Computing Fundamentals 2

Lecture 5
Combinatorial Analysis

Lecturer: Patrick Browne

http://www.comp.dit.ie/pbrowne/
Based on Chapter 16.
A Logical approach to Discrete Math
By David Gries and Fred B. Schneider
 Combinatorial Analysis
• Counting
• Permutations (in EXCEL =PERMUT(6,2))
• Combinations (in EXCEL =COMBIN(6,2))
• The Pigeonhole Principle
• Examples
 Permutation Combination
• Fruit salad is a combination of apples,
grapes and bananas We don't care what
order the fruits are in.

• The permutation that will open the lock is

942, we do care about the order.
 Combinatorial Analysis
• Combinatorial analysis deals with
permutations of a set or bag and also
combinations of a set, which lead to
binomial coefficients and the Binomial
Theorem.
• Cardinality of set is denoted as |A|
• Example if A = {1,3,6} then |A|=3
 Rules of Counting
• Rule of sums (addition): The size of the
union on n finite pair wise disjoint sets is
the sum of their sizes. We will look at the
non-disjoin case later.
• Rule of product (multiplication): The size of
the cross product of n sets is the product
of their sizes .
• Rule of difference: The size of a set with a
subset removed is the size of the set
minus the size of the subset.
 Rules of Counting

• Difference Rule
• If B ⊆ A or A ⋂ B then |A - B| is |A| - |B|

A B
As a logical statement
 Addition Principle or Counting
• For any two sets A and B,
|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| – |A ∩ B|
If we shade each of A and B once, then we
shade A ∩ B twice

• If A and B are disjoint then, no overlap

|A ∪ B| = |A| + |B|
 Rules of Counting

• Inclusion–exclusion principle
 Rules of Counting

• Inclusion–exclusion principle

• The numbers > 1 represents duplicates.

 Product Rule Example
• If each license plate contains 3 letters and
2 digits. How many unique licenses could
there be?
• Using the rule of products.
• 26 26 26 10 10 = 1,757,600
Multiplication Principle for Counting
• In general, if n operations O1, O2…On are performed in
order, with possible number of outcomes N1, N2…Nn,
respectively, then there are N1,× N2 ... ×Nn,
possible combined outcomes of the operations
performed in the given order.
Multiplication Principle for Counting
 Permutation of a set
• A permutation of a set of elements is a linear
ordering (or sequence) of the elements e.g.
• Consider set S = {1,4,5} with two distinct
permutations:
– Permutation A : 1, 4, 5
– Permutation B : 1, 5, 4
• An anagram is a permutation of words.
• There are n (n – 1) (n - 2) .. 1
permutations of a set of n elements.
• This is called factorial n, written n!
 Calculating Factorial
module FACT {
protecting(INT) -- import
-- Two notations for factorial
op _! : Int -> Int {prec 10}
op fact : Int -> Int
var N : Int
-- Notation 1
eq 0 ! = 1 .
ceq N ! = N * (N - 1) ! if N > 0 .
-- Notation 2
eq fact(0) = 1 .
ceq fact(N) = N * fact(N - 1) if N > 0 .
}
open FACT .
red 4 ! .
red fact(4) .
 Permutation of a set
• Sometimes we want a permutation of size
r from a set of size n.
• (16.4) P(n,r) = n!/(n-r)!
• The number of 2 permutations of BYTE is
• P(4,2) = 4!/(4-2)! = 4 3 = 12
• BY,BT,BE,YB,YT,YE,TB,TY,TE,EB,EY,ET
• P(n,0) = 1
• P(n,n-1) = P(n,n) = n!
• P(n,1) = n
 Calculating Permutations and
Combinations of sets
mod CALC{
pr(FACT)

op permCalc : Int Int -> Int

op combCalc : Int Int -> Int

vars N R : Int
-- Compute permutation where order matters abc =/= bac
-- A permutation is an ordered combination.
-- perm calculates how many ways R items can be selected from N items
eq permCalc(N , R) = fact(N) quo fact(N - R) .

-- combination of N things taking R at a time

-- Note extra term in divisor.
eq combCalc(N , R) = fact(N) quo (fact(N - R) * fact(R)) .}
open CALC
-- Permutation from 10 items taking 7 at a time
red permCalc(10,7) . – gives 604800
-- Combination from 10 items taking 7 at a time
red combCalc(10,7) . – gives 120
Permutation with repetition of a set
• An r-permutations is a permutation that allows
repetition in the r-permutation. Here are all the
2-permutation of the letters in SON:
SS,SO,SN,OS,OO,ON,NS,NO,NN.
• Given a set of size n, in constructing an
r-permutation with repetition, for each element
we have n choices.
• (16.6) The number of r permutations with
repetition of a set of size n is nr, repetition is
allowed in the r-permutation but not in the
original set.
 Permutation of a bag
• A bag may have duplicate elements.
• Transposition of equal (or duplicate) elements in
a permutation does not yield a different
permutation e.g. AA=AA.
• Hence, there will be fewer permutations of a bag
than a set of the same size. The permutations
on the set {S,O,N} and the bag M,O,M are:
• {S,O,N} = SON,SNO,OSN,ONS,NSO,NOS size=6
• M,O,M = MOM,MMO,OMM size=3
 Permutation of a bag:
General Rule
• (16.7) The number of permutations of
a bag of size n with k distinct
elements occurring n1, n2, n3,.. nk
times is:
n!
n 1! n 2! n3! ... n k!
 CafeOBJ permutation of a Set &
Bag
• Calc. size of {S,O,N} example
• red permCalc(3,3) gives 6
• Calc. size of MOM example
red fact(3) quo (fact(1) * fact(2)) .
• O occurs once, M twice, gives 3
 Permutation of a bag
• Consider the permutation of the 11 letters of
MISSISSIPPI. M occurs 1 time, I occurs 4 times,
S occurs 4 times, and P occurs 2 times.

red fact(11) quo

(fact(1) * fact(2) * fact(4) * fact(4)) .
Note 0!=1
 Permutation of a bag
• O a single permutation
• M1,O, M2 , label the two copies of M.
• We could distinguish the Ms.
M1M2O,M2M1O,M1OM2,M2OM1,OM1M2,OM2M1,
 Combinations of a Set
• An r-combination of a set is a subset of
size r. A permutation is a sequence while
a combination is a set.
 2-Permutations & 2-Combinations
of a Set
• The 2-permutations (seq.) of SOHN is:
SO,SH,SN,OH,ON,OS,HN,HS,HO,NS,NO,NH

• The 2-combinations (set) of SOHN is:

{S,O},{S,H},{S,N},{O,H},{O,N},{H,N}
 Combinations of a Set
• The binomial coefficient, “n choose r” is written
 Pascal’s Triangle

Beginning with row 0 and place 0, the number 20 appears in row 6, place 3. In
CafeOBJ we can check this.
red combCalc(6,3) . – gives 20
red combCalc(7,4) . – gives 35
red combCalc(7,3) . – gives 35
Special Combinations of a Set

Examples in CafeOBJ
red combCalc(5,0) . -- 1
red combCalc(2,0) . -- 1
red combCalc(5,5) . -- 1
red combCalc(5,1) . -- 5
red combCalc(5,4) . -- 5

Generally we label N choose R as:

Calculating factorial and division

We can divide above and below by 6!,

which simplifies the calculation.
Calculating "n choose k".

Simplifying
 Combinations of a Set
• (16.10) The number of r-combinations of n
elements is

• A student has to answer 6 out of 9 questions on

an exam. How many ways can this be done?
Combinations with repetitions of a
Set
• An r-combination with repetitions of a set S
of size n is a bag of size r all of whose
elements are in S. An r-combination of a
set is a subset of that set;
• An r-combination with repetition of a set
is a bag, since its elements need not be
distinct.
 Combinations with repetitions of a
Set
• For example, there are 6 2-combinations
with repetition of SON (bags):
• S,O , S,N , O,N , S,S , O,O ,
N,N
• On the other hand, there are 9
2-permutations with repetition are the
sequences:
• <S,S>,<S,O>,<S,N>,<O,S>,<O,O>,<O,N>,<N,S>,<N,O>,<N,N>
Note SO and OS are
distinct permutations
Combinations with repetitions of a
Set
• (16.12) The number of r-combinations with
repetition of a set of size n is:

Combination
Repetitions
size
size
Combinations with repetitions of a
Set
• Suppose 7 people each gets either a
burger, a cheese burger, or fish (3
choices). How many different orders are
possible? The answer is the number of
7-combinations with repetition of a set of 3
elements.
 Rule of sum and product
• A class has 55 boys and 56 girls. What is
the total number of students in the class,
and how many different possible boy girl
pairs are there?
• Two disjoint sets, boys and girls, rule of
sum implies 55+56=111 students. The
rule of product says 55 56 = 3080.
 Example
• Two bags. One bag contains a red ball
and a black ball (2). A second bag
contains a red ball, a green ball, and a
blue ball (3). A person randomly picks first
a bag and then a ball. In what fraction of
cases will a red ball be selected?
• #PossibleSelections = 2+3 = 5
• #PossibleRed = 2
• Fraction of red picked = 2/5
 Permutations of a bag
• A coin is tossed 5 times, landing Head or
Tails to form an outcome. One possible
outcome is HHTTT.
• Are we choosing from a set or a bag?
• Is the permutation a set or a sequence?
• How many possible outcomes are there?
• How many outcomes have one Head?
• How many outcomes contain at most one
Head?
 Permutations of a bag
How many possible outcomes are there?
Rule of product giving 25=32 possible
outcomes.
 Permutations of a bag
How many outcomes have one Head?
Permutation of a bag with 1 Head and four Tails.
 Permutations of a bag
• How many outcomes contain at most one
Head?
• One Head

• No Heads

• At most one Head 1 + 5 = 6 (rule of sums)

• Note 0!=1
 Combinations of Set
• A chairman has to select a committee of 5 from
a facility of 25. How many possibilities are
there?

• How many possibilities are there if the chairman

should be on the committee?
The Pigeonhole Principle
 The Pigeonhole Principle
• (16.43) If more than n pigeons are placed in n
holes, at least one hole will contain more than
one pigeon.
• With more than n pigeons in n holes the average
number of pigeons per hole is greater than one.
• The statement “at least one hole will contain
more than one pigeon” is equivalent to “the
maximum number of pigeons in any whole is
greater than one”.
 Bags
• For each day of the week let the bag S
contain the number of people whose
birthday is on that day. There are 8 people
in bag S.
• M T W T F S S
•S = 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 2
• Note as a set this would be {1,2}.
 Example 2: The Pigeonhole
Principle
• Suppose S is a set of six integers, each between
1 and 12 inclusive. Prove that there must be two
distinct nonempty subsets of S that have the
same sum.
• Proof: The sum of all the elements of S is at
most 7+8+9+10+11+12 = 57. So the sum of the
elements of any nonempty subset of S is at least
1 and at most 57; there are 57 possibilities. But
there are 26–1 = 63 nonempty subsets of S.
Hence there must be two with the same sum.
• Note size of the power set is 2 to the power of
the size of the set.