Jomel T.

Agno
 INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS
Target Skills
After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

 illustrate the limit of a function using the table of values and graph.
 define the limit of a function.

Review
Evaluate the following functions.

1. (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 10 ; 𝑥 = 4

5𝑥−7
2. 𝑓(𝑥) 3𝑥 2 −4𝑥+1; 𝑥 = −2

3. 𝑓(𝑥) = √8𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥; 𝑥 = 2

Build Your Understanding

One of the most important aspect of the study of Calculus is the analysis how the function
values (output) change as the input values change.
𝑥 2 +𝑥−12
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) = , this function is defined for all real numbers except 3.
𝑥−3
Let us assign some values of 𝑥 which is sufficiently close to 3 but not necessarily equal to 3,
and try to observe the value of the function as the value of 𝑥 approaches 3. On the number line,
𝑥 may approach in two ways: through values from the left and from the right side of 3.

𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)

2.5 6.5 3.5 7.5

2.9 6.9 3.1 7.1

2.99 6.99 3.01 7.01

2.999 6.999 3.001 7.001

Figure 1 Figure 2

In Figure 1, as the value of 𝑥 getting closer and closer to 3 from the left side, the value of the
function approaches 7, which is similar to value of the function as the value of 𝑥 approaches 3
from the right side which is shown in Figure 2.

To further understand the concept of limits, let us illustrate the graph of this function.

Figure 3 Figure 4

The graph of the given function is a straight line. The hole indicates that the function is
undefined at 𝑥 = 3. Figure 3 illustrate the behaviour of the graph from the left side of 3, which
clearly shows that the function approaches 7 as x approaches 3. On the right side of 3,
illustrated in Figure 4, the function also approaches 7, as x approaches 3.
To summarize the idea, we can call 7 as the limit of the function as 𝑥 approaches 3, which can
be written as

𝒙𝟐 +𝒙−𝟏𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟕
𝒙→𝟑 𝒙−𝟑

𝑥 2 +𝑥−12
This notation read as “The limit of as 𝑥 approaches 3 is 7”.
𝑥−3

Definition of Limit of a function

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function of 𝑥 and 𝑐 be a constant. If we can make a value of 𝑓(𝑥) close to 𝐿 but
not necessarily equal to 𝐿, by choosing a value of 𝑥 which is close enough to 𝑐 but not equal
to 𝑐, then we say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 is 𝐿. In symbol,

lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑐

Example 1: Investigate lim(7𝑥 − 5)

𝑥→3

As the value of 𝑥 approaches 3 from the both sides, we get the following values:

𝒙 2.5 2.9 2.999 3 3.001 3.1 3.5

𝒇(𝒙) 12.5 15.3 15.993 16.007 16.7 19.5

Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟕𝒙 − 𝟓) = 𝟏𝟔
𝒙→𝟑

5𝑥 + 4; 𝑥 > 4
Example 2: Evaluate lim {
𝑥→4 6𝑥; 𝑥≤4

In this example we need to deal with a function represented by two different expressions
corresponding to a certain part of its domain.

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟔𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟒
𝒙 3.5 3.99 3.999 4 4.001 4.01 4.5
𝒇(𝒙) 21 23.94 23.994 24.005 24.05 26.5

𝟓𝒙 + 𝟒; 𝒙 > 𝟒
Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 { = 𝟐𝟒
𝒙→𝟒 𝟔𝒙; 𝒙≤𝟒
Firm Up

Refer to your book. Answer the activity on Pages 8-10, Exercise 1-A

Remember

 The 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑳 means that as the value of 𝒙 approaches 𝒄 from both
𝒙→𝒄
sides, the corresponding value of 𝒇(𝒙) approaches a unique real number 𝑳.
 The limit of a function can be illustrated by graphs and tables.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the activity on Pages 10 – 12, Exercise 1-B, and 1-C

 LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS

Target Skills
After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

 distinguish between lim 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑐).

𝑥→𝑐
 apply the limit laws in evaluating the limit of algebraic functions.

Review

Evaluate the limits of the following functions using table.

1. lim(3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 2)
𝑥→3

𝒇(𝒙)

𝑥 2 −𝑥+12
2. lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4

𝒇(𝒙)

Build Your Understanding

The value of a function 𝑓 after evaluating at 𝑐 is denoted by 𝑓(𝑐). However, 𝑓(𝑐) may or
may not exist. If 𝑐 is not part of the domain of the given function, then the value of the
function at 𝑐 or the 𝑓(𝑐) is undefined. It may be represented by a “hole” or “gap”.

Suppose we have the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5.

Evaluate 𝑓(3) 𝑓(3) = (3)2 + 3(3) − 5

𝑓(3) = 9 + 9 − 5

𝒇(𝟑) = 𝟏𝟑
Evaluate lim(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5)
𝑥→3

𝒙 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1

𝒇(𝒙) 12.11 12.91 12.99 13.01 13.09 13.91

 As the value of x approaches 3 from the left, the value of f(x) approaches 13.
 As the value of x approaches 3 from the right, the value of f(x) approaches 13.

Therefore, lim (𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5) = 13.

𝑥→3

In this function, the value of 𝑓(3) is equal to the lim(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 5). However, it is not always
𝑥→3
the case.

Consider the function.

𝑥 2 −6𝑥+8
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−4

Solve for 𝑓(𝑐)

𝑥 2 −6𝑥+8 0
𝑓(4) = =0 undefined
𝑥−4

𝑥 2 −6𝑥+8
Evaluate the lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4

𝒙 3.5 3.99 3.999 4 4.001 4.01 4.5

𝒇(𝒙) 1.5 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.5

𝑥 2 −6𝑥+8
Compare the answer for 𝑓(𝑐) and lim
𝑥→4 𝑥−4

The function is undefined at 𝑥 = 4, yet the limit of the function as 𝑥 approaches 4 is 2.

This example shows that lim 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑐) may be distinct.
𝑥→𝑐

LIMITS OF ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION

Using tabular and graphical method to get the limit of a function can be time-consuming. There
are theorems that may help you to evaluate limits more quickly for different kinds of functions.

Theorem: LIMIT OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

For a polynomial function
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑐)
𝑥→𝑐
Where c is any real number.

Evaluate the following limits

1. lim(6𝑥 − 10) 2. lim (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 9)
𝑥→4 𝑥→−3
= 6(4) − 10 = (−3)2 + (−3) + 9
= 𝟏𝟒 =9−3+9
= 𝟏𝟓
 Theorem: LIMIT OF A RATIONAL FUNCTION
For a rational function,

𝑝(𝑥) 𝑝(𝑐)
lim =
𝑥→𝑐 𝑞(𝑥) 𝑞(𝑐)

Where 𝑐 is any real number and 𝑞(𝑐) ≠ 0

Evaluate the following limit

2𝑥 𝑥 2 +4
1. lim 3𝑥+8 2. lim
𝑥→5 𝑥→−3 7𝑥+25
2(5) (−𝟑)𝟐 +𝟒
= =
3(5)+8 𝟕(−𝟑)+𝟐𝟓
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟑
= =
𝟐𝟑 𝟒

0
The case when the evaluation of 𝑓(𝑐) leads to indeterminate form 0

If the resulting limit of a rational function leads to indeterminate form, apply algebraic
manipulation such as, factoring, getting of conjugate, LCD, etc.

Evaluate the following limits:

Example 1 Example 2

By direct substitution: By direct substitution:

𝑥 2 −5𝑥+6 32 −5(3)+6 8−√𝑥 0
lim = lim =0 (indeterminate)
𝑥→3 𝑥−3 3−3 𝑥→64 𝑥−64

0
=0 (indeterminate) Applying algebraic manipulation

8−√𝑥 8+√𝑥
Applying algebraic manipulation = lim ∙ 8+ get the
𝑥→64 𝑥−64 √𝑥
(𝑥−3)(𝑥−2) conjugate of
= lim (𝑥−3)
factor the numerator
𝑥→3
numerator 64−𝑥
= lim simplify
𝑥→64 (𝑥−64)(8+√𝑥)
= lim(𝑥 − 2) simplify
𝑥→3
−1(−64+𝑥)
= lim (𝑥−64)(8+
factor out −1
𝑥→64 √𝑥)
=3−2
−1
=1 = lim simplify
𝑥→64 (8+√𝑥)

𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓𝒙 + 𝟔 −1
= 8+√64
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝒙→𝟑 𝒙−𝟑
𝟏
= − 𝟏𝟔

𝟖 − √𝒙 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =−
𝒙→𝟔𝟒 𝒙 − 𝟔𝟒 𝟏𝟔
 Theorem: LIMIT OF A RADICAL FUNCTION
For a radical function
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑛√𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑛√lim 𝑝(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

where c is any real number, n is a positive integer, and 𝑝(𝑐) ≥ 0 if n is even,

Evaluate the following limits

3 3𝑥+2
1. lim √7𝑥 + 8 2. lim √
𝑥→4 𝑥→2 15𝑥−3
3 3𝑥+2
= √ lim(7𝑥 + 8) = √ lim
𝑥→4 15𝑥−3𝑥→2
3 3(2)+2
= √7(4) + 8 =√
15(2)−3
𝟑 𝟖
= √36 =√
𝟐𝟕
𝟐
=6 =
𝟑
𝟑 𝟑𝒙+𝟐 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝟕𝒙 + 𝟖 = 𝟔 𝐥𝐢𝐦 √ =
𝒙→𝟒 𝒙→𝟐 𝟏𝟓𝒙−𝟑 𝟑

Firm Up

Refer to your book. Answer the activity on Pages 19-20, Exercise 2-A, and 2-B.

Remember

 The𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) may exist and be different from the value of 𝒇(𝒄)
𝒙→𝒄
 For polynomial functions, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒇(𝒙) is always equal to 𝒇(𝒄).
𝒙→𝒄
𝒑(𝒙) 𝒑(𝒄)
 For rational function, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒒(𝒙) is equal to the value of , provided that 𝒄
𝒙→𝒄 𝒒(𝒄)
is a real number and 𝒒(𝒄) is not equal to 0.

Challenge Yourself
Refer to your book. Answer the activity on Pages 44-45, Exercise 3-A, and 3-B, odd numbers
only.
 ONE-SIDED LIMITS
Target Skills

After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

 illustrate the left and right hand limit of a function.

 solve for a one-sided limits.

Review

Evaluate the limit of the given function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 as 𝑥 approaches −2, using
tabular method:

𝒙 -2.5 -2.1 -2.001 -2 -1.999 -1.9 -1.5

𝒇(𝒙)

Build Your Understanding

In previous lesson, you have noticed that in order to evaluate the limit of a function, we always
consider the direction of values whether they are from the left side or from the right side of c.
The direction may be specified in the limit notation by adding a certain symbols.

The notation, lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is used to indicate the limit from the left of c (wherein the values
𝑥→𝑐
assign for 𝑥 are less than 𝑐).

And lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 is used to indicate the limit from the right of c (wherein the values assign
𝑥→𝑐
for 𝑥 are greater than 𝑐).

In an ordinary situation, the left hand limit and right hand limit exist and have the same value.
However, there are some cases wherein the left hand limit and the right hand limit don’t have
the same values, or one of the one-sided limits don’t exist.

Consider the following.

Example 1

Evaluate the left hand and the right hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) = √3 − 𝑥 as x approaches 3.
 By observation, as the value of x getting closer and closer to 3 from the left side, the
value of the function approaches to 0, hence

lim √3 − 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→3−

However, any value from the right side of 3 will make the function undefined, therefore,
lim+ √3 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
𝑥→3

Since the right hand limit does not exist, therefore,

𝐥𝐢𝐦 √𝟑 − 𝒙 𝒅𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕
𝒙→𝟑

Example 2

5𝑥 + 1; 𝑥 > 5
Investigate the left and the right hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) = { as x approaches 5.
6𝑥; 𝑥≤5

For the left hand limit, we have to consider the values less than 5, hence we have to use
the 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥.
lim− 6𝑥 = 30
𝑥→5
For the right hand limit, the possible values of x are greater than 5, therefore we have to
use 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 1.
lim+ 5𝑥 + 1 = 26
𝑥→5

Since the left hand and right hand limit exist but they have different values, therefore,

𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏; 𝒙 > 𝟓
𝐥𝐢𝐦 { 𝒅𝒐𝒆𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒊𝒔𝒕
𝒙→𝟓 𝟔𝒙; 𝒙≤𝟓

Theorem: EXISTENCE OF LIMIT

The limit of 𝑓 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑐 exists and is equal to 𝐿 if the following conditions are
satisfied,

1. lim 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) both exist

𝑥→𝑐 − 𝑥→𝑐
2. lim− 𝑓(𝑥) and lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) are equal
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Firm Up
Answer the activity on your book. Pages 45-46, Exercise 3C.
Remember

 The notation for left-hand limit is 𝐥𝐢𝐦− 𝒇(𝒙). The values approach c from left
𝒙→𝒄
are all less than c.
 The notation for right-hand limit is 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒇(𝒙). The values approach c from
𝒙→𝒄
right are all greater than c.
 There are two conditions for the limit of a function exists. First, the left hand
and the right hand limit must exist. And second, the left hand and the right
hand limit must be equal. Otherwise, the limit of the function does not exist.

Challenge Yourself

Answer the activity to challenge yourself, pages 47-48, Exercise 3D and 3E.
 INFINITE LIMITS AND LIMITS AT INFINITY

Target Skills
After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

 illustrate theorem involving infinite limits and limits at infinity.

 solve problems involving infinite limits and limits at infinity.
Review
Find the limits of the following functions using limit laws.

1. lim(5𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 3) 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 3. lim √4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 15

𝑥→4 2. lim 𝑥→−2
𝑥→5 𝑥+4

Build Your Understanding

INFINITE LIMITS
1
Suppose we want to evaluate lim .
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝟏 𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙 𝒙
-1 -1 1 1
-0.5 -2 0.5 2
-0.1 -10 0.1 10
-0.01 -100 0.01 100
-0.001 -1,000 0.001 1,000
-0.0001 -10,000 0.0001 10,000
As shown in the table, as the value of x approaches 0 from the left side, the value of the
1
function tends to decrease infinitely, we can say that the left hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 is
1
negative infinity, in symbol, lim− 𝑥 = −∞. For the right side, as the value of 𝑥 approaches 0,
𝑥→0
the value of the function tends to increase infinitely, therefore, the right hand limit of 𝑓(𝑥) =
1 1
is positive infinity, in symbol lim+ 𝑥 = +∞.
𝑥 𝑥→0

1
Based on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥. It is clearly shown how
the graph behave as x approaches 0.
1 1 1
Since lim− 𝑥 and lim+ 𝑥 are not equal, therefore, lim 𝑥
𝑥→0 𝑥→0 𝑥→0
does not exist.

1
Investigate lim 𝑥 2
𝑥→0

1
The figure shows the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 that follows an
upward direction as x approaches 0.

𝟏 𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙 𝒙
-1 1 1 1
-0.5 2 0.5 2
-0.1 10 0.1 10
-0.01 100 0.01 100
-0.001 1,000 0.001 1,000
-0.0001 10,000 0.0001 10,000

Since the denominator has the exponent of 2, it means, for any real number except 0 the value
of the denominator will always become positive.
EVALUATION OF INFINITE LIMITS
1
Example 1: lim+ (𝑥−5)
𝑥→5

Since the denominator becomes 0 at 𝑥 = 5, then the limit of this function as x approaches 5 is
infinity. Now, we need to find out the sign of infinity. Since the limit focuses only on the right
side of 5, and the values from the right side of 5 make the denominator positive, therefore there
is a positive infinity.

1
lim+ = +∞
𝑥→5 (𝑥 − 5)
3
Example 2: lim− 𝑥 2 −4
𝑥→2

Direct substitution makes the denominator equal to 0, therefore the limit is infinity. The
3
denominator is factorable, and it can become 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2), assigning any value of x
from the left side of makes the denominator negative in sign. Therefore the limit of the
function is negative infinity.

3
lim− = −∞
𝑥→2 𝑥2 − 4

LIMITS AT INFINITY
In some cases, we have to investigate what happens to a function if we let the value of x get
larger and larger, or smaller and smaller without bound.
1
Consider the function f(𝑥) = 𝑥, and see what happen to the function as the value of x
approaches infinity.
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
-1 -1 1 1
-10 -0.1 10 0.1
-100 -0.01 100 0.01
-1,000 -0.001 1,000 0.001
-10,000 -0.00001 10,000 0.00001
-100,000 -0.000001 100,000 0.000001

Tables shows that,

 as the value of x increases without bound in the positive direction, the value of 𝑓(𝑥)
1
approaches 0. Thus, lim = 0.
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥
 as the value of x decreases without bound in the negative direction, the value of 𝑓(𝑥)
1
approaches 0. Thus, lim 𝑥 = 0.
𝑥→−∞
 Theorem: LIMITS AT INFINITY
𝑘 𝑘
lim =0 lim =0
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥

Example 1

3𝑥 2 +4
Evaluate lim
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 −2𝑥

Divide both the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x, in this case 𝑥 2 . This
will allow us to apply the properties of limits at infinity.

3𝑥 2 4 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑥2 3+ 2
𝑥
lim = lim
𝑥→∞ 5𝑥 2 2𝑥 𝑥→∞ 2
2 − 2 5−𝑥
𝑥 𝑥
𝑘
Applying the theorem, lim =0
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑛

3+0 𝟑
=
5−0 𝟓
Example 2
3𝑥
Evaluate lim
𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥 3 −2

Divide both the numerator and denominator by 𝑥 3 .

3𝑥 3
lim 𝑥3 = lim 𝑥2
𝑥→−∞ 2𝑥 3 2 𝑥→−∞ 2
− 3 2−
𝑥3 𝑥 𝑥3
𝑘
Apply the theorem, lim =0
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑛

0
= =𝟎
2−0
Example 3

𝑥 4 +𝑥 2
Evaluate lim
𝑥→−∞ 4𝑥 3 −5

Divide both the numerator and denominator by case 𝑥 4 .

𝑥4 𝑥2 1
4 + 𝑥4 1+ 2
lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑥
𝑥→−∞ 4𝑥 3 5 𝑥→−∞ 4 5
− −
𝑥 4 𝑥 4 𝑥 𝑥4
 𝑘
Apply the theorem, lim =0
𝑥→±∞ 𝑥 𝑛

1+0 1
= 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
0−0 0

Techniques in solving limit at infinity.

 If the degree of numerator is greater than the degree of denominator, the

limit is undefined.
 If the degree of numerator is less than the degree of denominator, the limit is
0.
 If the degree of numerator is equal to the degree of denominator, then the
limit is the numerical coefficient of the term with the highest power of x.

Firm Up

Refer to your book. Answer the activity on Page 48, Exercise 3-E, odd numbers only.

Remember

 The limit of the function 𝒇(𝒙) as 𝒙 approaches positive(negative) infinity is

𝑳 if the values of 𝒇(𝒙) approach the number 𝑳 as 𝒙 increases (decreases)
without bound.
 If 𝒌 is any real number and 𝒏 is a positive rational number, then
𝒌 𝒌
𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟎 and 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎
𝒙→+∞ 𝒙𝒏 𝒙→−∞ 𝒙𝒏

Challenge Yourself

Refer to your book. Answer the activity on Page 48, Exercise 3-E, even numbers only.
 LIMITS OF TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

Target Skills

After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

 compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions.

sin 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −1
 evaluate the limits of expression involving , , and using table of values.
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

Review
Answer the following.

What are the six What are the two

trigonometric types of
functions? exponential
function?

What are the

properties of
What are the two logarithmic and
types of exponential
logarithmic functions?
function?

Build Your Understanding

This lesson will introduce the limit of some transcendental function such as, exponential,
logarithmic, and trigonometric functions. The following theorem will help you to determine
the limit of transcendental function without using graph or table.
 Theorem: LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Let 𝑐 be a real number defined in the domain of each function.

lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑐 lim ln 𝑥 = ln 𝑐
𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

For example, evaluating the following:

1. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 0 = 𝟏 any non-zero real number raised to the power of zero is equal to 1.
𝑥→0
2. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝒆𝟑
𝑥→3
𝟏
3. lim 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 −5 = 𝒆𝟓
𝑥→−5
4. lim 𝑒 𝑥−2 = 𝑒 2−2 = 𝑒 0 = 𝟏
𝑥→2
5. lim ln 𝑥 = ln 1 = 𝟎
𝑥→1
6. lim(5 + 7 ln 𝑥) = 𝟓 + 𝟕 𝐥𝐧 𝟒
𝑥→4
3ln 𝑥 3ln 6 𝐥𝐧 𝟔
7. lim = =
𝑥→6 𝑥 6 𝟐

Theorem: LIMITS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Let 𝑐 be a real number defined on the domain of each trigonometric function

lim sin 𝑥 = sin 𝑐 lim sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑐

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

lim cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑐 lim csc 𝑥 = csc 𝑐

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

lim tan 𝑥 = tan 𝑐 lim cot 𝑥 = cot 𝑐

𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐

Example, evaluate the following:

1. lim sin 𝑥 = sin 0 = 𝟎

𝑥→𝑐
√𝟑
2. lim cos 𝑥 = cos 30 =
𝑥→30 𝟐
𝜋 𝜋 √2 √2 √4 𝟏
3. lim𝜋 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 = cos 4 sin 4 = ( 2 ) ( 2 ) = =𝟐
𝑥→ 4
4
5𝜋
4. lim 12csc 𝑥 = 12csc = 12(2) = 𝟐𝟒
5𝜋
𝑥→ 6
6

5. lim √𝑥 + 15 − tan 𝑥 = √60 + 15 − tan 60 = √75 − √3 = 5√3 − √3 = 𝟒√𝟑

𝑥→60
SPECIAL LIMITS
There are some special functions that play an important role in evaluating some limits and for
the computation of the derivative of the sine, cosine and natural exponential function for the
succeeding lessons.
sin 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −1
THE LIMIT OF , , and
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

We evaluate the limit of most of the function by using c substitution. However, evaluating
sin 𝑥 1−cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −1
, , and as x approaches 0 by direct substitution will lead to an indeterminate
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
0
form, 0. In our previous discussion, we do not stop with this answer, it must be determined. Let
us find the limit of these functions using the tabular method.
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
Investigate 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
0.9 0.87036 0.9 0.87036
0.5 0.95885 0.5 0.95885
0.1 0.99833 0.1 0.99833
0.01 0.99998 0.01 0.99998
0.001 0.99999 0.001 0.99999

sin 𝑥
The table shows that lim = 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥

1−cos 𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 −1
Now, examine the lim and lim
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥

𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
0.9 0.42043 0.9 0.42043
0.5 0.24483 0.5 0.24483
0.1 0.04996 0.1 0.04996
0.01 0.005 0.01 0.005
0.001 0.0005 0.001 0.0005
 Based on the behaviour of the function, as the value of x approaches 0, the function also
1−cos 𝑥
approaches 0, we conclude that lim = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥

𝒆𝒙 − 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)
0.9 1.62178 0.9 0.65937
0.5 1.29744 0.5 0.78694
0.1 1.05171 0.1 0.95163
0.01 1.00501 0.01 0.99502
0.001 1.0005 0.001 0.9995

The table shows that as the value of x approaches to 0, the function approaches 1 from both
𝒆𝒙 −𝟏
sides of 0. Therefore, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟏.
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

Firm Up

Check your understanding by answering the following activities on page 64-65, Exercise
4A, 4B, and 4C, odd numbers only.

Remember

 The limits of exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions can be evaluated

by c-substitution.
 There are three special limits under transcendental functions:
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 𝟏−𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 −𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟎 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =𝟏
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙

Challenge Yourself

Take the challenge and answer the following activities on pages 64-65, Exercise 4A, 4B,
and 4C, even numbers only.
 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION

Target Skills
After going through the lesson, you are expected to:

 illustrate the continuity of a function at a number.

 determine whether the function is continuous at a number or not.
 illustrate the continuity of a function on an interval.
 determine whether the function is continuous on an interval or not.

Review
Try to graph the following functions
𝑥 2 +2𝑥−15
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−3

Build Your Understanding

Can you connect all the dots using four lines without
lifting your pen?

Show your solution.

 Observe the following graph.

Graph A Graph B

Graph C Graph D

Continuity of a function describe its graph whether it contains a broken part on a given number
or interval. When it is unbroken at a number or interval then the function is said to be
continuous. This means that it has no hole, no gaps, or no jumps.

Graph A is not continuous over (−∞, +∞) because 𝑥 = 0 is not part of the domain. The left
side of 0 approaches negative infinity, while the its right side approaches positive infinity.

Graph B is not continuous over (−∞, +∞) because it is not continuous at 𝑥 = 4. As x

approaches 4 from the left, 𝑓 approaches 5. As x approaches 4 from the right, 𝑓 approaches 3.

Graph C is not continuous over (−∞, +∞). It is not continuous at 𝑥 = 1 because of the hole
that makes the graph discontinuous. However it has a limit as x approaches 1, which is 2.

Graph D is an example of continuous function over (−∞, +∞). It is defined for all real
numbers. It has no hole, jump, or gap.
Checking the continuity of a function does not always need to graph.

Definition of Continuity of a Function at a Number

A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be continuous at c if the following conditions are
satisfied:
i. 𝑓(𝑐) must be defined.
ii. lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.
𝑥→𝑐
iii. 𝑓(𝑐) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑐

Definition of Continuity on an open interval

A function is continuous on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) if it is continuous at each point on
the interval.

If a function is not continuous at 𝒄, then we say that the function is discontinuous at

𝒙 = 𝒄.

Examples:

Check the continuity of the following functions.

3
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥+6 ; 𝑥 = −3
Condition 1: 𝑓(−3) must be defined.
3 3 3
𝑓(−3) = 2(−3)+6 = −6+6 = 0 undefined

Failed to satisfy the first condition, therefore the function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = −3.
3𝑥 + 1 ; 𝑥 ≤ 2
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = {
2𝑥 − 4 ; 𝑥 > 2
Condition 1: 𝑓(2) must be defined.
𝑓(2) = 3(2) + 1 = 𝟕 defined
Condition 2: lim 𝑓(𝑥) exists.
𝑥→2
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 3(2) + 1 = 𝟕 Left Hand Limit
𝑥→2−
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2(2) − 4 = 𝟎 Right Hand Limit
𝑥→2+

Since lim− 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥), therefore limit does not exists.
𝑥→2 𝑥→2

Failed to satisfy condition number 2, therefore the function is discontinuous at 𝑥 = 2.

3𝑥−4
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥+1 ; 𝑥=5
Condition 1:
3(5)−4 11
𝑓(5) = = = 𝟏 defined
2(5)+1 11
Condition 2:
3(5)−4 11
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2(5)+1 = 11 = 𝟏 exists
𝑥→5
 Condition3:
𝑓(5) = lim 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥→5
Since it satisfied the three conditions, therefore the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 5.

CONTINUITY ON A CLOSED INTERVAL

 A function 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] if
i. 𝑓 is continuous on the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏)
ii. lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) and lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑏)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑏

Examples:

Check the continuity of the following function on the given interval.

1
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 ; [0,1]
i. Since the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is a nonzero real number, therefore it is continuous on
the open interval (0,1).
1 1
ii. The lim+ 𝑥 = +∞ 𝑓(0) = 0 is undefined.
𝑥→0
∴ The function is discontinuous on a closed interval [0,1]

3
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +4 ; [−2,2]
i. The domain of the function is all real number. Thus, it is continuous on an the
open interval (-2,2)
3 3 3
ii. lim =8 𝑓(−2) = 8
𝑥→−2+ 𝑥 2 +4
3 3 3
lim =8 𝑓(2) = 8
𝑥→2− 𝑥 2 +4

∴ The function is continuous on the close interval [−2,2]

EXTREME VALUE THEOREM (EVT)

If a function 𝑓 is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 has
both maximum and minimum value.

Given the function below, find the extreme values on the indicated
closed interval.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 9 ; [3,8]
Since the given function is linear, therefore the extreme values can be found at the end
of interval.
𝑓(3) = 5(3) + 9 = 𝟐𝟒 Minimum Value is 24
𝑓(8) = 5(8) + 9 = 𝟒𝟗 Maximum Value is 49
 2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 4 ; [−3,0]
Since the equation is quadratic with a positive leading coefficient, therefore the graph
is a parabola opens upward.
If the abscissa of the vertex lies on the interval, the ordinate of the vertex will be the
minimum value, and the maximum will come from one of the endpoints of the interval.
−𝑏
The abscissa of the vertex can be computed by the formula, 𝑥 = 2𝑎
−𝑏 −4
𝑥= = = −2
2𝑎 2(1)
Solve for the minimum value
𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 + 4(−2) + 4 = 0

Solve for the maximum value using the end points of the interval
𝑓(−3) = (−3)2 + 4(−3) + 4 = 1
𝑓(0) = (0)2 + 4(0) + 4 = 4

Minimum Value is -2 Maximum Value is 4

Firm Up
Test your understanding by answering the activity on page 83, Exercise 5C and 5E odd
numbers.

Remember

 A function is continuous if its graph can be sketched without lifting the pencil off
the paper
 Polynomial Functions are always continuous
𝟓
 Some rational functions are always continuous, example 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐+𝟐
 If any part of the continuity definition fails, then the function is discontinuous at
𝒙=𝒄

Challenge Yourself

Take the challenge and answer the activity on page 83, Exercise 5C and 5E even numbers.
References:

Bittinger, Marvin L., et.al, 2012 Calculus and Its Application 10th edition, Pearson
Educational Inc.

Chua, Simon L., et.al, 2016 Soaring 21st Century Mathematics Grade 11 Basic Calculus.
Quezon City, Philippines. Phoenix Publishing House.

Dela Cruz, Perla S., et.al, 2018 Basic Calculus for Senior High School. Quezon City,
Philippines. C&E Publishing, Inc.

Lim, Yvette F., et.al, 2016 Math for Engaged Learning, Basic Calculus. Quezon City
Philippines. Sibs Publishing House, Inc.

Robles, Susan J., et.al 2016 Math Connections in the Digital Age Basic Calculus. Quezon
City, Philippines. Sibs Publishing House, Inc.