cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept.

Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

Chapter 8

OVERHEAD IRRIGATION (SPRINKLER)

OVERHEAD IRRIGATION
This method attempts to simulate natural rainfall. The irrigation water is applied under
pressure in the form of a spray through a network of pipes having spray nozzles
(sprinkles) at their ends. The pressure is developed by the flow of water under pressure
through small orifices or nozzles.

Adaptability
• nearly all irrigable soils
• to most topographic conditions without extensive land preparations
• most climatic conditions

Advantages
• It is applicable to all soil types of any topography.
• water and fertilizers can be used economically
• high application efficiency
• water applied under full control reducing water logging problems

Disadvantages
• Initial cost of the system is high
• High operation and maintenance costs of the system
• high wind velocities and high temperatures interferes with the distribution pattern
• labour is required to move pipes and plant
• blockages of pipes due to deposition of salts and sediments

TYPES OF SYSTEMS
Farm systems
A system planned exclusively for a given design area or farm unit on which sprinkling
will be the primary method of irrigation. Consists of spray lines, main lines, submains
pumping plant and boosters etc.

Field system
They are designed either for use on several fields of a farm unit or for movement
between fields on several farm units and they may be fully portable.

Fully portable system

It has portable sprinklers lines, main lines, submains and pumping plant. Such a
system is designed to be moved from field to field or to different pump sites in the same
field or from farm to farm.

Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

Semi- Portable
Water source and pumping plant are fixed and the rest are fully portable system.

Fully Permanent
It has permanent spaylines main line, pumps (stationery)

Sprinkler Movements

• Hop System
• Side Rolling

Hop System
Sprinklers are placed only at alternate positions along the lateral. When sufficient water
has been applied the sprinkler are disconnected and moved or hopped along the next
position.

Side rolling
Spray lines are moved from position to position.

Header lines
Sections of portable piping used to position lateral lines at spacings which fall between
hydrants (for economic reason).

SYSTEM COMPONETS
A schematic layout of sprinkler irrigation system is shown in Fig. 1 and the system is
made up of the following components:
• Mainline, and submains They are either permanent or portable and laid above
or below ground. Underground pipes and do not use up land space or interfere
with farming operations, and minimum cover of the soil is about 0.75m.
• Laterals: These are the pipes which convey water to the sprinkler and in
most cases will be portable. However portable pipes need to be strong and light
for easy of lifting when changing from position to position. Hence are usually
made of aluminium or galvanized thin steel and common pipe lengths are 6m
and 9m.
• Pipe Couplers Portable laterals are fitted with special joints (couplers) so
that pipes can be coupled and uncoupled quickly.
• Valves To control flow at the hydrants
• Filters To remove grit, dirt and weeds in order to prevent damaging
the pumps and other ancillary fittings like the nozzles.
• Risers pipes – small diameter pipes which connect the sprinkler to the lateral
(12 – 25mm in diameter) vary from 10 to 100cm in length.
• Sprinklers devices which sprinkles the water through nozzles. Sprinklers
should be located above crop level.

Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

Fig.1 Schematic illustration of sprinkler irrigation

Source: Agritex Handbook (1986), Zimbabwe Government

WATER DISTRIBUTION TO THE SOIL

• Water should be applied uniformly

• Sprinkler irrigation systems should be designed to apply water at a rate less than
the intake rate to prevent surface runoff.

Single sprinkler
Single sprinkler distribution patterns are affected by wind, evaporation, nozzle pressure,
and pressure head. Low pressure reduces the jet-stream break-up and cause the spray
to be concentrated at a single radius from the sprinkler. High pressure cause an
excessive jet stream break-up which reduces the radius resulting in high application rate
near the sprinkler.

Moving sprinkler
The application by moving sprinklers integrates the pattern along its travel path. This
reduces the non-uniformity of application observed with stationary sprinklers.

Uniformity coefficient
Sprinkler technology has not been developed to the point where complete uniformity
can be obtained. Cu is affected by pressure, nozzle size, sprinkler spacing and wind
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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

conditions. An index of the uniformity is used to measure the degree of uniformity (Cu),
and is computed from field observations of the depths of water caught in open cans
placed at regular intervals within a sprinkler area, given as (Cuenca, 1989):

⎛ ∑x⎞
C u = 100⎜1 − ⎟
⎜ mn ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Where: m =mean application

x =absolute deviation of individual observations from the mean value
n =number of observations

Values of Cu above 0.85 are acceptable and for square spacings, a good Cu is
obtained by aligning the sprinkler laterals at approximately 450 to the prevailing wind
(Jensen, 1980).

Precipitation rates
Rate at which water is applied to the soil in mm/hr and the precipitation rate should be
less than or equal to the soil intake rate. (Sprinkler soil intake rate for some soils are
given in Table 1).

Sprinkler application efficiencies

Ratio of water effectively put into crop root zone and utilized by the crop to the quantity
delivered. It varies from 60 – 85% and also depends on temperature. It will be high in
cool areas and lower in hot regions.

System Layout Considerations

The design depends on the nature of the topography and broken topography may
present problems. Normally alternative layouts are required. The mainline may be at
one end of field or through the field. Where possible mainlines are placed perpendicular
to the laterals to facilitate connection the laterals, but this is not mandatory.

Lateral line layout

To obtain a near-uniform application of water throughout the length of the lateral line,
the line must be so located and must be of a pipe size and length that will result in a
minimum variation in the discharge of individual sprinklers along the line. Total losses
in line due to friction should not exceed 20% of the design operating pressure and the
variation in discharge should not exceed 10%.

• lateral lines should be laid across predominant land slopes

• running lateral lines uphill should be avoided where possible
• lateral lines need to be limited to one or not more than two pipe sizes,
normally a single pipe size is used for simplicity of operation
• Laterals should be located at right angles to the prevailing wind direction
where possible.

Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

Examples of some layouts are shown in Fig.2.

Fig. 2: Various layouts of sprinkler irrigation depending of topography

Source: SCS, Water resources publications, USA

Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

TABLE 1 Suitable nozzle sizes, pressures and application rates for various spacings (slight differences will be found between
different makes of sprinklers)

Nozzle Recommended pressure Discharge Precipitation

Spacing size (kPa) (m3/h) (mm/h)
(m) (mm)

21 x 21 8.0 450 5,15 11,68

(441 m3) 7,0 x 3,0 420 4,50 10,20
7,0 440 3,90 8,84

18 x 21 7,0 440 3,90 10,31

(378m3) 6,5 400 3,20 8,46

18 x 18 6,5 x 3,0 380 3,80 11,72

(324 m3) 6,5 400 3,20 9,88

6,0 x 2,5 360 3,04 9,38
6,0 380 2,65 8,18
5,5 x 2,5 350 2,55 7,87
5,5 360 2,20 6,79
5,0 x 2,5 340 2,18 6,73

15 x 21 6,5 400 3,20 10,16

(315 m2) 6,0 380 2,65 8,41
5,5 360 2,20 6,98
5,0 350 1,77 5,61

15 x 18 6,0 380 2,65 9,81

(270 m2) 5,5 360 2,20 8,14
5,0 350 1,77 6,55
4,5 330 1,38 5,11

12 x 18 5,5 360 2,20 10,19

(216 m2) 5,0 350 1,77 8,19
4,5 330 1,38 6,39
4,0 320 2 ,08 5,00

12 x 15 4,5 330 1,38 7,67

(180 m2) 4,0 320 1,08 6,00
3,5 300 0,80 4,44

12 x 12 4,0 320 1,08 7,50

(144 m2) 3,5 280 0,78 5,42
3,0 260 0,55 3,82
_____________________________________________________________________________

Sprinkler discharge
The sprinkler discharge is given as:

SL × SM × I
q= , m3/hr
1000

Where: SL = sprinkler spacing along lateral, m

SM = spacing between lateral lines, m
I = precipitation rate, mm/hr

Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

Number of sprinklers operated

A system layout must provide for simultaneous operation of the average number of
sprinklers that will satisfy the required system capacity when operated at design
pressure. The average number of sprinklers operating at the same time is given as:

Q
N sp =
q

Where: Q =system capacity, m3/hr

q = design sprinkler discharge, m3/hr

System capacity
The system efficiency is given as:

d × A × 10
Q=
t×e

Where: d = depth of application per irrigation in mm

A = area in hectares
e = % efficiency of application expressed as a decimal
t = total pumping period in hours to irrigate the area
n = number of sprinkler
q = design discharge per nozzle

The number of sprinklers operated at a time should maintain a constant load on the
pumping plant i.e. variation should be minimum. When it’s impossible to maintain a
minimum variation, valves must be used to control pressure and discharge. The water
source should be as near as possible to the centre of the design area and should aim
for a centralised point. When static heads are so great booster pumps must be
considered.

Sprinkler Discharge Relationship

q=K P, l/s

Where: - q = sprinkler discharge (nozzle discharge), l/s

k = nozzle discharge coefficient
p= pressure at sprinkler

Pressure varies along the lateral due to direction, elevation, differences, and discharge.
The ratio of pressure at any point in the lateral to the pressure at any other point will be
constant for a given flow.

Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

q P
=
qo PO

Where: q = discharge of any sprinkler whose pressure is P

qo = discharge of last sprinkler with pressure Po
(Thus with a 20% variation in a pressure along the lateral, the variation in discharge is
about 10%.

Sprinkler spacing, nozzle size and pressure

• Sprinkler spacing vary from: 9m x 9m to 73m x 75m

• Sprinkler nozzle sizes : 1.59mm to 36mm
• Pressure:- 205kPa to 585kPa

Sprinkler spacing depend upon the sprinkler and nozzle combination, operating
pressure, desired coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and wind speed. Since it is not possible
to design for all wind conditions, the system should be designed for the average
conditions. As wind increases, spacing must be decreased to maintain the same Cu.

Wind Conditions Lateral Spacing

No wind - 65% of effective wetted diameter

8km/hr 60% of wetted diameter
8 – 16km/hr - 50% of wetted diameter
>16km/hr - 30% of wetted diameter

For Zimbabwean conditions lateral spacing recommended is 50% (8 -16km/hr) or 7

knots. There are about three types of sprinkler spacing which exists:

• square
• rectangular
• triangular

Under variable wind directions, a square spacing gives a good Cu. A rectangular
spacing reduces number of laterals (and is often used). Distance between laterals is
increased and sprinklers are close together. Manufacturers provide performance data
for the various sprinklers at different spacings. (Table 1).

Diurnal reduction in velocity during night

A sprinkler system should be irrigating a given location during the night when the
preceding irrigation was during the day and vice versa. Wind speed and direction must
be considered in sprinkler design. The design should be based on expected wind
speeds and direction during the irrigation season. Design Charts or performance guides
have been compiled which provide guidelines for sprinkler spacing under different wind
speed ranges (Table 1).
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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

Drop Size Distribution

Small droplets are subject to wind drift, distorting the application pattern. Large droplets
posses’ greater kinetic energy which is transferred to the soil surface, causing surface
crusting and runoff.

Spray evaporation
Evaporation of the spray from a sprinkler system can change the coefficient of
uniformity and is a direct loss.

Wind effects on spray distribution

Wind speed and direction are the two characteristics considered in sprinkler design and
these are affected by the jet angle and the raiser height.

Jet angle
Wind speed increases with height above a crop or soil surface. Sprinkler spray ejected
high into the air will be subject to greater wind speeds and greater pattern distortion
than spray nearer the surface. Ideal angle for a sprinkler vary between 23-320 above
the horizontal.

Raiser height
The effect of riser height is similar to jet angle. The higher the sprinklers, the greater
the pattern distortion because of the increasing wind velocity with height.

HYDRAULICS OF MAIN LINES

The hydraulic of mainlines can be computed from any hydraulic formulae in literature
e.g. Colebrook White, Darcy-Weisbach and Hazen Williams. The equivalent head loss
due to friction in through-flow pipe, HL-P from Hazen Williams equation is given as:

m
⎛Q⎞
⎜ ⎟
= K ⎝ 2 m⎠+ n ,
C
H L= P m/100m
D

Where: m =velocity exponent, m=1.852

n =pipe diameter exponent, n=1.166
K =1.22x1012
C =coefficient of retardation based on pipe characteristics
C =140 for AC pipes
=150 for PVC
=130 or 120 for aluminium/steel
D =diameter of pipe, mm
Q =flow, l/s
v ≤3m/s

Therefore the above equation becomes:

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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

1.852
⎛Q⎞
⎜ ⎟
= K ⎝ ⎠4.87
C
H L=P
D

HYDRAULICS OF LATERAL LINES

Maximum allowable head loss due to friction between the critical sprinklers:

HL =
[θ (H a ) − H e ] m/m
L

Where: θ =maximum allowable pressure, 0.2 (20%)

Ha =nozzle design pressure, m
He =increase in elevation in the direction of flow between the two
critical sprinklers, m (negative for downhill sloping laterals)
L =distance between the two critical sprinklers, m

Example
Slope =0.004
Nozzle operating pressure =310kPa
L =500M
If the lateral is down slope, determine the maximum allowable head loss

Solution

P 310000 Pa
Ha = =
ρg 1000 kg / m 3 × 9.81m / s 2

=31.6m

H e = − SL = −0.004m / m × 500

0.2(31.6 − (− 0.004 × 500 ))

Ha =
500

=0.0166m/m

The allowable head loss due to friction computed must be compared with the actual
head loss in the lateral (HL-aC).

H L − ac = f (Q, D )

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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

The computation of the head loss in the lateral is complicated because flow is
decreasing along the length of the lateral. To compute the head loss, one would start at
the last outlet on the line and work backwards to the supply line. However Christiansen
formula simplifies the procedure. Christiansen developed an adjustment factor (F), to
correct the friction loss calculated from the general hydraulic formula that assumes that
all of the water is carried to the end of the line. The actual head loss in lateral becomes:

H L − ac = FH L − P m/m

Where: HL-ac =actual head loss due to friction, m/m

F =friction factor to account for decrease in the flow along the lateral
(Christiansen factor).
HL-P =equivalent head loss due to friction in through-flow pipe, m/m

The following assumptions are made to compute the actual head loss.

• Sprinklers are evenly spaced at the lateral spacing, SL

• Discharge is the same of each nozzle
• Total flow into the lateral is discharged through the nozzles

The equivalent head loss due to friction in through-flow pipe, HL-P can be computed from
any hydraulic formula e.g. Colebrook White, Hazen Williams, etc. From Hazen
Williams, actual head loss due to friction in a lateral, HL-ac can be computed as:
1.852
⎛ L ⎞⎛ Q ⎞
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
H L = ac = FK ⎝ 100 ⎠⎝ C ⎠
, m
D 4.87

Where: L =length of lateral, m

When K is 1.22x1010, the above equation becomes:

1.852
⎛Q⎞
⎜ ⎟
= FKL ⎝ ⎠4.87
C
H L = ac , m
D

or
1.852
⎛Q⎞
⎜ ⎟
= FK ⎝ ⎠4.87
C
H L = ac , m/m
D

Computation of the Christiansen factor, F

First case
If the first sprinkler is at a distance, SL from the main line, F is computed as:

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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

F=
1
+
1
+
(m − 1) 0 .5

m + 1 2N 6N 2

Second case
SL
The first sprinkler is at a distance
2

F=
2 ⎧ 1
+
(m − 1)0.5 ⎫
⎨ ⎬
2N − 1 ⎩ m + 1 6N 2 ⎭

Where; N =number of sprinklers per lateral

m =exponent on velocity related term in friction head loss formula
m =1.852 in Hazen-Williams equation
m =2.0 in Darcy-Weisbach Equation

Values of F from the above formulae can also be found from Tables 2 and 3.

Table 2 Friction factor F for a lateral at half lateral spacing from the mainline

Velocity related term exponent, m

Number of nozzles m=1.852 m=1.90 m=2.0
1 1.009 1.006 1.000
2 0.519 0.512 0.500
3 0.441 0.435 0.422
4 0.412 0.405 0.393
5 0.396 0.390 0.378
6 0.387 0.381 0.369
7 0.381 0.375 0.363
8 0.377 0.370 0.358
9 0.373 0.367 0.355
10 0.371 0.365 0.353
11 0.369 0.363 0.351
12 0.367 0.361 0.349
13 0.366 0.360 0.348
14 0.364 0.358 0.347
15 0.363 0.357 0.346
16 0.363 0.357 0.345
17 0.362 0.356 0.344
18 0.361 0.355 0.343
19 0.361 0.355 0.343
20 0.360 0.354 0.342
22 0.359 0.354 0.341
24 0.358 0.352 0.341
26 0.358 0.352 0.340
28 0.357 0.351 0.340
30 0.357 0.351 0.339

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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

Table 3 Friction factor F for a lateral at full lateral spacing from the mainline

Velocity related term exponent, m

Number of nozzles m=1.852 m=1.90 m=2.0
1 1.004 1.003 1.000
2 0.639 0.634 0.625
3 0.534 0.529 0.519
4 0.485 0.480 0.469
5 0.457 0.451 0.440
6 0.438 0.433 0.421
7 0.425 0.419 0.408
8 0.416 0.410 0.398
9 0.408 0.402 0.391
10 0.402 0.396 0.385
11 0.397 0.392 0.380
12 0.393 0.388 0.376
13 0.390 0.384 0.373
14 0.387 0.381 0.370
15 0.385 0.379 0.367
16 0.382 0.77 0.365
17 0.381 0.375 0.363
18 0.379 0.373 0.362
19 0.377 0.372 0.360
20 0.376 0.370 0.359
22 0.374 0.368 0.356
24 0.372 0.366 0.354
26 0.370 0.364 0.353
28 0.369 0.363 0.351
30 0.367 0.362 0.350

Friction losses where more than one size lateral is used

D1
D2

Q1 Q2

L1 L2

H f = H f (L1 + L2 , D1 ) − H f ( L2 , D1 ) + H f (L2 , D2 )
= H f (L1 , D1 ) + H f (L2 , D2 )
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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

cmutsvangwa: Irrigation systems design, Dept. Civil and Water, NUST 5/2/2007

⎛ L + L2 ⎞
Where: H f ( L1 + L2 , D1 ) = FH f ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠

1.852
⎛Q ⎞
K⎜ 1 ⎟
H f = ⎝ 4.87⎠
C
D1

⎛ L ⎞
H f ⎜ L2 , D1 = FH f 2 ⎟
⎝ 100 ⎠

1.852
⎛Q ⎞
K⎜ 2 ⎟
H f = ⎝ 4.87⎠
C
D1

H f (L2, D2 ) = FH f
L2
100

1.852
⎛Q ⎞
k⎜ 2 ⎟
H f = ⎝ 4.⎠87
C
D2

H f (L1 , D1 ) = H f (L1 + L2 , D1 ) − H f (L2 , D1 )

Further reading
• centre pivot
• travelling gun sprinkler
• travelling lateral systems

References
1. Agritex Handbook, (1986), Department Agriculture, Zimbabwe Government
2. Cuenca R., (1989), Irrigation Systems Design: An Engineering approach. Prentice
Hall. USA.
3. Jensen M. E., (1980), Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems, American
Society of Irrigation Engineers, USA
4. SCS, Water resources publications, Section 18, USA

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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation

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Chapter 8: Introduction to sprinkler irrigation