheduling in a spreadsheet.

Use “FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56”:

Online http://www.fao.org/docrep/X0490E/X0490E00.htm to find

An irrigation system is designed for the peak-requirements. At the maximum rooting

depth one net irrigation dose (NI) will store an amount equal to the MAD with an
additional leaching requirement.
NImax=MADmax = (θAD - θpwp) *Zmax *(1+LR)

By irrigation scheduling we determine the time in between irrigations (tirri in days).

During tirri we have to irrigate the entire irrigation area ( farm, irrigation system) by
rotation. However, one cannot irrigate all the time. As an example a portable sprinkler
system needs to be moved. In most cultures we have at least a day off every week
(weekend). Irrigation requiring continuous labour input by the farmer (like a short furrow
system) can only be performed during a limited number of hours during the day.
Therefore irrigation will occur during a fraction of the time ft .
An irrigation system has also a limited water application efficiency ( efw). The average
irrigation capacity (IC) becomes for an area A (in ha):

22
 NI max 10
IC = * A* (m3 / s )
ef w * tirri * f t 3600 * 24

A common discharge unit is lit /(s ha). For rule of thumb calculations 1 lit/(s.ha)
corresponds to 8.64 mm/day of equivalent evaporation and 1 mm of evaporation depth is
10 m³ water per ha of area.
Alternatively one can estimate how many times nirri (an integer number by truncating) it is
feasible within the constraints of labour and physical conditions to irrigate within the
total irrigation interval. Each irrigation application has duration dirri which includes only
the time ( in hrs) of water application . The
A 10
IC = * NI max * (m3 / s )
nirri * d irr 3600

The design of the system is executed to cope with IC.

4. Short and qualitative review of irrigation

techniques. (1 hrs)

See Powerpoint presentation in handout format: “IrrigationIntro.PDF”

Useful but rather qualitative documentation is the FAO manual:

C. Brouwer, K. Prins, M. Kay and M. Heibloem. 1988. Irrigation Water Management:

Irrigation Methods. FAO Training manual no 5.

This manual can be consulted via the FAO-website:

http://www.fao.org/docrep/S8684E/s8684e00.htm [online]

The suitability of the various irrigation methods, i.e. surface, sprinkler or drip irrigation,
depends mainly on the following factors:
- natural conditions: soil, water source (well or river), etc/
- type of crop
- type of technology
- previous experience with irrigation
- required labour inputs
- costs and benefits: labour versus investment costs.

5. Performance indicators in irrigation (1 hrs)

Mathcad sheets

23
 6. Refresher Bernouilli equation for pipe systems and
pumps (2hrs)
Powerpoint presentation

Short note on Darcy-Weisbach equation.

7. Design of sprinkler and drip irrigation at field/farm

level
See Powerpoint presentation and chapters in book by Cuenca

24
 8. Design of surface irrigation systems at scheme and
field level.
8.1. Conveyance and distribution systems for surface irrigation
Irrigation can be defined as the artificial supply of water for crop growth in order to avoid
water shortage. This supply requires a controlled distribution of water by pipe or canal
systems. Similarly excess water needs to be removed by natural and/or artificial drainage.
So an agricultural area requires often an irrigation and/or a drainage network.
Irrigation facilities divert water from a source and bring it to the field, where the water is
applied to a crop, via a network of open or closed canals and/or pipes. The drainage
system can be a complementary component to the irrigation system or can be present in
its own right to evacuate excess water, where there is no shortage and therefore no need
for irrigation. However, despite the fact that rain might be not sufficient for a good crop
growth and therefore irrigation is necessary, water can be in excess. One reason can be
the erratic and short but occasionally excessive rainfall. Another important reason is that
leaching of the root-zone by an excess over the net water requirement is necessary for the
sustainability of the salt balance in the root-zone. The leaching requirement without
drainage facilities could lead to a rising saline water table eventually harming the crop
growth.
The irrigation and drainage system is part of the wider water resource system. The
management, operation and maintenance is not the aim of this course but has important
implications to the design of the irrigation/drainage system.
Often three levels are distinguished:
• Conveyance at the main or primary and the secondary level to the tertiary
units
• Distribution at the tertiary level to the farm
• Application at the farm to the field level
The course Irrigation Engineering and Technology within the framework of IUPWARE
concentrates on the application at the farm to the field level. The primary, secondary and
tertiary level will get less attention. In addition irrigation and drainage projects also often
consider infrastructure like roads, electrification, etc as part of the “hardware” along with
the “software”, which includes an irrigation authority, water users associations, extension
services, rural development etc…
diversion Main canal

Water source Tertiary canal

Farm-offtake
Secondary canal

25
Figure 1 : Scheme of surface irrigation system
An optimal design will try to integrate all the criteria (soil, water availability, agronomy,
socio-economic and legal factors etc..) not only as of the current situation but also based
on an estimate of the future development. Unrealistic forecasts of yields and efficiencies
with underestimation of the costs both for the construction and the operation and
maintenance have too often led to unprofitable irrigation schemes which on paper looked
economically sound. Large scale projects are often favoured by government authorities
mainly for prestige and kickbacks.
A first fundamental question to be asked at the onset of a design: is irrigation feasible,
sustainable and necessary? The tools for the answer are mainly delivered in the irrigation
agronomy and the land evaluation course. Important criteria are the rainfall, crop water
requirements and the water holding capacity of the soil. If irrigation is appropriate then a
second question should be what is the best scale? The type, quantity and quality of the
available water resource will largely dictate the scale. It could better to opt for a single
diversion from a river rather then many consecutive diversions, which might become
competitive and difficult to manage, especially is the command area is far from the river.
In general smaller scales, if possible, are cheaper to construct and to manage.
Groundwater pumping on the irrigated farm allows to cut costs by needing less
conveyance and distribution systems. On the other hand such small scale system could
easily lead to over-pumping and mining of the aquifer, in which the farmers drill deeper
and deeper boreholes.
The water delivery policy is beyond the scope of this course but has important
implications for the design and construction. Several classifications exist; one is by the
World bank (Plusquellec et al, 1994):
• Continuous
• Demand
• Fixed-rotational with constant flow
• Variable-rotational at variable and/or during variable periods
The delivery policy has implications for the design of the flow control systems.

The design of the irrigation canals and large scale pipe-networks will not be covered
here. Different courses in hydraulics deliver enough background.
In open canals a minimum velocity (about 0.5 m/s) is required to avoid sedimentation and
minimize water losses by seepage in the banks. A maximum velocity should be less then
0.8 to 1.5 m/s (depending on the soil type) to avoid erosion by scour. Lining of canals
will reduce the seepage and allows higher maximum velocities. A freeboard is essential
and safety structures should be present to avoid overtopping under extreme situations.
The safety structures could be simple side weirs or more sophisticated emergency
syphons. Water born diseases can be reduced if the canal can be completely drained
during non irrigation periods.
Major hydraulic structures at the primary and secondary level are also not covered. The
course irrigation engineering and technology concentrates on the application at the farm
field level.

26
 8.2. Flow Control technology

Flow control systems are an important part of the hydraulic infrastructure of the
conveyance and distribution system.
A pressurized system requires in most cases a pump to bring the water to a pressure of
250 to 1000 kPa ( 25 to 100 m of water column). The pump can extract water from a
river, a reservoir or a borehole. In some cases a reservoir can be sufficiently elevated to
provide pressurized water without a pump. From the water supply a system of pipes
conveys the water to a hydrant at the field. This hydrant feeds a drip or a sprinkler
irrigation system. The pump selection and the design of the major supply system will not
be covered in this course. Important is the provision of non-return valves to prevent
pollution of the water source. Water flow measurement is an important information for
the management. Special care has to be taken to avoid water hammer. This is often
caused by an abrupt change in speed of the water in the pipe. A sudden closure of a valve,
an unexpected stoppage of the pump can lead to pressure waves travelling up and down
in the pipe. Pressure relief valves and surge tanks can help to cope with water hammer.
Air pockets in the higher parts of the pipelines system (e.g. pipe crossing a bridge which
is on both sides of bridge buried in the soil) can also be dangerous by increasing the risk
for water hammer. Air-relief valves at such higher places and slow filling of empty pipes
should avoid air-pockets in the pipes. The flow control requires flow measurement and
valves. A telemetric system can operate the valves and pumps from a central location. If
the power source for pumping is unreliable (frequent and erratic power outages) the pipes
and pumps can be under great strain and have short lifetime to major breakages.
Surface irrigation systems receive often water via an open channel network or
alternatively from a low pressure pipe-network. Flow in canals is basically regulated by
water level control to indirectly control the discharge and ultimately the volume of water.
The off-take rate is often controlled indirectly by a water level control in the supplying
conveyance canal.
The capacity of the system is determined by the peak water requirements. Remark that
the capacity for flooded rice systems is mainly determined by the presaturation
requirements before the seeding or planting of the rice. In the rice system a typical pre-
saturation requirement (e.g. 20 mm/day) is often two times larger then the total water
requirement (e.g. 10 mm/day) for rice growth, which includes a seepage requirement (e.g.
5 mm/day).
A distribution system is often stressed to its limits by extra demands and users not
foreseen in the design but added due to social and political pressures.

8.3. Types of flow control in surface systems.

Three major types can be distinguished:

• Upstream control: the water level upstream of the structure is controlled to ensure
a constant discharge through the off-takes upstream of the structure;
• Downstream control: the level downstream is regulated and allow a flexible off-
take on demand downstream of the structure and;

27
 • Volume control: flow measurement structures are monitored and used to deliver a
volume; a sophisticated telemetric control and automated control is often
required.
The degree of automation:
• Manual; no automation
• Hydraulic automatic (mainly Neyrtec structures)
• Electric automatic
The management information on levels and gates can be transmitted:
• As communication of visual observations by observers/operators via voice
telephone and radio or in written messages.
• Sensors automatically transmitted in real-time by data-lines via telephone (GSM)
or radio to a central control room.

Upstream control at the tertiary level as an example

At the tertiary level upstream control is the most common and often the most economical.
Downstream control requires because of the increased flexibility an higher canal
capacity. Volume control is only feasible with high control investments and requires
highly reliable telecommunication and power supply.
The upstream level control can be achieved by relatively simple structures, which are
easy to operate. It can provide a good level of control of an imposed delivery. In what
follows some elements are given without any attempt to describe all possible technical
options.

The duckbill gate

offtake

Fig 2: Duckbill weir structure to control the upstream water level

The discharge through a duckbill weir is calculated by:

Q = 0.36 * L * 2 g h1.5

whereby L is the length of the weir and h the water height upstream as compared to the
weir crest. Because of the large L, changes in Q correspond to small changes in h. The
Duckbill weir is cheap; simple and easy to operate. Also important is to provide a
drainage bypass, so that the canal can be drained when necessary.

28
Fig. 3: Weir structure to regulate upstream level (Chambo, Ecuador)

A more sophisticated control is performed by an automatic hydraulic control: AMIL gate.

This gates are hydraulically balanced and do not require any power source.

Flow direction Constant Upstream Level

29
Fig 4.: AMIL gate (upstream level control by hydraulic balancing)

The water level at the location of the off-take is kept constant and therefore the discharge
through this off-take just upstream of the AMIL-gate is constant. The hydraulically
balanced gate is reliable and robust without any outside power source. The target depth
upstream remains fixed. Siltation at low flow rates poses a weakness.

A telemetric control system can in principle achieve a better control and an upstream
target depth, which is changed by the management. Often an underflow gate is operated
by an electric motor, which is remotely controlled on the basis of the telemetric
monitored water levels. Important is also that irrigation canal systems can subject to high
flows during high rainfall. A telemetric system allows a fast simultaneous reaction to
sudden events towards both safety and water savings. Weakness of the system is the
reliance on a (perfectly) reliable power supply and communication.

Control of the gate

level
sensor

30
Fig. 5: Radial underflow gate.

The off-take can be a simple weir or an orifice. The simple weir has a discharge which is
function of the head to the power 1.5 while the orifice is function of the head to the
power 0.5. As a consequence an orifice is less sensitive to changes in head and is in
principle to be preferred.

Figure 6: Different relation for weir and orifice

A special case is the CHO (constant head orifice), which is basically a double orifice. It is
a well documented USBR structure (US Bureau of Reclamation). The basic idea is that
two orifices in series are less susceptable to changes in water level.

Figure 7: Constant Head Orifice (USBR structure)

Experiences are not so good as the operation is difficult. Plusquellec et al (1994) advice
to avoid the CHO. In principle the first orifice is used to set the discharge while the
downstream orifice is used to set the level in the off-take canal.
An interesting structure is the “module à masques” or baffle gates (pag 409 to 412 in
Hofmann et al, 1990). It exists in single or double baffle distributor gate. Very useful is
that this structure is modular. A constant flow is provided by a combination of baffle

31
gates in parallel. In the field any skilled technician and engineer can easily “see” the flow
rate by counting the open modules.

Figure 8 : principle of the double baffle gate (module à double masques)

-10 -5 0 +5 +10 Discharge

Figure 9: relation between water level difference and the discharge

32
Figure 10: Modular baffle gates feeding a channel.

This structure combines in an elegant way different types of flow to ensure a fairly
constant discharge regardless the upstream level.

Constant Upstream AMIL gate

water level
Distributor
gate
Figure 11: A typical upstream level control by an AMIL gate feeding distributor (baffle
gates).

33
Figure 12: Upstream control structure with AMIL gate; two off-take canals with the
distributor double baffle gates and water level measurement.

In principle most control and distribution structures allow flow measurement at the same
time. However, it is a contradictory objective to have an off-take structure which
combines a constant supply as independent as possible from the upstreamlevel and a
accurate flow measurement which in its turn should be highly sensitive to the same level.
Too often the set discharge of an off-take structure is taken for granted without any
critical evaluation. Construction errors, defects, siltation and mistakes in operation lead to
large errors in the observation of the water volumes and these erroneous volumes are the
basis for the managment. Therefore, at a number of strategic points ( e.g. start of the main
and secondary canals) specific flumes should be installed with the only purpose of an
accurate and independent flow measurement. Comparing the assumed off-take in the
system with these flow measurements is important to identify water balance errors.

34
Fig. 13: Measurement flume on an irrigation canal.

8.4. Conclusion

An important aspect of the irrigation systems are the conveyance and distribution systems
from a water resource to the field. Drainage systems require conveyance from the field to
a water “disposal” place. The course irrigation engineering and technology concentrates
on the field application. In this chapter a few elements of surface water conveyance and
distribution at the tertiary level are described.

35