J. Earth Syst. Sci.

(2020)129:36 Ó Indian Academy of Sciences

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12040-019-1307-2 (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789(
).,-volV)

GIS based 3D visualization of subsurface geology

and mapping of probable hydrocarbon locales, part
of Cauvery Basin, India

J SARAVANAVEL* , S M RAMASAMY, K PALANIVEL and C J KUMANAN

Department of Remote Sensing, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India.
*Corresponding author. e-mail: [email protected]

MS received 29 August 2018; revised 27 September 2019; accepted 4 October 2019

The hydrocarbon explorations were mostly guided by conventional geological and geophysical techniques
in the past and modern tools like Remote Sensing, GIS, geophysical tomography came into being only
during the last 2–3 decades. However, advanced virtues available with GIS, which could provide potential
clues in deciphering the deep-seated natural resources were not capitalised deservingly. In this connec-
tion, the present article is the outcome of a study carried out in parts of Cauvery Basin, India for
deciphering the subsurface hydrocarbon locales using Digital Elevation Modelling (DEM) techniques. The
study was accomplished by the following hierarchical steps. (i) In the Brst step, DEM of gravity, litho tops
depth of layered sedimentary rocks of Tertiary period and iso-resistivity data of 50 m depth were gen-
erated using Arc-GIS. (ii) It was followed by mapping the surface expressed circular features and the
faults. (iii) Then, all the above surface and multi-depth data on the geological structures were integrated
using Arc-GIS. (iv) From such an integration, 3D visualised domal structures of probable of hydrocarbon
parentage were identiBed. (v) Finally, these were validated using known oil/gas wells. The study revealed
the occurrence of domal structures with encircling peripheral faults from the subsurface to surface level in
number of places. The spatial correlation of the known oil and gas occurrences with these 3D visualised
domal structures indicated that the peripheral faults and domes have acted respectively as the zones of
mobilisation and accumulation of oil and gas.
Keywords. Multi-depth DEM; 3D visualisation of subsurface geology; identiBcation of hydrocarbon
locales; Cauvery Basin, India.

1. Introduction Mitra and Agarwal 1991; Prabhakar and Zutshi

1993; Rangaraju et al. 1993; Biswas 1998; Abrams
The faster depletion of fossil fuel caused the dire 2005; Raum et al. 2005; Vishnu Vardhan et al.
needs for locating newer hydrocarbon reservoirs 2008; Kalpana et al. 2010). But of late, during the
all over the world. In the past, the conventional past 2–3 decades, many modern tools and tech-
geological mapping, geophysical surveys, drilling nologies like Remote sensing, GIS, geophysical
and geochemical explorations dominantly guided tomography and geochemistry have started Bnd-
the hydrocarbon explorations (Raiverman et al. ing more place in hydrocarbon prospecting (Van
1966; Meijerink 1971; Balakrishnan and Sharma der Meer et al. 2000; Kumar et al. 2003, 2006;
1981; Biswas and Deshpande 1983; Kumar 1983; Banerjee and Mitra 2004; Vishnu Vardhan et al.
36 Page 2 of 12 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36

2004, 2008; Fainstein et al. 2008; Nicolas Pinet 2. Geology and rationale of site selection
et al. 2008; Xuefeng Liu et al. 2008; Zhang et al.
2009, 2011; Arafat Mohmmed et al. 2011; Ana The study area exposes the rocks from oldest
et al. 2012; Karim Allek et al. 2016; Mohammed Precambrian crystalline to youngest Quaternary
Yasin et al. 2016). But, some of the virtues alluvium. The crystalline rocks are overlain by the
available with modern technologies are yet to be successive younger layered rocks viz. clays and
capitalised deservingly. For example, the DEM sandstones of Gondwana Group; limestone, shales
based 3D visualisation of subsurface geological and sandstones of Cretaceous Group; and sand-
structures, which can aid in narrowing down the stones and laterites of Lower Miocene, Mid-
target areas in the vast regions of hydrocarbon dle–Upper Miocene and Pliocene rocks/formations
parentage, has not been attempted. of Tertiary Group (Bgure 1). While, the Precam-
So, the present study was carried out in parts of brian crystalline rocks form the basement, the
Cauvery basin, Tamil Nadu, India (Bgure 1). This overlying layered sequence of rocks from Gond-
study is the demonstration of a new technique of wana to Tertiary periods show easterly dip at low
DEM based 3D visualisation of subsurface geolog- angles of 5°–10° towards the east coast of Tamil
ical structures related to hydrocarbon locales. Nadu. Thus, the rock types exhibit a picture of a

Figure 1. Geology of the study region. The older Precambrian crystalines are overlained by the layered younger sedimentary
rocks with low easterly dip towards the coast providing a scenario of slided pack of cards.
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36 Page 3 of 12 36

slided pack of cards with oldest crystallines/

Gondwanas in the west and younger layered rocks
successively towards easterly. The Quaternary
alluvium covers all these rocks either partly or
fully. So, the study sector covering an area of
7800 km2 was selected in the eastern part of Cau-
very delta, where such layered sequence of rocks
occurs from the surface to subsurface.
The basement crystalline and the overlying
layered sequence of rocks of Gondwana–Tertiary
groups (Bgure 1) thus provided the possibility for
GIS based 3D visualisation of multi-depth geolog-
ical data. The availability of adequate borehole
lithology drilled by the Oil and Natural Gas
Commission, Govt. of India (Anon 1973) and also
the gravity data (Anon 2000) provided further
credentials for selecting the study area for the
present 3D visualisation of subsurface geological
structures of hydrocarbon parentage.

3. Methodology

In the study, Bouger gravity contour data was

collected from seismo-tectonic atlas (Anon 2000)
and geo-referenced. It was given as input in Arc- Figure 2. Digital Elevation Model of Bouger gravity data
GIS and utilising the ‘Contour to Digital Elevation showing the possible domes and faults of the basement
Model tool’ of the ‘3D Analyst Module’, Digital crystalline.
Elevation Model was developed from the gravity
contours (Bgure 2). The gravity DEM generated, tops of these three Tertiary formations/rocks,
thus displayed the gravity contour values in the namely the Lower Miocene, Middle–Upper
form of 3D landscape. Such landscape showed the Miocene and Pliocene.
zones of higher gravity values as elliptical and These litho top values of the three formations
circular domes, peaks and plateaux and the lower encountered in the 55 boreholes were indepen-
gravity values as basins/linear depressions dently entered in Arc-GIS software with longitudes
(Bgure 2). From the gravity DEM, gravity and latitudes respectively as ‘X’ and ‘Y’ and the
domes/peaks/plateaux were interpreted as highs or litho tops of Lower Miocene, Middle–Upper Mio-
structural domes, whereas the linear depressions cene and Pliocene rocks respectively as Z1, Z2 and
and breaks in slopes were mapped as faults of the Z3 values. From these, three independent DEMs
basement rocks (Bgure 2). Similarly, the litholog were generated for these litho tops using ‘Point to
data from the Quaternaries on the top to Tertiaries DEM tool’ of the ‘3D Analyst Module’ of Arc-GIS.
in the bottom, were collected from 55 boreholes In these Digital Elevation Models, the litho tops
(Bgure 3a) drilled by the Oil and Natural Gas occurring at shallow depths with reference to
Commission, Government of India (Anon 1973). ground level have appeared as deeps/basins due to
From these lithologs, the depths at which the lower numerical values. In contrast, the litho tops
contacts between various rocks of Tertiary period occurring at deeper depths have appeared as
were identiBed. For example, the contacts between domes/peaks, again owing to the higher numerical
(i) Lower Miocene and Middle–Upper Miocene, (ii) values. Thus, the DEM exhibited inverse topogra-
Middle–Upper Miocene and Pliocene and (iii) phy of the litho tops. So, in order to have the actual
Pliocene and Quaternaries were identiBed topographic representation of the litho tops of
(Bgure 3b). Such measured depths of the litholog- these formations, these three DEM’s were inverted
ical contacts of various Tertiary rocks were using the provisions available in Arc-GIS
respectively considered as the top surfaces or litho (Bgures 4–6). From these three inverted DEM’s of
36 Page 4 of 12 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36

Figure 3. (a) Locations of boreholes of the study area; (b) (1)

Lower Miocene, (2) Middle–Upper Miocene, (3) Pliocene, and
Figure 4. Digital Elevation Model of the top surface (litho
(4) Quaternary sediments interpreted from lithologs of the
top) of Lower Miocene formation and the interpreted domes
borehole.
(LMD1–LMD4) and faults (LMF1–LMF11).

the litho tops of Lower Miocene, Middle–Upper

Miocene and Pliocene formations/rocks, the ele- anomalies (Bgure 8). Finally, all these domes and
vated circular and elliptical zones were marked as faults interpreted from basement to top, from
domes and the linear depressions as faults. (i) gravity data, (ii) litho top data of three Tertiary
Similarly, the apparent resistivity values col- formations, (iii) resistivity data of 50 m depth and
lected for 50 m depth from 250 geophysical resis- (iv) ring/circular features and active faults inter-
tivity depth probe points (Bgure 7) were given as preted at the surface level from IRS FCC satellite
inputs in Arc-GIS and the resistivity DEM was data were integrated using Arc-GIS (Bgure 9).
generated. In this case, ‘Contour to DEM tool’ of From such integration, the zones of coincidence of
Arc-GIS was used again to prepare the DEM, as domes and the lineaments/faults were mapped
was done in the case of gravity data. In this case, respectively as growth domes and growth faults.
the DEM has displayed the zones of low resistivity These growth features were three dimensionally
values as basins/linear depressions and that of the visualized and elucidated for their hydrocarbon
higher values as domes/peaks, respectively, due to potentials using the known oil/gas wells (Bgures 10
the lower and higher apparent resistivity values. and 11).
So, the DEM was kept as such without inverting it.
From such resistivity DEM, the zones of resistivity 4. 3D visualization of subsurface geology
peaks and highs were marked as domes and the
linear depressions/valleys as faults at 50 m depth 4.1 Gravity DEM and geological structures
(Bgure 7). Then the enlarged formats of IRS FCC
satellite data were interpreted and ring/circular The Bouger gravity values of the study area varied
features and the lineaments were interpreted to from +10 mgal to 13 mgal. The Arc-GIS has
start with and the active faults were subsequently considered the 13 mgal as the lowest and
interpreted from drainage and geomorphic +10 mgal as the highest values and it generated
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36 Page 5 of 12 36

Figure 5. Digital Elevation Model of the top surface (litho Figure 6. Digital Elevation Model of the top surface (litho
top) of Middle–Upper Miocene formation and the interpreted top) of Pliocene formation and the interpreted domes
domes (MUMD1–MUMD4) and faults (MUMF1–MUMF8). (PD1–PD5) and faults (PF1–PF11).

DEM keeping this range at 23 levels in this case. were interpreted (Bgure 5). In the same way, from the
From gravity DEM, three circular and elliptical Pliocene litho top DEM, Bve Pliocene domes
domes were interpreted as gravity/basement (PD1–PD5) and 11 Pliocene faults (PF1–PF11) were
domes (BD1–BD3) and six linear gravity depres- interpreted (Bgure 6).
sions and breaks in slopes as gravity faults
(BF1–BF6, Bgure 3). 4.3 Resistivity DEM and geological structures

From the resistivity DEM of 50 m depth, 12

4.2 Litho top DEM and geological structures
resistivity domes (RD1–RD12) and 18 resistivity
The inverted DEM generated for the litho tops of faults (RF1–RF18) were interpreted (Bgure 7). In
Lower Miocene, Middle–Upper Miocene and Pliocene this case, again, the zones of resistivity peaks,
formations of the Tertiary group (Bgure 3) were elliptical highs and plateaux were interpreted as
interpreted and independent GIS databases were resistivity domes and breaks in slopes and well
generated showing the domes and the faults seen on deBned linear resistivity lows as resistivity faults.
the top surfaces of these three Tertiary formations
(Bgures 4–6). From Lower Miocene litho top DEM, 4.4 Surface domes and faults
four circular and elliptical peaks and plateaux were
interpreted and termed as LMD1–LMD4 (Lower Various earlier workers have used different drai-
Miocene domes). Similarly, the eleven linear depres- nage anomalies like annular, curvilinear and radial
sions and breaks in slopes were interpreted as centripetal drainages to decipher and map the
LMF1–LMF11 (Lower Miocene faults) (Bgure 4). surBcial and subsurface domal structures using
From the Middle–Upper Miocene litho top DEM, topographic data, aerial photographs and satellite
four Middle–Upper Miocene domes data (Whitehouse 1941; King 1942; Isachsen 1975;
(MUMD1–MUMD4) and faults (MUMF1–MUMF4) Twidale 2004; Stewart 2015). Similarly, the linear
36 Page 6 of 12 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36

deCections in nine locations similar to one shown in

Bgure 8(c) and these were interpreted as deCected
drainages and the lineaments that have caused
such deCections were interpreted as active faults.
The river Coleroon, north of Sirkazhi (Bgure 8d)
and many such distributaries of Cauvery river
showed eyed drainages in the study area. From it,
the lineaments bisecting such eyed drainages were
interpreted as active faults, because these faults
only have caused land subsidence and the resul-
tant split up of the channels as observed by Smith
et al. (1997) in Panhandle region of Botswana.
Ramasamy and Karthikeyan (1998), Ramasamy
and Kumanan (2000) and Ramasamy et al. (2011)
have also made similar observations from different
parts of South India. Further, the eyed drainage in
river Coleroon in the area north of Sirkazhi
(Bgure 8d) showed ‘S’ shaped drag. This indicates
sinistral movements along a N–S lineament/fault
which is bisecting it. Whereas, from the broad ‘Z’
shaped drag observed in the eyed drainage in
Coleroon river near Thanjavur, dextral movement
was inferred along the bisecting of NW–SE linea-
ment/fault (Bgure 8e). The bundles of distribu-
tary channels of Cauvery river seen to the west of
Kumbakonam (Bgure 8f) showed acute com-
pressed meandering with ‘S’ shaped drags within
two N–S faults. This led to the inference of sinistral
Figure 7. Digital Elevation Model of the geophysical resistiv-
couple along the two N–S faults. Whereas the large
ity values of 50 m depth and interpreted resistivity domes
(RD1–RD12) and faults (RF1–RF18). number of ‘Z’ shaped compressed meanders seen in
IRS satellite data in an area of 150 km2 around
Nannilam, and conBned within two NW–SE
and deCected drainages, eyed drainages, trending sub-parallel lineaments, suggest the
compressed meanders with ‘Z’ and ‘S’ shaped drags possible dextral movements along these two lin-
were used as guides to detect active faults by many eaments/faults (Bgure 8g). Thus, circular features
researchers (Thornbury 1985; Smith et al. 1997; and active faults were interpreted from various
Valdiya 2001; Twidale 2004; Jain and Sinha 2005; drainage anomalies observed in the satellite data
Ramasamy 2006; Ramasamy et al. 2006, 2011; (Bgure 8).
Mrinalinee Devi et al. 2011). Further, several
researchers have observed that the circular fea-
tures seen in satellite images and aerial pho- 4.5 3D Visualisation of subsurface geological
tographs at the surface have coincided with structures
subsurface oil bearing structures in parts of Cau-
very delta (Babu 1975; Mitra and Agarwal 1991; All such domes and faults interpreted at the
Ramasamy et al. 2006). surface and multiple depths from (i) gravity, (ii)
So, interpretations were made using the topo- litho tops of Lower Miocene, (iii) Middle–Upper
graphic sheets and IRS satellite data to map specif- Miocene and (iv) Pliocene formations, (v) apparent
ically the circular features and the lineaments/ resistivity of 50 m depth, and (vi) satellite imagery
active faults in the study area from various photo data were integrated using the overlay function of
recognition elements and drainage anomalies. Based Arc-GIS and an integrated map was prepared
on annular drainages seen in the area, 18 circular showing all the multi-depth tectonic features. Such
features were interpreted as shown in Bgure 8(a and integration showed that, the domes and faults
b). The drainages have also exhibited major abrupt inferred at multiple depths and in different layered
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36 Page 7 of 12 36

Figure 8. Surface domes and faults, Cauvery delta. IRS satellite FCC images showing annular and curvilinear drainages and
circular features (a, b), deCected Coleroon river and NE–SW/NNE–SSW lineaments (c), eyed drainages with ‘S’ shaped drags
and N–S sinistral faults (d), eyed drainage with ‘Z’ shaped drags and NW–SE dextral fault (e), ‘S’ shaped compressed drainages
and N–S sinistral faults (f), ‘Z’ shaped compressed drainages and NW–SE dextral faults (g).

sedimentary formations have coincided with each at 50 m depth resistivity data and the
other in several parts of the study area and thus Quaternaries.
formed clusters in the integrated map (Bgure 9). Such multi-depth data stacked for three
Overall, seven such clusters of multi-depth domes dimensionally visualising the structures for cluster
and faults were found in the study area (A–G, A is shown in Bgure 11 as example. It showed that
Bgure 9). In such clusters, domes were found in the in the older Tertiary rocks of Lower Miocene age,
centre and faults were encircling the domes along the dome was wider and the same has gradually
their peripheries. These seven clusters of domes become smaller in the successive overlying younger
and the corresponding faults were studied indi- rocks of Middle–Upper Miocene and Pliocene age,
vidually. The cluster A and C, studied thus, are and in the top Quaternary formations (Bgure 11).
shown respectively in Bgure 10(a and b), as Similarly, the gaps in between the peripheral faults
example. These two clusters revealed that in both were wider in the older basement crystalline and
cases, the domes and peripheral faults were found gradually reduced in the upper younger rock types
in almost all depths from the lower older to the (Bgures 10 and 11). Though this pattern is gener-
upper younger rock types viz. crystalline basement, ally seen in the area, in some clusters, the cir-
Lower Miocene, Middle–Upper Miocene, Pliocene, cumferences of the domes in the lower older rock
36 Page 8 of 12 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36

Figure 9. Multi-depth and surface tectonic features.

types were less and the upper younger rock types clusters of domes and faults might have been
were more, thus appearing like mushrooms. Fur- formed due to the Post Tertiary/Quaternary
ther, the peripheral faults also correspondingly deformations. Ramsay (1967) observed that domes
varied in their gaps according to the morphology of and basins are possible in a single deformation
the domes. itself. So, such post Tertiary or Quaternary defor-
mation would have caused such domes and basins.
These types of tectonic features were found by
5. Discussions several earlier workers in parts of South India,
including the Cauvery delta (Raiverman et al.
In the study, clusters of multi-depth domes and 1966; Balakrishnan and Sharma 1981; Kumar 1983;
faults were found in seven locations in the study Mitra and Agarwal 1991; Rangaraju et al. 1993;
area (Bgure 9). The 3D visualisation of these Sahu et al. 1995). While Subrahmanya (1996)
structures (Bgures 10 and 11) shows that the inferred the possibility of active deformation in
domes and the faults continue from the Precam- South India, Ramasamy (2006) developed a post-
brian basement, right through the overlying collision tectonic model for the whole of the Indian
sequence of Tertiary rocks and the Quaternaries at plate. In the said model, he demonstrated the fol-
the surface (Bgures 2–10). This indicates that the lowing: (i) the northerly directed compressive
J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36 Page 9 of 12 36

Figure 10. (a, b) Multi-depth domes and faults in clusters A and C.

Such adjustments are causing a series of east-west

trending arches and complementary deeps and N–S
extensional, NE–SW sinistral and NW–SE dextral
faults in the whole of Indian plate. Ramasamy and
Balaji (1996) observed that clusters of Precam-
brian domes and basins of parts of Tamil Nadu are
conBned within two sub-parallel sets of NE–SW
and NW–SE transverse fault systems. From this,
they have inferred that these domes and basins
were formed due to the movements along these
faults and called these domes and basins as faults
followed folds.
In the present study area also, the clusters of
domes are conBned within NE–SW sinistral and
NW–SE dextral faults related to post-collision
tectonics demonstrated by Ramasamy (2006).
These clusters of domes might have been formed
due to the transverse movements along the above
sets of faults as faults followed folds related to post-
collision tectonic phenomenon. The continuity of
Figure 11. Three dimensionally visualized conceptual model the peripheral faults encircling the domes from
on surface to subsurface domes and faults.
Precambrian basement up to the top most Qua-
ternaries shows that these faults might have acted
force, which has originally drifted the Indian plate as gliding surfaces. Along these surfaces, the rocks
towards northerly, made it to collide with Eurasian might have moved causing these clusters of domes.
plate and resulted the rise of Himalayan Moun- Further, the mushroom type of morphology of the
tains, is still active. (ii) Such active force is pushing domes in some of the clusters conBrms not only the
the Indian plate towards northerly even today. (iii) gliding but also the phenomenon of diaphirism.
But, since the Himalayas obstructs from the north, Again, since the domes of the younger rock types
this force is adjusted within the Indian Plate. (iv) are coinciding with the basement domes of the
36 Page 10 of 12 J. Earth Syst. Sci. (2020)129:36

Precambrian period in some places, these basement provided the stimuli for the present study. The
domes might have provided positive topography, authors also acknowledge the Bharathidasan
over which the domes of the younger rock types University for facilitating the work.
have formed during the post-collision tectonics of
the Quaternary period.
The super position of the spatial data showing References
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