Amplitude Modulation – Early Radio

EE 442 – Spring Semester

Lecture 6

f LO  f audio baseband = f m

http://www.technologyuk.net/telecommunications/telecom_principles/amplitude_modulation.shtml

AM Modulation -- Radio 1
 Summary of Lecture 5 – Page 1
An antenna is a conductor by which electromagnetic waves are sent out or received,
consisting commonly of a wire or an assembly of wires (mesh); also called an aerial.

Antennas exist in a multitude of shapes, sizes and designs: dipoles, loops, stubs, slots,
aperatures (e.g., parabolic) and end fires.

The FCC (Federal Communications Commission) establishes the frequency and

parameter requirements for all electromagnetic spectrum uses.

Radio spectrum examples: AM radio (525-1710 kHz); FM radio (88-108 MHz); 3G/4G
cellular (800 MHZ, 900 MHz & 1900 MHz bands); Wi-Fi *2.401-2.484 GHz); etc.

In cellular telephony each cell within the network contains one Base Station antenna
transceiver – each Base Station antenna is typically a three-sector array.

Parabolic antennas are used when directionality is important and parabolic antennas can
form highly focused beams (both transmit and receive).

The ideal isotropic radiating antenna radiates equally in all direction over a sphere. It is an
idealization that can’t be achieved in a physically realizable antenna.

Antenna Gain: A relative measure of an antenna's ability to direct or concentrate radio

frequency energy in a specific direction or pattern. A gain measurement is typically
expressed in dBi (Decibels relative to an isotropic radiator) or in dBd (Decibels relative to a
dipole radiator).
Review 2
 Summary of Lecture 5 – Page 2 2
D 
For a parabolic antenna the gain (Diameter D) is given by Gain (dB) = 10  log10 k  
  

For a parabolic antenna the beamwidth is Beamwidth  70  
D
Consider the DirecTV Satellite Dish antenna is 18 inches in diameter, operates from 12.2
to 12.7 GHz, has an antenna gain of about 34 dB @ 12.3 GHz and a half-power
beamwidth of 3.7 degrees.

The dipole antenna is one of the most popular antennas in use. An abbreviated version of
the dipole is the monopole antenna where the lower pole is replaced by a ground plane.

The Fraunhofer region (or far-field region) from the antenna is where the radiation pattern
no longer changes shape with distance d (and the fields decrease as 1/R and power
density dies off as 1/R2). 2d2
Fraunhofer distance d f =

The near-field region is the Fresnel region and the antenna is not used at such close in
distances – it is used in the Fraunhofer region only. Moving away from the antenna by
several wavelengths is where the Fraunhofer region begins.

The Yagi antenna is widely used and somewhat directional in its operation. Yagi antennas
typically have from 6 to 23 dBi gain.

Phased array antennas combine signals from multiple radiators to form and steer a beam
direction. Commonly used in fast tracking radar.
Review 3
 Why Use Modulation?

Most input signals, often created by transducers, can’t be sent

directly over the communication channel. These signals are
baseband signals (i.e., information, message or data).

Rather, a carrier wave, whose properties are better suited to the

transmission requirements, is conditioned (i.e., modulated) to
represent the signal.

Modulation is the systematic alteration of the carrier wave such that

it “carriers” the information, message or data to be communicated.

A. Bruce Carlson, Communication Systems: An Introduction to Signals and Noise in

Electrical Communication, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1975; pp. 5-7.

Modulation 4
 Reasons for Using Modulation
Modulation for ease of radiation – Antennas must be greater than
one-tenth of the wavelength (/10); thus, low frequency baseband
signals would require overly large antennas.

Modulation for frequency assignment – The FCC assigns frequency

bands to each radio application. Different carrier frequencies are
used to meet this need.

Modulation for multiplexing – This allows for multiple signals to be

carried on a single transmission medium (multiplexing is one form
of modulation).
Modulation to overcome equipment limitations – Modulation is used
to place signals in a portion of the spectrum where equipment
limitations are minimal or most easily met.

Modulation to reduce noise and interference – Some types of

modulation are useful for reducing noise and interference.
A. Bruce Carlson, Communication Systems: An Introduction to Signals and Noise in
Electrical Communication, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1975; pp. 5-7.
Modulation 5
Modulation Options

AM

FM

PM

Modulation 6
 Baseband versus Carrier Communication
Baseband communication is the transmission of a message as generated is
Transmitted without frequency translation.

Carrier communication requires the modulation of the message onto a

carrier signal to transmit it over a different frequency band. We use
modulators to do this frequency translation.
(Note: “Pulse modulated” signals, such as PAM, PWM, PPM, PCM and DM
are baseband digital signal coding (and not the result of frequency
conversion).
Use of Sinusoidal Carrier Signal: Using a sine waveform there are three
parameters which we can use to “modulate” a message onto the carrier –
they are the amplitude, frequency and phase of the sinusoidal carrier.

Signal

AM

FM

AM Modulation -- Radio 7
 Amplitude Modulation Description

Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique

where the amplitude of a high-frequency sine wave (at
a radio frequency) is varied in direct proportion to the
modulating signal m(t). The modulating signal
contains the intended message or information –
sometimes consisting of audio data, as in AM radio
broadcasting, or two-way radio communications.

The high-frequency sinusoidal waveform (i.e., carrier)

is modulated by combining it with the message signal
using a multiplier or mixer (Note: mixing is a nonlinear
operation because it generates new frequencies).
Agbo & Sadiku; Section 3.2, pp. 84 to 99

AM Modulation -- Radio 8
 Amplitude Modulation in Pictures
Frequency Domain Time Domain
AC  cos(C t )
Tone-modulated
AM signal

m(t)

100 kHz carrier modulated

by a 5kHz audio tone 5 kHz Audio tone

Voice-modulated
AM signal

100 kHz carrier modulated

by an audio signal
(frequencies up to 6 kHz)  AC + m(t ) cos(C t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 9
Amplitude Modulation Advantages & Disadvantages
As with any technology there are advantages and disadvantages to
be considered.

Advantages
• It is simple to implement
• It can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very few
components
• AM receivers are inexpensive because no specialized components
are required

Disadvantages
• It is not efficient with respect to power usage
• It is not efficient in bandwidth; requires a bandwidth equal to
twice the highest audio frequency
• It is prone to high levels of noise because most noise is amplitude
based and AM detectors are sensitive to it

AM Modulation -- Radio 10
 Example: Voice Signal – 300 Hz to 3400 Hz Baseband

m(t)
amplitude

time

Symbol m(t) represents the source’s message signal.

Time Domain Display

AM Modulation -- Radio 11
 Voice Band for Telephone Communication
Power

Voice Channel
0 Hz – 4 kHz PSTN or POTS
PSTN → Public Switched
Voice Bandwidth Telephone Network
300 Hz – 3.4 kHz

0 Hz 300 Hz 3.4 kHz 4 kHz 7 kHz f

Frequency Domain
AM Modulation -- Radio 12
 Representative Voice Spectrum for Human Speech

For the telephone AT&T determined many years ago that speech could
be easily recognized when the lowest frequencies and frequencies
above 3.4 kilohertz were cutoff.

Waveform as received from

Speech a microphone converting
signal acoustic energy into electrical
energy.
Time t

Fast Fourier transform of

Speech the above speech waveform
spectra 3,400 Hz showing energy over
range of 0 Hz to 12 kHz.

Frequency f (in Hz)

AM Modulation -- Radio 13
 Early AM Crystal Radio Receiver (Minimalist Radio)

A crystal radio receiver, also called a crystal set or cat's whisker receiver,
is a very simple radio receiver, popular in the early days of radio. It needs
no other power source but that received solely from the power of radio
waves received by a wire antenna. It gets its name from its most
important component, known as a crystal detector, originally made from
a piece of crystalline mineral such as galena. This component is now
called a diode.

Note: 1N34A is a
germanium diode
Demodulator that half-wave
LC Tuned rectifies signal
Circuit
Earphones

AM Modulation -- Radio 14
 Foxhole Radio (as used in World war I)

Cold water pipe

Coil – 120 turns of wire

Ground

Razor blade Safety pin

Earphones

http://bizarrelabs.com/foxhole.htm

AM Modulation -- Radio 15
Foxhole Radio (as built in a modern shop today)

http://www.peeblesoriginals.com/projects/images/foxhole1.jpg

AM Modulation -- Radio 16
 Crystal Radio Receiver from 1922

Galena (lead sulfide) was

probably the most
common crystal used in
“cat's whisker” detectors.

Diagram from 1922 showing the circuit of a crystal radio. This common
circuit did not use a tuning capacitor, but used the capacitance of the
antenna to form the tuned circuit with the coil.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_radio
AM Modulation -- Radio 17
 Amplitude Modulation (DSB with Carrier)
Amplitude Modulation: The amplitude of a carrier signal is varied
linearly with a time-varying message signal.

Carrier signal: c(t ) = AC  cos(C t +  ) Note: Keep C &  fixed.

Only amplitude AC is allowed to vary in AM: AC   AC + m(t )
AM (t ) =  AC + m(t )  cos (C t ) = AC  cos (C t ) + m(t )  cos (C t )

m(t )

AC  cos(C t )

 AC + m(t ) cos(C t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 18
 Expressions for AM-DSB with Carrier

Carrier signal: c(t ) = AC  cos(C t +  ) Note: Keep C &  fixed.

Only amplitude AC is allowed to vary in AM: AC   AC + m(t )
AM (t ) =  AC + m(t )  cos (C t ) = AC  cos (C t ) + m(t )  cos (C t )

We will generally use this format.

But other forms exist for this equation:
Some books write (such as in Haykin & Moher, 2009)
AM (t ) = AC  1 + kam m(t )  cos (C t ) = AC  cos (C t ) + AC kamm(t )  cos (C t )
where kam is the "amplitude sensitivity."
And other books write (Leon W. Couch, II, 2013)
AM (t ) = AC  1 + m(t )  cos (C t ) = AC  cos (C t ) + AC m(t )  cos (C t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 19
Amplitude Modulation (DSB with Carrier) Illustrated

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Audio/bcast.html

AM Modulation -- Radio 20
 Phasor View of Amplitude Modulation

Example showing tone modulation

Modulated oscillation is a sum of
these three vectors an is given by
the red vector. In the case of
amplitude modulation (AM), the
modulated oscillation vector is
always in phase with the carrier field
while its length oscillates with the
modulation frequency. The time
dependence of its projection onto
the real axis gives the signal
strength as drawn to the right of the
corresponding phasor diagram.
Black vector  Carrier signal
Red vector  AM modulated signal

https://inspirehep.net/record/1093258/plots
AM Modulation -- Radio 21
 Phasor Expression of Amplitude Modulation
Complex  jC t  e jmt e − jmt 
Exponential  AM (t ) = Re e 1 + + 
Format   2 2 

Tone signal  cos(mt)

+mt

+C t Tone modulation

−mt
Carrier  cos(Ct)

Spectrum


C − m +C C + m

AM Modulation -- Radio 22
Phasor Interpretation of AM DSB with Carrier (continued)

Tone modulation

Time t

https://www.slideshare.net/azizulho
que539/eeng-3810-chapter-4

AM Modulation -- Radio 23
 Double-Sideband Amplitude Modulation Spectrum

AM (t ) = m(t )  cos (C t ) + AC cos (C t ) =  AC + m(t )  cos (C t )

The spectrum  AM ( ) is found from the Fourier transform of AM (t )
 AM (t ) = 2 M( − C ) + 2 M( + C ) +  A  ( − C ) +  ( + C )
FT 1 1

Message Carrier

Frequency Baseband
Message
Shifting
Property
Carrier Carrier
Sideband
Message

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation

Agbo & Sadiku; Section 3.2.1; pp. 89 to 91

AM Modulation -- Radio 24
 AM Modulation Index Basics – Definition
The amplitude modulation (AM) modulation index  can be defined as the ratio of the peak
value of the message signal to the amplitude AC of the carrier signal.
When expressed as a percentage it is the same as the depth of modulation. In other words
it can be expressed as:
mp Agbo & Sadiku
Modulation Index  = Page 85-86
AC
where AC is the carrier signal amplitude, and
mp is the peak modulation amplitude (maximum change in the RF amplitude
relative to its un-modulated value.
Example: An AM modulation index of 0.5 means the signal increases by a factor of 0.5,
and decreases to 0.5, centered around its unmodulated level. See drawings below.

AM (t ) =  AC + m(t )  cos(C t )

50% modulation illustrated

AM Modulation -- Radio 25
 AM Modulation Index Basics – Examples
50% Tone Modulation

50%
mp
=
AC

100% Tone Modulation

100%

AM (t ) = AC  1 +   cos(mt )  cos(C t )

150% Tone Modulation
150%
Overmodulation
https://en.wikipedia or
.org/wiki/Amplitude Envelope Distortion
_modulation

AM Modulation -- Radio 26
AM Overmodulation → Envelope Distortion

mp
= = 1.50
AC

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/comm
ons/d/da/AM_150%25_modulation_depth.png
AM Modulation -- Radio 27
 Beat Frequency from Two Slightly Different Sinusoidal Signals

Beats are caused by the interference of two waves at the same point in space.
Frequencies f1 and f2 are slightly different and the envelope of the sum of
them is the beat frequency |f1 – f2|.

m(t)

This is related to AM modulation using sinusoidal waveforms.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html

AM Modulation -- Radio 28
 Power Efficiency of Amplitude Modulation
Given the AM signal:  AM (t ) = Ac cos(c t ) + m(t ) cos(ct )
Ac2
The power in the carrier is Pc = {Let PS power in one sideband}
2
The power in the sidebands (modulated message) is
T /2 T /2
1 1 1
(t ) 1 + cos(2ct )  dt
T→ T  
PS = lim m 2
(t ) cos 2
(c t ) d t = lim m 2

2 T →  T −T /2
−T /2
T /2
But  m 2 (t )  cos(2ct )  dt = 0, and so
−T /2
T /2
1 1 1
PS = lim 
2
we are left with m (t ) dt Pm
2 T →  T −T /2 2
That is, PS is one-half the total message power Pm .
In AM the power in the message (useful power) is the power in the
two sidebands. Next, we define power efficiency  .

Agbo & Sadiku; Section 3.2.2; pp. 91 to 92

AM Modulation -- Radio 29
Power Efficiency in Amplitude Modulation (continued)
The power efficiency of a modulated signal is the ratio of the power in
the message part of the signal relative to the total power of the
modulated signal.

messsage power sideband power

Power efficiency  = =
total power total power
PS 1
2 Pm AC2
In symbols,  = = , and PC =
PC + PS PC + 12 Pm 2

Pm
 =
AC2 + Pm

AM Modulation -- Radio 30
 Power Efficiency in Amplitude Modulation (continued)
In general, the form of Pm is complicated and not known precisely. However,
we can study AM power efficiency  using a tone modulation message.

For tone modulation, m(t ) = m p cos(C t ) =  AC cos(C t ) ,

(  AC )
2
m 2p 2
m 2p
 Pm = = and  = =
2 2 2 AC + m p 2 +  2
2 2

Example: (For double-sideband with carrier is AM)

2
Modulation index =  =
2 + 2
0.25 0.0303 or 3.03 %
0.5 0.111 or 11.1 %
1.0 0.333 or 33.3 %

Conclusion: AM power efficiency is low (this is undesirable).

AM Modulation -- Radio 31
 Power Efficiency in Amplitude Modulation (continued)
In general, the form of Pm is complicated and not known precisely. In practice,
We find Pm by the integral,
T /2 T /2
1 1
m 2 (t )  1 + cos (2C t )  dt
T→ T  
Pm = lim m 2
(t )  cos 2
(C t ) dt = lim
T →  2T
−T /2 −T /2
T /2
1
Pm = lim
T →  2T 
−T /2
m 2 (t )dt .

If m(t ) is a single tone, then we have

m(t ) = m p  cos (C t ) , then
T /2 T /2
1 1
m 2p  1 + cos (2C t )  dt
T→ T  
Pm = lim m 2
p  cos 2
(C t ) dt = l im
T →  2T
−T /2 −T /2

1 2  (T / 2) − ( −T / 2)  1 2
T /2
Pm = lim
1
2T  m 2p dt =
2
( )
mp 
 T  = mp
 2
( )
T→ −T /2

Pm 1 2
and PS = = (m p )
2 4

AM Modulation -- Radio 32
 Can We Reduce Transmitted Power in AM?

1. Do we need to transmit the carrier, which is the majority of the

transmitted power, in AM?

No, but we will need to have a more sophisticated demodulation

scheme in the receiver. We will do this with “double-sideband
suppressed carrier” modulation.

2. Do we have to transmit both sidebands in AM?

No, because both sidebands contain identical information. We

will do this by introducing “single-sideband modulation” (without
carrier).

AM Modulation -- Radio 33
Preview: Categories of Amplitude Modulation

Baseband spectrum (message spectrum M(f) )

f

DSB-w/C
Conventional AM (Double-SideBand With Carrier)

f
Special cases of AM:
DSB-SC Double-Sideband-Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC)

Single-Sideband /Upper Sideband (SSB/USB)

f

Single-Sideband /Lower Sideband (SSB/LSB)

f
Also Vestigial Sideband and Amplitude Companded SSB

AM Modulation -- Radio 34
Generation of Amplitude Modulated Signals
Agbo & Sadiku present two methods for AM generation:
1. Nonlinear AM modulator
Almost any nonlinearity will work, but a very
inexpensive but strongly nonlinear device is the
diode. Transistors are also nonlinear and work
well as modulators (but more complicated).

2. Switching AM modulator
Switching is an easily attained function with
diodes and transistors in electronic circuits.

There is also a third method:

3. Electronic multipliers (such as Gilbert cells)
can be used as modulators.

Agbo & Sadiku; Section 3.2.3; pp. 93 to 95

AM Modulation -- Radio 35
Diode Operation Applied to AM Modulators & Demodulators

1. As nonlinear circuit components (primarily the “square law” part )

Current (mA)
Use
Taylor’s
series
approx.

( )
I D = I sat e qVD / kT − 1
Voltage (V)
2. As “on-off” switches (they have to be driven hard to do this)

AM Modulation -- Radio 36
Using Nonlinearity For Modulation (i.e., AM Generation)
Diode

+
Accos(Ct) iD + +
_
BPF
R x(t) Filter y(t)
+ _ (c) _
m(t)
_

The diode is the nonlinear component (it has an exponential

characteristic). Using a Taylor’s series we can express the diode
current iD as (with only first two terms of the Taylor’s series),
iD (t ) = b1vD (t ) + b2vD2 (t ); vD (t ) is diode voltage. “Square Law”
behavior
The voltage across resistor R is given by
x(t ) = iD (t ) R = b1 RvD (t ) + b2 RvD2 (t ) = a1vD (t ) + a2vD2 (t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 37
 Using Nonlinearity For Modulation (continued)

We now can evaluate voltage x(t )

x(t ) = a1  m(t ) + AC cos (C t )  + a2  m(t ) + AC cos (C t ) 
2

2
a A
x(t ) = a1m(t ) + a2 m 2 (t ) + 2 C 1 + cos (2C t ) 
2
(Eq. 3.23)
 2a2 m(t ) 
+ a1 AC 1 +  cos (C t )
 a1 
Applying the bandpass filter about C , the output voltage y (t ) is
 2a2 m(t ) 
y (t ) =  AM (t ) = a1 AC 1 +  cos (C t ) 
 a1 

2a2 m(t )
Note: For  to be less than unity, we require  1.
a1

AM Modulation -- Radio 38
 Using Nonlinearity For Modulation (continued)

Tuned to radian
+
frequency C
General
Accos(Ct) _ +
Nonlinear
Element R y(t)
C
+
m(t) _ _
1
C =
LC

Comments:
1. Can use a general nonlinear element (not just a “square law” device)
2. The filter can be as simple as a LC resonator
3. This is a about the simplest of all modulators (it is unbalanced)

AM Modulation -- Radio 39
 Using General Nonlinearity For Modulation
vout = vDC + Gvin + Avin2 + Bvin3 + Taylor’s series

Input signals: vin = ARF cos(RF t ) + BLO cos(LO t )

tone carrier
vout  RF and LO (linear)

v2out  (RF + LO ), (LO - RF ), 2RF and 2LO (square law)

v3out  (2RF +LO), (2RF - LO), (2LO+RF), (2LO - RF), 3RF & 3LO

Conclusion: Nonlinearity generates new frequencies.

Vout() LO
RF fRF = 0.8
IF fLO = 1.0
LO - RF LO + RF

2RF + LO

2LO + RF
2RF – LO

2LO - RF

2RF 2LO
3RF 3LO

0 1 2 3

AM Modulation -- Radio 40
 Switching Amplitude Modulator – The Switch

(t) Ron = 0
Roff is infinite
No Capacitance
1
fC =
period T

1 2 1 1 
p (t ) = + cos(C t ) − cos(3C t ) + cos(5C t ) − 
2  3 5

By driving a diode with sufficient AC voltage it acts like a switch:

Forward bias Reverse bias

Current flow No current flow

Switch closed Switch open

AM Modulation -- Radio 41
Switching Amplitude Modulator – Pulse Spectrum Generated

p(t) Infinitely long pulse train

1

= Duty Cycle
T

−T − 
0 T T time
2 2 2 2

1 2 1 1  Fourier
p (t ) = + cos(t ) − cos(3t ) + cos(5t ) −  Series
2  3 5
representation

Fourier series of −1
P() Shown for a
1 duty cycle of 1/4
the pulse train
 
of period T
−1 1 2 3 
T 0 T T T 2
Uses the “Frequency Shifting” Property of the Fourier Transform.
AM Modulation -- Radio 42
Switching Modulator – Generating m(t)cos(Ct)

p(t)
Pulse train
Reference: Lathi & Ding,4th ed., 2009; Fig. 4.4.

m(t)p(t)

AM Modulation -- Radio 43
 Diode Mixer For Modulation and Demodulation
A “hopelessly unsophisticated” mixer.
− Tom Lee (Stanford University)
Diode
The unbalanced single-diode mixer
RF
+ IF
has no isolation and no conversion
LO gain.

Single-diode mixers have been

Filter used in many applications --
(1) Detectors for radar in WW II
(2) Early UHF Television tuners
This is the same circuit
used in the Foxhole radio (3) Crystal radio detectors
for demodulation. (4) mm-wave & sub-mm-wave
receivers

AM Modulation -- Radio 44
 AM Demodulation
Agbo & Sadiku, Section 3.2.4 (pp. 95 to 99)

Coherent (i.e., synchronous) demodulation (or detection) is a method

to recover the message signal from the received modulated signal that
requires a carrier at the receiver. This carrier signal must match in
frequency and phase the received signal.

But . . . Amplitude Modulation has the advantage of not requiring

coherent detection methods. Non-coherent methods can be used
which are much simpler to implement.

1. AM Envelope Detector

2. AM Rectifier Detector

AM Modulation -- Radio 45
 AM Envelope Detector Circuit

Rectified AM Capacitor stores energy

Incoming AM modulated signal from the peaks of the
modulated signal C rectified signal R

Key idea: Capacitor captures the voltage peaks of rectified waveform

Envelope Detection requires the an RC network with time constant  = RC

Two conditions must be met for an envelope detector to work:

(1) Narrowband [meaning fc >> bandwidth of m(t)]
(2) AC + m(t)  0

AM Modulation -- Radio 46
Choosing the RC Time Constant in Envelope Detector
How the envelope is captured

t Time constant  = RC too short.

1
Design criteria is 2 B   2 fC
RC
B Hz is bandwidth of message signal.

t Time constant  = RC too long.

See Figure 3.9; pages 96 to 99.

Reference: Lathi & Ding,4th ed., 2009; Fig. 4.11.

AM Modulation -- Radio 47
 Practical Demodulation of an AM Signal

V V

RF Modulated
•
Diode
• • • IF
AM input RF signal output
input •
• IF output

Frequency Envelope DC blocking

Selectivity detection

The user has a choice of changing the filter to meet their needs.

AM Modulation -- Radio 48
 AM Rectifier Detection

DC component
is removed by
capacitor C

LPF

Vrect (t ) = ( AC + m(t ))cos(C t )  p(t ) Reference: Lathi & Ding,4th ed., 2009; Fig. 4.10.

1 2 
= ( AC + m(t ))cos(C t )  + (cos(C t ) − 13 (cos(3C t ) + 15 (cos(5C t ) − .... 
2  
1
= ( AC + m(t )) + other terms.

= dc term + baseband term
Note: Multiplication with p(t ) allows rectifier detection to act essentially as a
synchronous detection without a carrier being generated at the receiver.
AM Modulation -- Radio 49
 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier AM
Conventional AM transmits both the message and carrier signals.
Hence, the its power efficiency  is low,

Pm
=  100%
AC + Pm
2

If (AC)2 approaches zero, then  approaches 100%.

 AM (t ) =  AC + m(t )   cos(C t )

For DSB-SC (double sideband -- suppressed carrier) we have

DSB − SC (t ) = m(t )  cos(C t ) with a FT pair m(t )  M ( )
1
FT  m(t ) cos(C t )  =  DSB − SC ( ) =  M ( − C ) + M ( + C )
2

AM Modulation -- Radio 50
 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (continued)

DSB − SC (t ) = m(t ) cos(C t )

m(t) DSB − SC (t ) Phase reversals

The penalty for using DSB-SC is a complex detection scheme is needed.

We can’t use simple envelope detection.

AM Modulation -- Radio 51
 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier Generation

Modulation:
(Modulator)
m(t )

m(t )
m(t ) cos(C t ) t→

m(t ) m(t ) cos(C t )

cos(C t )

t→

Figure 3.11 in Agbo & Sadiku

−m(t ) Note phase
reversal

DSB-SC Output

AM Modulation -- Radio 52
 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier Spectrum
(Modulator)

m(t )
m(t ) cos(C t )
M ( )
m(t )  M ( )
cos(C t )


− m 0 + m

Transmitted
 DSB − SC ( ) DSB-SC Signal

LSB USB

− C −  m − C − C +  m 0 + C −  m + C + C +  m

DSB-SC has USB and LSB spectra but no carrier impulses at  C.

AM Modulation -- Radio 53
Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (continued)

Demodulation:
(Modulator)

m(t )
m(t ) cos(C t ) Low-pass
filter
x(t )
Frequency and phase
must match.
2 cos(C t )

x(t ) = 2m(t )  cos 2 (C t ) = m(t ) + m(t )  cos(2C t )

1
Used the identity: cos 2 = 1 + cos(2 )
2
The Fourier transform of x(t ) is
1
X ( ) = M ( ) +  M ( − 2C ) + M ( + 2C ) 
2

AM Modulation -- Radio 54
DSB-SC Synchronous Demodulation

Function is to provide
carrier recovery

http://www.amalgamate2000.com/radio-
hobbies/radio/dsbsc____demodulation_by_the_squ.htm
AM Modulation -- Radio 55
DSB-SC Synchronous Demodulation (continued)

1
cos 2t = 1 + cos(2t )
2

Squaring
Input: Component BPF Divide by 2
DSB-SC signal
x2 2

Mixer

Carrier recovered
m(t)

AM Modulation -- Radio 56
Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (continued)
Let us examine the spectrum of the demodulated DSB-SC signal.

The message sidebands are shifted from being centered at  C

back to the about the origin ( = 0) and  2C. This is illustrated
below.

Note: We now need coherent (i.e., synchronous) detection!

Low-pass filter
Selects baseband X ( )
Message
recovered

− 2C − m 0 + m
+ 2C

We filter out the signals centered at  2C.

AM Modulation -- Radio 57
 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (continued)

Example 3.5 (from page 101 of Agbo & Sadiku):

We are given a carrier signal of Ac cos(Ct) and a tone message signal of

m(t) = Am cos(mt)

Therefore, the AM signal is

AC Am
DSB − SC (t ) = AC Am  cos(C t )  cos(mt ) = cos(C − m )t + cos(C + m )t 
2
1
This comes from the identity: cos( )  cos( ) =  cos( −  ) + cos( +  ) 
2
Next, we take the Fourier transform to get
 AC Am
 DSB − SC ( ) =
2
 
 ( − C + m ) +  ( + C − m ) +  ( − C − m ) +  ( + C + m )

AM Modulation -- Radio 58
 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (continued)

M ( )
Tone Modulation


− m 0 + m

 DSB − SC ( ) No carrier present

 AC Am
2

− C 0
+ C
− C − m − C + m + C − m + C + m

AM Modulation -- Radio 59
 Analog Product Modulator

Vout = kX  Y
Anti-Log
X

Log Vout

Buffer
Y Output
Log

DSB-SC is used primarily today for point-to-point communications

where a small number of receivers are involved.
One can buy commercial ICs that perform this function.

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Electronics/Analog_multipliers

AM Modulation -- Radio 60
 Gilbert Cell Multiplier
VCC

RC Vout RC
qI C I C
gm = = Vout = I EE  K Vin1 Vin 2
kT Vth

Vin1

Vin2

IEE

-VEE

http://www.iitk.ac.in/eclub/ee381/AnalogMultipliers.pdf
AM Modulation -- Radio 61
 Non-Linear DSB-SC Modulator

BPF
DSB − SC (t )

Refer to slide 35 for equations.

a2 AC2  2a2 m(t ) 

s1 (t ) = a1m(t ) + a2 m (t ) +
2
1 + cos(2C 
t ) + a1 C 1 +
A  cos(C t )
2  a1 
a2 AC2  2a m(t ) 
s2 (t ) = −a1m(t ) + a2 m (t ) +
2
1 + cos(2C t )  + a1 AC 1 − 2  cos(C t )
2  a1 
s (t ) = s1 (t ) − s2 (t ) = 2a1m(t ) + 4a2 AC  m(t )  cos(C t )
 DSB − SC (t ) = 4a2 AC  m(t )  cos(C t )  BPF selected this

AM Modulation -- Radio 62
 Non-Linear DSB-SC Modulator (continued)
DSB − SC (t ) = 4a2 AC  m(t )  cos(C t )

Note that this expression contains no carrier signal. Why?

Answer: The modulator is a balanced configuration and this results

in the carrier signal being cancelled (that assumes perfect balance,
of course).

Definition: A balanced modulator does not output either the carrier

component or the message component. When both are missing, we
say it is double-balanced.

AM Modulation -- Radio 63
 Switching DSB-SC Modulators
Agbo & Sadiku present three switching modulators:

1. Series-bridge modulator
2. Shunt-bridge modulator, and
3. Ring modulator

We are only going to discuss the ring modulator because it is the

most widely used and contains the fundamental principle of
operation for all of them. It is important you understand how it
works.

Note: Examples of series-bridge and shunt-bridge modulators are

shown in Figure 3.16 (a) and (b), page 106 of Agbo and Sadiku.

AM Modulation -- Radio 64
Ring Modulator for DSB-SC Generation

“Ring”

AM Modulation -- Radio 65
 Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator
T1 D1 T2

a D4 b
m(t ) x(t ) k  m(t ) cos(C t )
D3 BPF

1:1 D2 1:1

The LO is driven hard enough

AC cos(C t ) to operate the diodes
as on/off switches.
p(t )

Bipolar square wave:

4 1 1 
 cos(C t ) − ( cos(3  C t ) + ( cos(5  C t ) −  
 3 5 
m(t ) vi = p(t )  cos(C t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 66
 Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator (continued)
D1

D3
DSB-SC:
m(t)
m(t )  cos(C t )
D4
T1 T2
D2

RF carrier signal
AC cos(ct)
Assume the diodes act as perfect switches (either “on” or “off”) and are
controlled by the RF carrier signal (requires large amplitude).

AM Modulation -- Radio 67
 Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator (continued)
Operation in the positive half-cycle of the carrier signal

Positive Half-Cycle: D1

currents

m(t) = 0 Diodes D3 &

D4 are Off

T1 T2
D2
These currents
+ cancel in the
primary, thus,
AC cos(ct) no output.

AM Modulation -- Radio 68
Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator (continued)
Operation in the negative half-cycle of the carrier signal

Diodes D1 &
Negative Half-Cycle:
D2 are Off

currents D3
m(t) = 0
D4
T1 T2

These currents
+ cancel in the
primary so
AC cos(ct) no output.

AM Modulation -- Radio 69
 Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator (continued)
Operation in the positive half-cycle of the carrier signal
passes message signal m(t) to output.
D1

+ + + +
_ _ + m(t)
m(t)
+ + output
_ _ _ _
T1 T2
D2
+
AC cos(ct)
Diodes D1 and D2 are “on” and the secondary of T1 is applied directly to T2.

AM Modulation -- Radio 70
 Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator (continued)
Operation in the negative half-cycle of the carrier signal
inverts message signal m(t) at the output.

+ + D3
_ _
_ +
- m(t)
m(t)
+ _ output

_ _ D4 + +
T1 T2

+
AC cos(ct)
Diodes D3 and D4 are “on” and the secondary of T1 is applied directly to T2.

AM Modulation -- Radio 71
Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator (continued)
m(t)
t

LO rectangular waveform

https://electr
onicspost.co
m/ring-
modulator-
for-the-
double-
sideband-
OUTPUT
suppressed-
carrier-
generation/

D1 & D2 on D3 & D4 on
DSB-SC signal at primary of T2

AM Modulation -- Radio 72
Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator Waveforms

m(t )

AC cos(2 fC t )

D1 & D2 are “on”

pbipolar (t )  m(t )
D3 & D4 are “on”

k  m(t ) cos(C t )

After filtering

AM Modulation -- Radio 73
 Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator

Requirements:
1. The carrier signal is higher in amplitude than the modulating
signal m(t).
2. The carrier signal must be of sufficient amplitude to fully
switch the diodes between “on” and “off” states.
3. The carrier signal switches the diodes on and off at a rate
higher than the highest frequency contained in m(t).
4. The message signal m(t) is chopped into segments, alternating
between two amplitudes; +m(t) and –m(t).

m(t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 74
 Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator

The mathematics behind the Diode Ring Modulator:

 1
pbipolar (t ) = 2  p(t ) −  = 2 p(t ) − 1  This is a bipolar square wave train.
 2 
1 2  1 1 
pbipolar (t ) = 2  + cos (C t ) − cos(3C t ) + cos(5C t ) − . . . 
2   3 5 
4 1 1 
pbipolar (t ) =cos (  t ) − cos(3 t ) + cos(5 t ) − . . .
  C
3
C
5
C 
Therefore, the output is found by the product,
4 m(t ) m(t ) 
x(t ) = m(t ) pbipolar (t ) = m (t )  cos (  t ) − cos(3  t ) + cos(5 t ) − . . .
  C
3
C
5
C 
Upon passing through the BPF, pbipolar(t)
4
DSB − SC (t ) =  m(t )  cos (C t )  +1
 t
-1

AM Modulation -- Radio 75
 Double-Balanced Diode Ring Modulator/Mixer

LO A RF
C
G
G

D
B

IF A C G
B
G
D

Trifilar-Wound Toroid
http://kambing.ui.ac.id/onnopurbo/orari-
diklat/teknik/qrp/Broadband%20Transfor
mers.htm
It is inexpensive and easy to build a ring mixer.

AM Modulation -- Radio 76
 Commercial Diode Ring Mixer (Mini-Circuits)

Mixer in surface-
mount package
It is even easier
to buy a ring mixer
component.

Ring of FET devices

operated as nonlinear
resistances

AM Modulation -- Radio 77
 Mixers
Frequency mixing → frequency conversion → heterodyning

A mixer translates the modulation around one carrier frequency to

another frequency. In a receiver, this is usually from a higher RF
frequency to a lower IF frequency. In a transmitter, it’s the inverse.

(Mixer)

RF IF
RF (t ) Band-pass IF (t )
filter
x(t )
LO
cos(LO t )

We know that a LTI circuit can’t perform frequency translation.

Mixers can be realized with either time-varying circuits or non-linear
circuits.

AM Modulation -- Radio 78
 Digression: What is Heterodyning?

Heterodyning is a signal processing technique invented in 1901 by

Canadian inventor-engineer Reginald Fessenden that creates new
frequencies by combining or mixing two frequencies using a
nonlinear device. Edwin Armstrong invented the superheterodyne
receiver in 1918.
Using an electronic circuit to combine an input radio frequency signal
(RF) with another signal that is locally generated (LO) to produce
new frequencies (IF): one being the sum of the two frequencies and
the other being the difference of the two frequencies.
http://www.yourdictionary.com/heterodyning#SgeI5zTvo7VV96o7.99

Applications of heterodyning:
1. Used in communications to generate new frequencies.
2. Move modulated signals from one frequency channel to another.
3. Used in the superheterodyne radio receivers able to select from
multiple communication channels.

AM Modulation -- Radio 79
 Frequency Translation By Mixing
Let RF (t ) = m(t )  cos(C t ) and IF (t ) = m(t )  cos(IF t )
The local oscillator (LO) is proportional to cos(LO t )
The mixer (or multiplier) output x(t ) is given by
x(t ) = 2m(t )  cos(C t )  cos(LO t )
A. Choosing LO = C − IF , we have
x(t ) = m(t ) cos ( (C − IF − C )t ) + cos ( (C − IF + C )t ) 
x(t ) = m(t )  cos (IF t ) + m(t )  cos ( (2C − IF )t )
Note: Used even property of cosines [i.e., cos(− ) = cos( )]
B. Choosing LO = C + IF , then we have
x(t ) = m(t ) cos ( (C + IF − C )t ) + cos ( (C + IF + C )t ) 
x(t ) = m(t )  cos (IF t ) + m(t )  cos ( (2C + IF )t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 80
 Frequency Conversion From C to IF With a Mixer
Multiplying a modulated signal by a sinusoidal moves the frequency
band to sum and difference frequencies.
Example: We want to convert from frequency C to frequency IF .

RF (t ) = m(t )  cos(c t ) x(t ) Bandpass IF (t ) = m(t )  cos(IF t )

filter (tuned
to IF)
Input frequency c
Output frequency fIF

2  cos ( (c  IF )t )

 = 2 f
X() BPF response
Filtered out
 →
Negative  IF 2C − IF 2C 2C + IF
not shown

Note: Super-heterodyning: c + IF ; Sub-heterodyning: c - IF

AM Modulation -- Radio 81
 Mixer Example (Example 3.7 on Page 110)
Example: Derive the relationship between LO and C so that centering
the bandpass filter of the mixer is at LO - C and also ensure that IF is
less than (i.e., below) C.

Answer:
We know that LO = C  IF in general. We must meet two conditions:

(1) IF = LO - C and (2) IF < C

Start by assuming LO = C + IF that meets the first condition; then the
second condition, IF < C , implies that

LO - C < C → LO < 2C

AM Modulation -- Radio 82
Digression
Superheterodyne Receiver

The superheterodyne, the circuit used in virtually all modern

radios, was invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1918 while he
worked in a US Army Signal Corps laboratory in Paris during
World War I. This is one of the receivers constructed at that
laboratory, shown in a 1920 article in an amateur radio
magazine. It is constructed in two parts. The righthand
section consists of the mixer and local oscillator. Now on
display at the Smithsonian.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Prototype_Armstr
ong_superheterodyne_receiver_1920.jpg
AM Modulation -- Radio 83
 First Commercial Superheterodyne Receiver
An advertisement for the RCA Radiola AR-812 radio – it was the first
commercially produced superheterodyne radio receiver. The
superheterodyne receiver circuit was invented by US engineer Edwin
Armstrong in 1918 during World War I. The rights were purchased by
RCA, and the AR-812 was released March 4, 1924. It used 6 UV-199
triodes: a mixer, a local oscillator, two IF and two audio amplifier stages,
with an IF of 45 kHz, and was priced at $289. It was semi-portable, with
compartments for the batteries in back and a handle on top, and it
weighed 30 pounds.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Superheterodyne_receiver

AM Modulation -- Radio 84
Advantages of the Superheterodyne Receiver

Superior selectivity in signal reception

Uses fixed frequency filters allowing for excellent adjacent
channel signal rejection and help with image rejection.

Able to receive multiple modulation schemes

Ability to incorporate a wide variety of different types of
demodulators.

Able to receive very high frequency signals

Most of the receiver’s signal processing is done at lower
frequencies using mixers to down convert higher
frequency incoming signals (it is easier to filter at lower
frequencies, uses lower cost components, etc.).

The word heterodyne is derived from

the Greek roots hetero -"different",
and - dyne "power".

AM Modulation -- Radio 85
 Image Signals in Mixers (1)

This converts the

RF spectrum
spectrum at the RF
carrier frequency Signal band
down to the spectrum There is no signal shown in
centered at the IF this part of the spectrum.
frequency.
LO frequency
RF
RF IF
IF band Desired
LO
down-conversion

IF frequency
IF = LO - RF

AM Modulation -- Radio 86
Image Signals in Mixers (2) – Now an Image Signal Appears
Now both the
The image spectrum is not wanted.
spectrum at the RF
carrier frequency and

RF spectrum
the undesired image Signal band
spectrum are down
converted to the Image band
spectrum centered at
the IF frequency.
LO frequency
RF image
RF IF
IF band
LO But, now both signals
appear in the IF band.

IF frequency
IF = LO - RF
and
IF = image - LO
AM Modulation -- Radio 87
 Image Signals in Mixers (3)

Suppose the LO frequency is

This converts the Below the RF frequency.

RF spectrum
spectrum at the RF
carrier frequency Signal band
down to the spectrum
centered at the IF
frequency.

LO frequency
RF
RF IF
IF band Again, the desired
LO
down-conversion

IF frequency
IF = RF - LO

AM Modulation -- Radio 88
 Image Signals in Mixers (4) – With Image Signal
As before both the
spectrum at the RF The LO frequency is
carrier frequency and below the RF frequency.

RF spectrum
the undesired image Signal band
spectrum are down
converted to the
spectrum centered at
the IF frequency.
 frequency
image LORF
RF IF
IF band Again, both signals
LO
appear in the IF band.

IF frequency
IF = RF - LO
and
IF = LO - image
AM Modulation -- Radio 89
 Image Rejection in a Single Mixer Heterodyne Receiver
A

B C D
RF channels

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Superheterodyne_receiver D

AM Modulation -- Radio 90
 Simultaneous Selectively and Image Rejection
High Frequency IF
Making the IF frequency higher enables image signals to be far from
the wanted signal; thus, RF filtering is relatively easier and increases
the rejection level of image signals.

Low Frequency IF
The advantage of a low frequency IF allows for filters providing much
better adjacent channel rejection by filtering – this improves the
selectivity of the receiver. And low frequency filters are less expensive
also.

Solution:
These two conflicting requirements can not be simultaneously
satisfied by a single IF frequency. A solution is to use two IF frequencies
via a double-conversion superheterodyne architecture.

AM Modulation -- Radio 91
 A Double-Conversion Superheterodyne Receiver

st st pli ier nd nd pli ier dio

ilter pli ier i er ilter i er ilter e od lator pli ier

st ocal nd ocal
scillator scillator

Many high performance spectrum analyzer receivers use triple-

conversion or quadruple-conversion superheterodyne architectures.
A good reference is
https://www.keysight.com/upload/cmc_upload/
All/5952-0292EN.pdf

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Double-
conversion_superheterodyne_receiver_block_diagram.svg

AM Modulation -- Radio 92
Simplified Swept-Tuned Spectrum Analyzer Block Diagram
Keysight Application Note
September 15, 2016

https://www.keysight.com/upload/cmc_upload/All/5952-0292EN.pdf

http://www.microwavejournal.com/articles/print/27120-part-3-
overcoming-rfmicrowave-interference-challenges-in-the-field-using-rtsa

AM Modulation -- Radio 93
 Elenco AM/FM Dual-Radio Receiver Kit
Model AM/FM-108CK Superhet Radio
Antenna

FM Battery

Antenna
AM Speaker

https://www.elenco.com/product/amfm-radio-kitcombo-ic-transistor/

AM Modulation -- Radio 94
 AM and FM Broadcast Bands
10 kHz bandwidth from 200 kHz bandwidth from
540 kHz to 1720 kHz 88.1 MHz to 108.1 MHz
(118 possible bands) (100 possible bands)

UHF TV
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Audio/radio.html

AM Modulation -- Radio 95
 Example: AM Broadcast Stations

http://ypropubmedia.com/online-radio-advertising-services-delhi/

AM Modulation -- Radio 96
 Example: Aircraft Communication (Airband)
Airband – 108 MHz to 137 MHz

108 to 117.95 MHz has 200 channels

of 50 kHz each for navigational aids
such as VOR beacons and precision
approach systems (ILS localizer).
VHF Omni-Directional Range
Instrument Landing System localizer

118 to 136.975 MHz is divided into

2,280 channels (each 8.33 kHz of
bandwidth) for AM voice
transmissions.

https://aviatorsattic.com/product
-category/pilot-amt-library/pilots-
library/communication/

AM Modulation -- Radio 97
Another Mixer Example (Practice Problem 3.8, Page 110)
For a frequency converter the carrier frequency of the output signal is
425 kHz and the carrier frequency of the AM input signal ranges from
500 kHz to 1500 kHz. Find the tuning ratio of the local oscillator
LO ,max
,
LO ,min
If the frequency of the local oscillator is given by (a) IF = LO - C and
(b) IF =  C + LO .

Answer:
(a) IF = LO - C → LO = C + IF → superheterodyning

LO ,max C ,max + IF 1500 + 425

= = = 2.081
LO ,min C ,min + IF 500 + 425

(b) IF = C + LO → LO = C - IF → sub-heterodyning

LO ,max C ,max − IF 1500 − 425
= = = 14.33
LO ,min C ,min − IF 500 − 425

AM Modulation -- Radio 98
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Fact: Both conventional AM and DSB-SC AM are wasteful of bandwidth.

One way to improve of bandwidth efficiency is with quadrature amplitude

modulation (QAM). It involves two data streams: the I-channel and the
Q-channel.

Bandwidth efficiency is improved by allowing two signals to share the

same bandwidth of a channel. But this can only be done if the two
modulated signals are orthogonal to each other. We now see how this
can be accomplished.

A better name for QAM might be quadrature-carrier multiplexing.

https://www.rcrwireless.com/20160901/test-
and-measurement/what-is-64-qam-tag6-tag99
AM Modulation -- Radio 99
 Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing (QCM)

Quadrature-carrier multiplexing allows for transmitting two

message signals on the same carrier frequency.

(1) Two quadrature carriers are multiplexed together,

(2) Signal mI(t) modulates the carrier cos(Ct), and

Signal mQ(t) modulates the carrier sin(Ct).

(3) The two modulated signals are added together &

transmitted over the channel as

QAM (t ) = mI (t )  cos(C t ) + mQ (t )  sin(C t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 100

 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation Features

1. QAM transmits two DSB-SC signals in the bandwidth of one DSB-SC

signal.

2. Interference between the two modulated signals of the same frequency

is prevented by using two carriers in phase quadrature. This is because
they are orthogonal to each other.

3. The In-phase (I-phase) channel modulates the cos(Ct) signal and the
Quadrature-phase (Q-phase) channel modulates the sin (Ct) signal.

4. The carriers used in the transmitter and receiver are synchronous with
each other. In fact, they must be almost exactly in quadrature with
each other, otherwise they experience cochannel interference.

5. Low-pass filters are used to extract the baseband signals mI(t) and mQ(t)
in the receiver.

AM Modulation -- Radio 101

Illustrating Orthogonality With Sinusoidal Signals - I

sin(Ct)
sin(2Ct)

Signals are harmonically related.

T T
0
sin(C t )  sin(2C t ) dt = 0 and 0
cos(C t )  cos(2C t ) dt = 0

https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/474398/waves-
of-differing-frequency-are-orthogonal-help-me-understand

AM Modulation -- Radio 102

Illustrating Orthogonality With Sinusoidal Signals - II

Area of product over one period is equal to zero.

Therefore, the signals are orthogonal.
T
0
sin(C t )  cos(C t )dt = 0

http://www.katjaas.nl/sinusoids2/sinusoids2.html
AM Modulation -- Radio 103
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

QAM Can Be Viewed As Combination of ASK and PSK

AC cos(C t +  ) = I (t ) cos(C t ) + Q(t ) sin(C t )

where I (t ) = AC cos( ) and Q(t ) = AC sin( )

HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access) is a packet-based mobile

telephony protocol used in 3G UMTS radio networks.

https://www.slideshare.net/ahsanhalini/quadrature-amplitude-modulation-54999195

AM Modulation -- Radio 104

Review: Spectral Lines for Sine and Cosine Signals

AM Modulation -- Radio 105

 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation
Transmitter Receiver zI (t )
mI (t ) mI (t )

cos(C t )
QAM (t )
2  cos(C t )
Channel 

sin(C t ) 2  sin(C t )
mQ (t ) mQ (t )

zQ (t )
Note: cos(C t − 90) = sin(C t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 106

Illustrating  90 Degree ( /2) Phase Shift of a Cosine Wave
x(t ) = cos (t ) Cosine waveform

x(t ) = cos (t −  ) Cosine waveform delayed 90

2

x(t ) = cos (t +  ) Cosine waveform advanced 90

2

AM Modulation -- Radio 107

 Quadrature Amplitude Demodulation (QAM)
QAM (t ) = mI (t ) cos(C t ) + mQ (t )sin(C t )

zI (t ) = 2  cos(C t ) QAM (t ) = 2  cos(C t ) mI (t ) cos(C t ) + mQ (t )sin(C t ) 

zI (t ) = 2 mI (t )  cos 2 (C t ) + 2 mQ (t )  cos(C t )  sin(C t )
zI (t ) = mI (t ) + mI (t )  cos(2C t ) + mQ (t )sin(2C t )
We recover mI (t ) by passing zI (t ) through a LPF.
and
zQ (t ) = 2  sin(C t ) QAM (t ) = 2  sin(C t ) mI (t ) cos(C t ) + mQ (t )sin(C t ) 
zQ (t ) = 2 mQ (t )  sin 2 (C t ) + 2 mI (t )  sin(C t )  sin(C t )
zQ (t ) = mQ (t ) − mQ (t )  cos(2C t ) + mI (t )sin(2C t )
We recover mQ (t ) by passing zQ (t ) through a LPF. Page 111
Agbo & Sadiku

AM Modulation -- Radio 108

 Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation
Transmitter Receiver zI (t )
mI (t ) mI (t )

Analog
signal
cos(C t )
QAM (t )
2  cos(C t )
Channel 

sin(C t ) 2  sin(C t )
mQ (t ) mQ (t )

zQ (t )
Analog
signal
QAM (t ) = mI (t ) cos(C t ) + mQ (t ) sin(C t )
AM Modulation -- Radio 109
 Quadrature-Amplitude Demodulation

IF = C − LO
- C +C  Re mI(t)
Quadrature Downconverter
Re
-IF +IF 
½ ½
mI(t)
-LO +LO 
cos(LOt) cos(LOt)

-/2 LO
RF
sin(LOt)
+C 
j Im
- C mQ(t)
mQ(t) +½j +IF
+½j
Im
-IF 
Receiver +LO  -½j
-LO -½j
sin(LOt)

AM Modulation -- Radio 110

Quadrature-Amplitude Demodulation (continued)

Im
mI(t)
Re


In-phase signal occupies the
real axis-frequency plane

Im
mQ(t)
Re


Quadrature signal occupies the
imaginary axis-frequency plane

This illustrates the orthogonality of the two modulated signals.

AM Modulation -- Radio 111

 Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation
Now it becomes a digital communication system
zI (t )
mI (t ) mI (t )

Digital
signals
cos(C t )
QAM (t )
2  cos(C t )
Channel 

sin(C t ) 2  sin(C t )
mQ (t ) mQ (t )

Transmitter Receiver zQ (t )
QAM (t ) = mI (t ) cos(C t ) + mQ (t ) sin(C t )
AM Modulation -- Radio 112
 Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation (4-QAM)

time t
http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3896/en/

Constellation
Diagram

Amplitude
AM Modulation -- Radio 113
Effect of frequency error and phase error
in synchronous detection

AM Modulation -- Radio 114

 QAM: Phase Error in Synchronous Detection
The local carrier in a DSB-SC receiver and a QAM receiver is 2cos(Ct + ),
while the signal carrier at the input of each receiver is cos(Ct). That
means the signal carrier and local carrier in the receivers are phase
shifted relative to each other. Derive expressions for the demodulated
output signals for both receivers. Compare your results for DSB-SC and
QAM.

Solution: (Example 3.9 on pp. 112-113)

For the DSB-SC receiver (NOT QAM): Phase error = 
x(t )=2cos(C t +  )  DSB − SC (t ) = 2m(t )  cos(C t )  cos(C t +  )
x(t ) = m(t )  cos( ) + m(t )  cos (C t +  )
Therefore, low-pass filering gives y (t ) = m(t )  cos( )

AM Modulation -- Radio 115

 QAM: Phase Error in Synchronous Detection (continued)
For the QAM receiver:
z I (t ) = 2 cos(C t +  )  QAM (t ) = 2cos(C t +  )  mI (t )  cos(C t ) + mQ (t )  sin(C t ) 
z I (t ) = 2mI (t )  cos(C t )  cos(C t +  ) + 2mQ (t )  sin(C t )  cos(C t +  )
z I (t ) = mI (t )  cos( ) + m1 (t )  cos(2C t +  ) − mQ (t )  sin( ) + mQ (t )  sin(2C t +  )
and
zQ (t ) = 2sin(C t +  )  QAM (t ) = 2sin(C t +  )  mI (t )  cos(C t ) + mQ (t )  sin(C t ) 
zQ (t ) = 2mI (t )  cos(C t )  sin(C t +  ) + 2mQ (t )  sin(C t )  sin(C t +  )
zQ (t ) = mI (t )  sin( ) + m1 (t )  sin(2C t +  ) + mQ (t )  cos( ) − mQ (t )  cos(2C t +  )
The low-pass filters suppress the terms centered at 2C
Therefore,
yI (t ) = mI (t )  cos( ) − mQ (t )  sin( )
Co-channel interference
yQ (t ) = mQ (t )  cos( ) + mI (t )  sin( )

AM Modulation -- Radio 116

 QAM: Frequency Error in Synchronous Detection
Compare the effect of a small frequency error in the local carrier for a
DSB-SC receiver and a QAM receiver. The carrier at the transmitter is
cos(Ct) and the carrier at the receiver is 2cos(C+ )t.

Answer: (Example 3.10 on pp. 113-114)

yI (t ) = mI (t ) cos( t ) − mQ (t ) sin(  t )

yQ (t ) = mQ (t ) cos( t ) + mI (t ) sin(  t )

Note the similarity to the answer to Example 3.9.

You should now be able to guess the answer to a
question involving both phase error  and frequency
error . (Practice Problem 3.10 on page 114)

AM Modulation -- Radio 117

 Single Sideband (SSB) AM
Modulation and Demodulation

Filter method; Phasing Method; Weaver Method

https://hamradioschool.com/hey-why-is-there-no-transmit-power-when-i-key-the-mic/

AM Modulation -- Radio 118

 Single Sideband (SSB) AM
Why single sideband? DSB-SC is spectrally inefficient because it uses
twice the bandwidth of the message. SSB addresses that issue.

The signal can be reconstructed from either the upper sideband (USB) or
the lower sideband (LSB).
SSB transmits a bandpass filtered version of the modulated signal.

Reference: Lathi & Ding,4th ed., 2009; Fig. 4.12.

AM Modulation -- Radio 119

 Single Sideband (SSB) AM

Multiplication of the USB signal by cos(Ct) shifts the spectrum to left and right.
Reference: Lathi & Ding,4th ed., 2009; Fig. 4.13.
AM Modulation -- Radio 120
Phase-Shift Method to Generate SSB AM

Hilbert
Transformer

SSB (t ) = m(t ) cos(C t ) + mh (t )sin(C t )

where minus sign applies to USB
and plus sign applies to the LSB.
mh (t ) is m(t ) phase delayed by - /2
Reference: Lathi & Ding,4th ed., 2009; Fig. 4.17.
AM Modulation -- Radio 121
Reference Note: Quadrature Phase-Shifts & Hilbert Transform
sin(t ) For a + 90° (or /2) phase shift:
− cos(t ) sin(t )  cos(t )
cos(t )  − sin(t )
For a - 90° (or -/2) phase shift:
sin(t )  − cos(t )
 cos(t )  sin(t )
2

H ( ) = − j  sgn( )
sin(t ) − cos(t )
+j
+j/2

-j/2

 
= 
-j -1/2 -1/2

Hilbert transform
AM Modulation -- Radio 122
 Polyphase Filter – HA5WH Network (Gingell)
Polyphase filters are symmetric RC structures with inputs and outputs
symmetrically arranged in relative phases.

0

90
Balanced
Audio
Input 180

270

HA5WH Network
Achieves constant phase shifts over 300 Hz to about 3,000 Hz with
a 60 dB rejection of the other sideband.

AM Modulation -- Radio 123

 Using a Polyphase Filter in a SSB Generator
The ARRL Handbook for the Radio Amateur, (American Radio Relay League,
Newington, 1993), and many previous editions.

Balanced
Modulator
0
180 0
Driver
Polyphase
& LPF
Filter

90
270
Balanced
Modulator

90

VTO

https://www.radioexperimenter.us/re-04-1994/phaseshifi-
network-analysis-and-optimization.html

AM Modulation -- Radio 124

 Phase-Shift Method to Generate SSB AM

• The phasing method uses two balanced mixers to

eliminate the carrier.

• The phasing method for SSB generation uses a phase-

shift to cancel one of the sidebands.

• The carrier oscillator is applied to the upper balanced

modulator along with the modulating signal.
•
• The carrier and modulating signals are both shifted by
90 degrees and applied to another modulator.

• Phase-shifting causes one sideband to cancel when the

two modulator outputs are summed together.

AM Modulation -- Radio 125

 Phase-Shift Method for Receiving SSB Signals

I
Receiver

HT
Reference: Q
https://www.dsp
related.com/sho
warticle/176.php

http://www.panoradio-sdr.de/ssb-demodulation/
AM Modulation -- Radio 126
 Synchronous Demodulation of SSB AM

https://www.dsprelated.com/showarticle/176.php

x(t ) = 2SSB (t )  cos(C t ) =  m(t )  cos(C t ) mh (t )  sin(C t )  2 cos(C t )

x(t ) = m(t ) +  m(t )  cos(2C t ) mh (t )  sin(2C t ) 
and upon low-pass filtering we have
x(t ) = m(t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 127

 Weaver’s SSB Modulator

https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/design-ssb-modulator-
Figure: Weaver’s method for generating SSB Signals
using-phasing-method-weaver-s-ssb-modulator-shown-figure-matlab-simul-q21017269
AM Modulation -- Radio 128
 Hartley Image-Rejection Architecture
Antenna

-IF IF

RF cos(Ct)

IF
sin(Ct)
-IF IF
90

-LO LO
-IF
-IF IF
IF

http://www.microwavejournal.com/articles/3226-on-the-direct-conversion-receiver-a-tutorial

AM Modulation -- Radio 129

SSB Mixer and Image Rejection Mixer Comparison
in le ideband i er

cos t

sin t

a e e ection i er

cos t

sin t
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SSB_and_Image_Rejection_Mixer.svg

AM Modulation -- Radio 130

 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) → Digital Signal

How is PAM in digital communication similar to AM in analog communication?

AM Modulation -- Radio 131

 Questions

?
AM Modulation -- Radio 132
 Questions
From Spring 2018 EE 442 Class
1. What is the point of creating a rectified output when using a diode for
AM modulation?

It combines the carrier signal with the message signal m(t). See slides 34, 35
& 36 for illustration of this.

2. More about how mixers work. (Three questions asked about mixers.)

Two principles are used in mixers to create new frequencies: (1) Nonlinearity
the I-V characteristics of a nonlinear device do this, and (2) time-varying
switching will create new frequencies.

3. Explain the idea of images in mixers again.

See the next four slides.

AM Modulation -- Radio 133

 Image Signals in Mixers (1)

This converts the

RF spectrum
spectrum at the RF
carrier frequency Signal band
down to the spectrum There is no signal shown in
centered at the IF this part of the spectrum.
frequency.
LO frequency
RF
RF IF
IF band Desired
LO
down-conversion

IF frequency
IF = LO - RF

AM Modulation -- Radio 134

Image Signals in Mixers (2) – Now an Image Signal Appears
Now both the
The image spectrum is not wanted.
spectrum at the RF
carrier frequency and

RF spectrum
the undesired image Signal band
spectrum are down
converted to the Image band
spectrum centered at
the IF frequency.
LO frequency
RF image
RF IF
IF band
LO But, now both signals
appear in the IF band.

IF frequency
IF = LO - RF
and
IF = image - LO
AM Modulation -- Radio 135
 Image Signals in Mixers (3)

Suppose the LO frequency is

This converts the Below the RF frequency.

RF spectrum
spectrum at the RF
carrier frequency Signal band
down to the spectrum
centered at the IF
frequency.

LO frequency
RF
RF IF
IF band Again, the desired
LO
down-conversion

IF frequency
IF = RF - LO

AM Modulation -- Radio 136

 Image Signals in Mixers (4) – With Image Signal
As before both the
spectrum at the RF The LO frequency is
carrier frequency and below the RF frequency.

RF spectrum
the undesired image Signal band
spectrum are down
converted to the
spectrum centered at
the IF frequency.
 frequency
image LORF
RF IF
IF band Again, both signals
LO
appear in the IF band.

IF frequency
IF = RF - LO
and
IF = LO - image
AM Modulation -- Radio 137
 Questions

https://www.123rf.com/photo_7155118_many-colorful-question-
marks-around-the-word.html

AM Modulation -- Radio 138

 Questions From 2018 Semester

4. Why does FM take so much more bandwidth than AM?

It is because we force FM (and PM) signals to have constant amplitude

and so additional frequencies are required to meet this requirement. We
show this in detail when we cover Angle Modulation.

5. Is there a point where having too many mixers can impact your frequency
negatively?

Issues with using multiple mixers:

a. Adds complexity (such as many mixing products come into play)
b. Most mixers are lossy and power gain is required to continue to
process the signal (also, mixers add noise on their own to signals)
c. Cost (not only from added mixers, but also for LO oscillators and
amplifiers)

AM Modulation -- Radio 139

 More Questions

6. In an antenna why does the length have to be /4?

Technically, it does not have to be precisely /4, but making it longer does
not have an advantage in maximizing its efficiency. Making it shorter
decreases the signal strength received. Also, we may want the antenna to
resonate at the operating frequency to increase the efficiency of the
antenna.

7. If an AM signal has a wavelength of hundreds of feet, how can its

antenna be so small?

The coil of wire picks up the time-variation of the electromagnetic wave’s

magnetic field and induces a current in the coil which becomes the signal
at the input of the AM receiver. The current increases with the number
of turns of the coil.

AM radio antenna
AM Modulation -- Radio 140
 More Questions

8. When you have no carrier signal, are you sending the message signal?
If so, is there even any modulation of the amplitude or just
the original signal?

In the absence of a carrier signal, then only the message signal can be sent
at the frequency band of the message signal (this is called the baseband
signal).

9. Does the local oscillator change its frequency depending upon the RF
frequency you want to select?

I assume you are referring to the superheterodyne receiver.

Yes, the local oscillator frequency is changed to select the RF frequency
you want to select. We require that frequency difference between the
RF and LO frequencies be a constant (and we call this frequency difference
the intermediate frequency or IF signal).

AM Modulation -- Radio 141

 More Questions

10. How is a mixer similar/different from amplitude modulation?

The mathematics of the AM says we use a multiplier to multiply the carrier

signal with the message signal. A mixer performs signal multiplication as
required in amplitude modulation.

11. Why do we use sub-heterodyning? What are the common applications

of sub-heterodyning?

When analyzing a system we focus upon the RF frequencies involved and

possible local oscillator frequencies. The focus is upon frequency conversion.
Questions for designer: Do we want to work with higher or lower frequencies?
What frequency bands are to be avoided?

12. Which modulation is the most useful today? AM, FM or PM Why?

FM is the more widely used. It has better noise immunity.

AM Modulation -- Radio 142

 More Questions

13. How do you build a mixer?

Example: See slides 62 and 73 illustrating the diode ring mixer.

14. How would you handle having your oscillator being 1% off?

A 1% offset in frequency is very large. You might lock it to a reference

frequency (such as a precision crystal oscillator). You might use a phase-
lock loop to slave the local oscillator to the correct frequency. You might
use a pilot signal broadcast with the modulated carrier. There are many
other possible solutions.

15. From our homework assignments, what would you consider the most
important problems?

All of them. During the review session before the first midterm I will give a
more detailed and specific answer to this question.

AM Modulation -- Radio 143

 More Questions

16. What happens to an over-modulated signal? Can the signal still be used?

Over-modulation leads to distortion in the message. It can still be used in

voice communication if the voice over-modulation is not too severe. The
point is that voice can still be understood even with moderate distortion.

17. Why do RLC resonator circuits have a -3 dB frequency corresponding to

a bandwidth of B = 1/RC?

iR j L
H ( ) = =
i (t ) R + jL + ( j  )2 RCL
2 2
1  1  1  1 
1 = − + ( LC ) & 2 = + + ( LC )
2 2
+   +  
2RC  2RC  2RC  2RC 
1
Bandwidth B = 2 − 1 =
RC

AM Modulation -- Radio 144

 More Questions
18. How does x(t) =iD(t)R come about? Why is it not KVL?
Diode
Remember:
+
Accos(Ct) + +
_ iD (t ) BPF
R x(t) Filter y(t)
+ _ (c) _
m(t)
_

The diode is the nonlinear component (it has an exponential

characteristic). Using a Taylor’s series we can express the diode
current iD as (only first two terms of Taylor’s series),
iD (t ) = b1vD (t ) + b2vD2 (t ); vD (t ) is diode voltage. “Square Law”
behavior
The voltage across resistor R is given by
x(t ) = iD (t ) R = b1 RvD (t ) + b2 RvD2 (t ) = a1vD (t ) + a2vD2 (t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 145

 More Questions (2018)
19. Can you explain using nonlinearity for modulation much like
Problem 3 in Homework #3 (from 2018 Spring Semester)?

Modulator

Given relationship

( )
x(t ) = iD R =  4vD + vD2  R , but R = 1
Substituting for vD (=  + m(t ) + AC cos(C t )) ,
x(t ) = 4 ( + m(t ) + AC cos(C t ) )  +  ( + m(t ) + AC cos(C t ) ) 
2

 
x(t ) = 4 ( + m(t ) + AC cos(C t ) )  +  ( + m(t ) ) + 2 AC ( + m(t )  cos(C t ) ) + AC2 cos 2 (C t ) 
2

 
AC2
But we know AC cos (C t ) =
2 2
(1 + cos(2C t ) )
2 Continued next slide →
AM Modulation -- Radio 146
 More Questions

Problem 3 in Homework #3 (2018 Spring Semester) continued:

x(t ) = 4  ( + m(t ) + AC cos(C t ) )  +  ( + m(t ) ) + 2 AC ( + m(t )  cos(C t ) ) + AC2 cos 2 (C t ) 
2

 
  AC2   AC2
(
x(t ) =  4  ( + m(t )) +   + m(t ) +2
)  + ( 2  AC ( + m(t ) )  cos(C t ) ) + cos(2C t )
 2  2
The band-pass filter (BPF) passes only terms of cos(C t ), thus y (t ) is
y (t ) = 4  AC  cos(C t ) + 2  AC ( + m(t ))  cos(C t )
y (t ) = ( 4  AC + 2  AC )  cos(C t ) + m(t )  cos(C t )
y (t ) = ( K )  cos(C t ) + m(t )  cos(C t )

AM Modulation -- Radio 147

 More Questions

20. What is the primary form of noise production in AM systems?

The greatest noise problem in AM channels is interference, noise pickup,

& fading in wireless transmission, all of which distort the amplitude of the
transmitted signal.

21. QAM (Several asked about QAM so we need to cover it again)

I will review QAM again after questions are answered.

AM Modulation -- Radio 148

 More Questions
22. Go over Problem 2 in Homework #2 (2018 Spring Semester)

Problem 2 Square Law Device (20 points)

You are given a square-law component with an input to output relationship of

y ( t ) = A + B ( g (t ) )
2

(a) To explore the behavior of this device we let the input signal g(t) be a sinusoidal
tone, that is, g(t) = cos(t).
Answer: The square-law device generates a frequency that is the double of the single tone frequency f.
To show this we make use of the trigonometric identity:
B
y (t ) = A + B ( g (t ) ) = A + B cos(t ) = A + 1 + cos(2  t )
2 2

2
 B B
y (t ) =  A +  + cos(2  t )
 2 2
(b) What frequencies does the cubic term (that is, D[g(t)]3) generate when driven by
g(t) = cos(t)?
y (t ) = A + Bg (t ) + C ( g (t ) ) + D ( g (t ) ) + other terms.
2 3

Answer: The cubic term in the series generates a frequency that is triple of the frequency of g(t), that is,
frequency 3f. This comes from using the trigonometric identity of cos3(x) = ¼[3cos(x) + cos(3x)].
Thus, the cos3(2ft) term gives us both a cos(2ft) term (not so interesting) and a cos(3·2ft) term
(which is a new frequency being introduced).

AM Modulation -- Radio 149

 More Questions
23. Why does milliwatts relate to dBm rather than just use milliwatts?

We express milliwatts (mW) in decibels by

 P 
Power in dBm = 10  log10  mW  dBm ( Note: logarithm of a ratio )
 1 mW 
We use this because logarithms add rather than multiply in calculations.

Example:

Suppose a signal of 3 dBm power drives an amplifier of gain = 13 dB. What is the
output power of the amplifier.

Answer: Output power (in dB) = 3 dBm + 13 dB = 16 dBm,

compared to 2 mW (= 3 dBm) multiplied by gain of 20 (= 13 dB) = 40 mW

AM Modulation -- Radio 150

 More Questions
24. What is the one question you think we should have asked?

Answer: Most likely the one for the topic that is troubling you.

AM Modulation -- Radio 151

Additional Slides & Illustrations

https://www.stonybrook.edu/commcms/elec
trical/news/2017/armstrong_award.php

AM Modulation -- Radio 152

 Generating m(t)cos(Ct) using Convolution
G( )
g(t) F
RF 
(t) Cn( )
F
LO 
From Convolution Theorem: (t) g(t)  Cn( )  G( )

Fold, Shift & Multiply


m(t )  cos(C t )
Output Spectrum


AM Modulation -- Radio 153
 Gilbert Cell Multiplier Using FET Devices

Generally Gilbert cells are available in integrated circuits.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/gilbert-cell

AM Modulation -- Radio 154

IIP3 = Third-order Input Intercept Point

https://www.exploregate.com/video.aspx?video_id=5

AM Modulation -- Radio 155

Modern Mechanix (December 1952)
Today it is reality!

http://blog.modernmechanix.com/dick-tracy-wrist-radio/

AM Modulation -- Radio 156