DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGIES IN THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS 6. Revised Structural Design - If the code

AND LOADS requirements are not satisfied, then the member sizes
are revised, and phases 3 through 5 are repeated
Structural analysis is the prediction of the until all the safety and serviceability requirements are
performance of a given structure under prescribed satisfied.
loads and/or other external effects, such as support
movements and temperature changes.

Structural engineering is the science and art of Classification of Structures

planning, designing, and constructing safe and
economical structures that will serve their intended • Tension Structures
purposes.
The members of tension structures are subjected to
Role of Structural Analysis in Structural Engineering pure tension under the action of external loads.
Projects Because the tensile stress is distributed uniformly
over the cross-sectional areas of members, the
1. Planning Phase - The planning phase usually material of such a structure is utilized in the most
involves the establishment of the functional efficient manner.
requirements of the proposed structure, the general
layout and dimensions of the structure, consideration a. Cables
of the possible types of structures (e.g., rigid frame or
b. vertical rods used as hangers (for example, to
truss) that may be feasible and the types of materials
support balconies or tanks)
to be used (e.g., structural steel or reinforced
concrete). c. membrane structures such as tents.

2. Preliminary Structural - Design In the preliminary

structural design phase, the sizes of the various
members of the structural system selected in the • Compression Structures
planning phase are estimated based on approximate
Compression structures develop mainly compressive
analysis, past experience, and code requirements.
stresses under the action of external loads.
3. Estimation of Loads - Estimation of loads involves Susceptible to buckling or instability, the possibility of
determination of all the loads that can be expected to such a failure should be considered in their designs; if
act on the structure. necessary, adequate bracing must be provided to
avoid such failures.
4. Structural Analysis - In structural analysis, the
values of the loads are used to carry out an analysis a. columns - straight members subjected to axially
of the structure in order to determine the stresses or compressive loads
stress resultants in the members and the deflections
b. arches - a curved structure, with a shape similar to
at various points of the structure.
that of an inverted cable. Frequently used to support
5. Safety and Serviceability - Checks The results of bridges and long-span roofs. Arches develop mainly
the analysis are used to determine whether or not the compressive stresses when subjected to loads and
structure satisfies the safety and serviceability are usually designed so that they will develop only
requirements of the design codes. compression under a major design loading. However,
because arches are rigid and cannot change their
shapes as can cables, other loading conditions
DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGIES IN THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1

usually produce secondary bending and shear Plane structure - all the members of a structure as
stresses in these structures, which, if significant, well as the applied loads lie in a single plane
should be considered in their designs.
Space structures - are analyzed as three-
beam-column - a straight member that is subjected dimensional bodies subjected to three-dimensional
to lateral loads and/or moments in addition to axial force systems.
loads
Line Diagram - The analytical model of the two- or
• Trusses are composed of straight members three-dimensional body selected for analysis. On this
connected at their ends by hinged connections to diagram, each member of the structure is represented
form a stable configuration by a line coinciding with its centroidal axis.
• Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete
Connections
shear walls, are used in multistory buildings to
reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and a. Rigid connection or joint prevents relative
earthquake excitations. Shear structures develop translations and rotations of the member ends
mainly inplane shear, with relatively small connected to it; that is, all member ends connected to
bending stresses under the action of external a rigid joint have the same translation and rotation.
loads.
• Bending structures develop mainly bending b. Hinged connection or joint prevents only relative
stresses under the action of external loads. In translations of member ends connected to it; that is,
some structures, the shear stresses associated all member ends connected to a hinged joint have the
with the changes in bending moments may also same translation but may have di¤erent rotations.
be significant and should be considered in their
c. Perfectly rigid connections and the perfectly
designs.
flexible frictionless hinges used in the analysis are
a. beam is a straight member that is loaded merely idealizations of the actual connections, which
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis are seldom perfectly rigid or perfectly flexible

b. Rigid frames are composed of straight members

connected together either by rigid (moment-resisting)
LOADS ON STRUCTURES
connections or by hinged connections to form stable
configurations. Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes
and fixed positions that act permanently on the
c. framed structure is frequently used to refer to any
structure. Such loads consist of the weights
structure composed of straight members, including a
permanently attached to the structural system of the
truss.
structural system itself and of all other material and
Analytical Models equipment.

An analytical model is a simplified representation, or Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or
an ideal, of a real structure for the purpose of positions caused by the use of the structure.
analysis. The objective of the model is to simplify the
analysis of a complicated structure.
DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGIES IN THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1

Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around equations of equilibrium of the entire structure. The
the structure. internal forces are also among the unknowns in the
analysis and are determined by applying the
Earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the equations of equilibrium to the individual members or
earth’s surface. Although the ground surface moves portions of the structure.
in both horizontal and vertical directions during an
earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component Supports are used to attach structures to the ground
of ground motion is usually small and does not have a or other bodies, thereby restricting their movements
significant erect on most structures. under the action of applied loads

A structure is considered to be internally stable, or

rigid, if it maintains its shape and remains a rigid body
EQUILIBRIUM AND SUPPORT REACTIONS when detached from the supports. Conversely, a
A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, structure is termed internally unstable (or non-rigid) if
it cannot maintain its shape and may undergo large
initially at rest, it remains at rest when subjected to a
displacements under small disturbances when not
system of forces and couples. If a structure is in
equilibrium, then all its members and parts are also in supported externally.
equilibrium. An internally stable structure is considered to be
External forces are the actions of other bodies on statically determinate externally if all its support
the structure under consideration. reactions can be determined by solving the equations
of equilibrium.
Applied forces, usually referred to as loads (e.g., live
loads and wind loads), have a tendency to move the Statically indeterminate externally - If a structure is
structure and are usually known in the analysis. supported by more than three reactions, then all the
reactions cannot be determined from the three
Reaction forces, or reactions, are the forces exerted equations of equilibrium.
by supports on the structure and have a tendency to
prevent its motion and keep it in equilibrium. The Statically unstable externally - If a structure is
reactions are usually among the unknowns to be supported by fewer than three support reactions, the
determined by the analysis. reactions are not sufficient to prevent all possible
movements of the structure in its plane. Such a
The state of equilibrium or motion of the structure as structure cannot remain in equilibrium under a
a whole is governed solely by the external forces general system of loads.
acting on it.
Principle of superposition
Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted
on a member or portion of the structure by the rest of The principle of superposition simply states that on a
the structure. These forces develop within the linear elastic structure, the combined effect of several
structure and hold the various portions of it together. loads acting simultaneously is equal to the algebraic
sum of the effects of each load acting individually.
The internal forces always occur in equal but opposite
pairs, because each member or portion exerts back PLANE AND SPACE TRUSSES
on the rest of the structure the same forces acting
upon it but in opposite directions, according to A truss is an assemblage of straight members
Newton’s third law. Because the internal forces connected at their ends by flexible connections to
cancel each other, they do not appear in the form a rigid configuration
DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGIES IN THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1

If all the members of a truss and the applied loads lie A tensile member axial force is always indicated on
in a single plane, the truss is called a plane truss. the joint by an arrow pulling away on the joint, and a
compressive member axial force is always indicated
Space trusses, are analyzed as three-dimensional by an arrow pushing toward the joint.
bodies subjected to three-dimensional force systems.
Identification of Zero-Force Members
Assumptions for Analysis of Trusses
1. If only two non-collinear members are connected to
1. All members are connected only at their ends by a joint that has no external loads or reactions applied
frictionless hinges in plane trusses and by frictionless to it, then the force in both members is zero.
ball-and-socket joints in space trusses.
2. If three members, two of which are collinear, are
2. All loads and support reactions are applied only at connected to a joint that has no external loads or
the joints. reactions applied to it, then the force in the member
3. The centroidal axis of each member coincides with that is not collinear is zero.
the line connecting the centers of the adjacent joints. The method of sections involves cutting the truss
into two portions by passing an imaginary section
through the members whose forces are desired. The
Such member axial forces determined from the desired member forces are then determined by
analysis of an ideal truss are called the primary considering the equilibrium of one of the two portions
forces. of the truss. Thus, in general, sections should be
chosen that do not pass through more than three
The bending moments and shear and axial forces members with unknown forces.
caused by these and other deviations from the
aforementioned idealized conditions are commonly Space trusses, because of their shape, arrangement
referred to as secondary forces. of members, or applied loading, cannot be subdivided
into plane trusses for the purposes of analysis and
Compound trusses are constructed by connecting must, therefore, be analyzed as three-dimensional
two or more simple trusses to form a single rigid structures subjected to three-dimensional force
body. systems.
We consider a truss to be statically determinate if Tetrahedron truss may be considered as the basic
the forces in all its members, as well as all the space truss element.
external reactions, can be determined by using the
equations of equilibrium. BEAMS AND FRAMES: SHEAR AND BENDING
MOMENT
In the method of joints, the axial forces in the
members of a statically determinate truss are The internal axial force Q at any section of a beam is
determined by considering the equilibrium of its joints. equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the
The analysis of the truss by the method of joints is algebraic sum (resultant) of the components in the
started by selecting a joint that has two or fewer direction parallel to the axis of the beam of all the
unknown forces (which must not be collinear) acting external loads and support reactions acting on either
on it. side of the section under consideration.

The shear S at any section of a beam is equal in

magnitude but opposite in direction to the algebraic
DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGIES IN THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1

sum (resultant) of the components in the direction An influence line is a graph of a response function of
perpendicular to the axis of the beam of all the a structure as a function of the position of a
external loads and support reactions acting on either downward unit load moving across the structure.
side of the section under consideration.
Muller-Breslau’s Principle
The bending moment M at any section of a beam is
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the The influence line for a force (or moment) response
algebraic sum of the moments about (the centroid of function is given by the deflected shape of the
the cross section of the beam at) the section under released structure obtained by removing the restraint
consideration of all the external loads and support corresponding to the response function from the
reactions acting on either side of the section. original structure and by giving the released structure
a unit displacement (or rotation) at the location and in
The internal axial force Q is considered to be positive the direction of the response function, so that only the
when the external forces acting on the member response function and the unit load perform external
produce tension or have the tendency to pull the work.
member apart at the section.
This principle is valid only for the influence lines for
The shear S is considered to be positive when the response functions involving forces and moments
external forces tend to push the portion of the (e.g., reactions, shears, bending moments, or forces
member on the left of the section upward with respect in truss members), and it does not apply to the
to the portion on the right of the section. influence lines for deflections.

The bending moment M is considered to be positive Qualitative Influence Lines - A diagram showing the
when the external forces and couples tend to bend general shape of an influence line without the
the beam concave upward, causing compression in numerical values of its ordinates
the upper fibers and tension in the lower fibers of the
beam at the section. The deflected shape (elastic curve) of a structure
due to a unit load applied at a point represents the
A qualitative deflected shape (elastic curve) of a influence line for deflection at the point where the unit
structure is simply a rough (usually exaggerated) load is applied.
sketch of the neutral surface of the structure, in the
deformed position, under the action of a given loading DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS: GEOMETRIC
condition. METHODS

A frame is considered to be statically determinate if The direct integration method essentially involves
the bending moments, shears, and axial forces in all writing the expression for M=EI (bending moment
its members, as well as all the external reactions, can divided by flexural rigidity of the beam) in terms of the
be determined by using the equations of equilibrium distance x along the axis of the beam and integrating
and condition this expression successively to obtain equations for
the slope and deflection of the elastic curve.
INFLUENCE LINES
The moment-area method for computing slopes and
An important concept used in the analysis of deflections of beams was developed by Charles E.
structures subjected to variable loads is that of the Greene in 1873. The method is based on two
influence lines, initially introduced by E. Winkler in theorems, called the moment-area theorems, relating
1867 the geometry of the elastic curve of a beam to its
M=EI diagram, which is constructed by dividing the
DEFINITION AND TERMINOLOGIES IN THEORY OF STRUCTURES 1

ordinates of the bending moment diagram by the Principle of virtual work

flexural rigidity EI. The method utilizes graphical
interpretations of integrals involved in the solution of The principle of virtual work, which was introduced by
the deflection differential equation. John Bernoulli in 1717, provides a powerful analytical
tool for many problems of structural mechanics. In
First moment-area theorem - The change in slope this section, we study two formulations of this
between the tangents to the elastic curve at any two principle, namely, the principle of virtual
points is equal to the area under the M/EI diagram displacements for rigid bodies and the principle of
between the two points, provided that the elastic virtual forces for deformable bodies. The latter
curve is continuous between the two points. formulation is used in the following sections to
develop the method of virtual work, which is
Second moment-area theorem - The tangential considered to be one of the most general methods for
deviation in the direction perpendicular to the determining deflections of structures.
undeformed axis of the beam of a point on the elastic
curve from the tangent to the elastic curve at another Principle of Virtual Displacements for Rigid
point is equal to the moment of the area under the Bodies
M/EI diagram between the two points about the point
at which the deviation is desired, provided that the The principle of virtual displacements for rigid bodies
elastic curve is continuous between the two points. can be stated as follows:

A conjugate beam is a fictitious beam of the same If a rigid body is in equilibrium under a system of
length as the corresponding real beam; but it is forces and if it is subjected to any small virtual rigid-
externally supported and internally connected such body displacement, the virtual work done by the
that, if the conjugate beam is loaded with the M/EI external forces is zero.
diagram of the real beam, the shear and bending
The term virtual simply means imaginary, not real.
moment at any point on the conjugate beam are
equal, respectively, to the slope and deflection at the Principle of Virtual Forces for Deformable Bodies
corresponding point on the real beam. The conjugate-
beam method essentially involves determining the The principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies
slopes and deflections of beams by computing the can be stated as follows:
shears and bending moments in the corresponding
If a deformable structure is in equilibrium under a
conjugate beams.
virtual system of forces (and couples) and if it is
DEFLECTIONS OF TRUSSES, BEAMS, AND subjected to any small real deformation consistent
FRAMES: WORK–ENERGY METHODS with the support and continuity conditions of the
structure, then the virtual external work done by the
The work done by a force acting on a structure is virtual external forces (and couples) acting through
simply defined as the force times the displacement of the real external displacements (and rotations) is
its point of application in the direction of the force. equal to the virtual internal work done by the virtual
Work is considered to be positive when the force and internal forces (and couples) acting through the real
the displacement in the direction of the force have the internal displacements (and rotations). In this
same sense and negative when the force and the statement, the term virtual is associated with the
displacement have opposite sense. forces to indicate that the force system is arbitrary
and does not depend on the action causing the real
deformation.