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Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

 Define the lecture method
 Explain why the lecture is widely adopted in higher education
 Differentiate between the types of lectures
 Discuss what is to be included in planning a lecture
 Explain the characteristics of an effective delivery
 Adopt some of the evaluation techniques proposed

Module Outline
9.1 Introduction
a) What is the lecture?
b) The status of the lecture
c) Why the lecture has
survived?
9.2 Types of lectures
9.3 When to use the lecture?
9.4 When not to use the lecture?
9,5 What is an effective lecture?
9.6 What to consider when planning a lecture?
9.7 „First day of class‟
9.8 How to deliver a good lecture?
9.9 Evaluating lecture
performance
Summary
Key Terms
References

In this module, we will discuss the use of the lecture method in higher education
teaching. Despite the many criticisms of the lecture it continues to be a dominant
instructional strategy in institutions of higher learning. The lecture has survived because
it is an economical method of instruction and is effective in expounding and explaining
basic concepts and principles of a course.
A lecture should be well-planned taking into consideration many factors to be
effective. It is important for instructors to pay particular attention to the factors that
determine the effective delivery of lectures. Lecturers should also make an effort to
evaluate their lectures through audio and videotaping of their presentation as well as
getting students to evaluate their lectures.
9.1 INTRODUCTION

You must excuse the occasional unstifled yawn among

students. You see, by the time they complete four years of
college they will have endured almost 2000 hours of
classroom instruction. With out question, most of that time
will have been spent listening to lectures.
─ Stephen Husle. Teaching by Lecture. Instructional Techniques.
1985. 60(4).

a) WHAT IS THE LECTURE?

The lecture method is the most common form of teaching in institutions of higher
education throughout the world, and is likely to continue to be so. The following are
some definitions of the method:

 A lecture is a teaching period occupied wholly or mainly with continuous

exposition by the lecturer (Report of the Committee on University Teaching
Methods)

 The lecture is an oral presentation, intended to present information or teach

people about a particular subject by a university or college teacher. Lectures
are used to convey critical information, history, background, theories and
equations (Wikipedia.com).
 An exposition of a given subject delivered before an audience or a class, as for
the purpose of instruction (Free Dictionary).
 Teaching by giving a discourse on some subject; typically to a class (World
Web Online).
 A discourse given before an audience or class especially for instruction
(Merriam Webster).
b) THE STATUS OF THE LECTURE

The preference for the lecture is not surprising since most of us were taught
that way. The lecture appears easy to prepare and present, and furthermore lectures
are widely accepted by students and peers. For decades, the lecture as a teaching
strategy has been subjected to many criticisms. Below is a statement made some 37
years ago about the lecture method.

“Many lectures are not creative but have degenerated into a dull
monotonous dictation worse than the irritating flight of a mosquito in a
theatre of up to 500 students. What motivation and incentive is there for
regular attendance if such facts and figures are dictated from books”.

[source: PENTING: Student News Bulletin, Faculty of Arts, University of

Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. December, 1971]

Do you think it has changed today? Students continue to find lectures boring
causing them to lose interest. Students with poor listening skills have a harder time
focusing on what is presented while those with weak note-taking skills have trouble
understanding what they should remember from lectures. Furthermore, students are
unable to ask questions on things they do not understand and lecturers are not sure
how much students understanding because there is not much opportunity for
interaction during lecture.

c) WHY HAS THE LECTURE SURVIVED?

Despite whatever has been said against the lecture, it continues to be the
dominant teaching method in many institutions of higher education. With the advent
of technology, it was thought that the lecture will be non-existent but yet it continues
to be widely used, though its frequency may have been reduced in some institutions.
As more students enter tertiary institutions, the role of the lecture in higher education
institutions may in fact expand to accommodate large student numbers.

 First, the lecture method is a cost effective method for teaching large student
numbers with minimal administrative resources.
 Second, the lecture is a straightforward method to impart knowledge to
students quickly and is easier to design and implement than other methods of
instruction.
 Third, the lecture is a method familiar to most university and college
instructors because it was typically the way they were taught.
 Fourth, students are also more familiar with the lecture method because it is
the predominant instructional delivery method in most higher education
institutions.
 Fifth, the lecture method is flexible because it can be adapted, on short notice,
to any audience, subject matter, or time limit.
 Sixth, students who seek facts and high grades prefer the lecture.
 Seventh, an effective lecturer is able to engage and motivate students to learn a
subject.
  Finally, lecturers have been actively involved in introducing innovative ways
of delivering lectures to meet the diverse needs of students in classes
increasing in size.

9.1 ACTIVITY
a) Is your definition of a lecture similar to the definitions
given above?
b) To what extent do you agree with the reasons given for
the survival of the lecture method despite the many
criticisms?

9. 2 TYPES OF LECTURES

The following are three major types of lectures.

 The Expository Lecture is what most students think of when they hear that
the faculty member "lectures a lot." The instructor does most of the talking.
Occasionally bolder students ask questions of clarification.
 The Lecture–Recitation encourages greater student participation. The
instructor still does most of the talking, but often stops and asks students
specific questions or requests students to read prepared material. In the
lecture-recitation, the direction of interaction is either (1) instructor to class,
(2) instructor to individual student, or (3) individual student to instructor.

LECTURER

CLASS Student X

 The Interactive Lecture encourages student to student interaction. The

instructor begins with a 15 to 25 minute mini-lecture and then asks the
students to form learning groups and complete an assignment based on the
mini-lecture. Then the instructor delivers another mini-lecture.

9.2 ACTIVITY
a) Which of the above types of lectures have you used in
teaching your course?
b) Give reasons for your choice of lecture type.
9. 3 WHEN TO USE THE LECTURE METHOD

The lecture is appropriate when:

 Disseminating information quickly to a large audience
 Presenting new information before using other media or activities (e.g., a brief
lecture before playing a videotape)
 Providing an overview or summary of the topic
 Arousing interest in a topic
 Building a rational for the importance of the subject
 Helping students identify what is important
 Motivating students by demonstrating the lecturer‟s enthusiasm for the subject

9. 4 WHEN NOT TO USE THE LECTURE METHOD

The lecture is not appropriate when:

 Presenting complex, detailed or abstract information
 Dealing with information concerning feelings and attitudes
 Training in psychomotor (hands-on) skills
 Teaching high-level cognitive skills (e.g., synthesis ad evaluation)

A good lecture can model critical thinking for

students when a teacher questions her own
assumptions, acknowledges ethical dilemmas
hidden in her position, refers to inconvenient
theories, facts, and philosophies that she has
deliberately overlooked, and demonstrates an
openness to alternative viewpoints.
(Brookfield, 1995).
 9.3 ACTIVITY
Do you agree with the claim by Brookfield (1995) that
a well-organised lecture can be used to develop the
critical thinking skills of students? Explain.

9. 5 WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE

LECTURE?

Sullivan and McIntosh (1996) compared the effective and ineffective lecture (see
Table 9.1). In the effective lecture and active lecture, the instructor involves students
through a highly interactive and participatory approach using a variety of teaching
techniques. Because of the questioning, interaction and involvement, students are
actively engaged and connected to the educator. By contrast, in an ineffective and
passive lecture, the instructor stands at a lectern and speaks with minimal student
interaction. Not surprisingly, after a few minutes students find it difficult to
concentrate, as there is little or no stimulation.

The Effective Lecture The Ineffective Lecture

Lecturer-student interaction 100% instructor talk, with

limited or no interaction

Two-way communication One-way communication

Lecturer-student questions Few if any questions

(lecturer or student)

Shared responsibility for active Student depends on

information lecturer for all learning

Small group, problem-solving No student activities

activities

Variety of supporting media No supporting media

Limited note taking required Extensive note taking required

(students have copies
of lecture notes)

[source: R. Sullivan & N. McIntosh (1996). Delivering effective lectures. Paper #5,
U.S. Agency for International Development. JHPIEGO Corporation.]

Table 9.1 Characteristics of the Effective and Ineffective Lecture

 9.4 ACTIVITY
Take a moment to recall the characteristics of some of the:
─ worst lectures that you had as a student.
 ─ good lectures that you had as a student.

9.6 WHAT SHOULD YOU CONSIDER WHEN PLANNING A

LECTURE?

a) BEGIN WITH THE END IN MIND.

Whether you are relatively new to the lecture format or
have spent years presenting lectures by the dozen, you
should understand that good lecture planning begins at
the end. By figuring out the desired outcome(s) of the
presentation in advance, teachers can better organize
lecture content and delivery to achieve those goals.
What do you want the students to learn from this lesson?
What standards are you meeting? What does the state or
your district require? What age students are you trying
to reach? How are you going to assess that learning?
(Some teachers find that by writing the assessment first,
they are better able to focus their lesson on what is essential). Once you've determined
this, write a quick description and list out your objectives for the assignment (Melissa
Kelly, 2008. Lesson Plans. About.com).

b) KEY TERMS OR VOCABULARY LIST

Create a key vocabulary list that you will add to as you write out your lesson plan
procedure. This will help you remember terms that you need to make sure the students
understand as they work through the lesson.

A rule-of-thumb for a new lecturer to adopt: There is much that COULD be

covered but he or she must first decide what SHOULD be covered and then
what really MUST be covered. The MUST be covered goes into the lecture.

[source: Cockburn, B. & Ross, A. (1977). Why Lecture? Teaching in Higher

Education Series. University of Lancaster]

c) BREADTH OR DEPTH
It is necessary to strike a balance between depth and breadth of coverage. Giving too
many details may cause students to loose sight of the main ideas. Or, when too many
ideas are presented and not developed, students fail to gain understanding. Be sure to
Rule of thumb states to stick to about 3-4 main points in a 50-minute period.

d) ORGANISATION OF MATERIAL
The following are several ways you can organise the material for your lecture:
 Cause-Effect: Events are cited and explained (i.e., one can demonstrate how
the invasion of Melaka by the Portuguese in 1511 affected the economy and
politics of Melaka).

 Sequential: Lecture ideas are arranged sequentially (e.g, a lecturer explaining

the steps in calculating mean in a statistics class, talks about the first step to be
undertaken, the second step, and so forth).

 Topical: This is the common organisation techniques in which the lecture

begins with a main idea followed by subordinate ideas and details. (e.g,
lecturer lecturing on management begins with the main idea of „level of
management‟ followed by „line managers‟, „middle-manager‟ and so forth.

 Problem-solution: The statement of a problem is followed by alternate

solutions (i.e., a lecture on the Cuban missile crisis could begin with a
statement of the foreign policy problem followed by a presentation of the
alternative solutions available to the President

 Pro-Con: A two-sided discussion of a given topic is presented (e.g., the

lecture is organized around the advantages and disadvantages of using the
lecture method of instruction).

 Ascending-Descending: Lecture topics are arranged according to their

importance, familiarity, or complexity (i.e., in a lecture introducing students to
animal diseases, the diseases of primary importance could be discussed first,
the less important ones last).

9.5 ACTIVITY
a) Do you plan your lecture by beginning with the end?:
b) How do you make decisions about coverage in each
lecture you deliver?
 c) Which of the methods listed above have you used in
organising your lecture? Elaborate

e) DETERMINING HOW TO INTRODUCE THE LECTURE

You may want to plan the introduction. In some instances, an off-the-cuff introduction
might work; but it is still best to plan your introduction. For example, are you going to
begin with an anecdote, a quotation, a question or others. Further techniques to
introduce a lecture are discussed later under „Catchy Introduction.
f) DETERMINE HOW STUDENTS WILL APPLY CONCEPTS TAUGHT
Determine how you will have the students practice the skill and information you just
taught them. For example, if you have taught them about the laws of supply and
demand in economics, how you will have them practice this information to truly gain
an understanding of the material. Will you have them complete independent practice,
use a whole group simulation, or allow students to work cooperatively on a project?
These are just three possibilities of how you can have them practice the information.

g) INDEPENDENT STUDY OR HOMEWORK

Complete details for any homework or assessments that you will be giving the
students. If possible, connect homework to real life. This will help reinforce what the
students should be learning

h) RELIANCE ON TEXTBOOKS
Try not to always rely solely on your textbook for lessons. At the same time make
sure that you evaluate any other sources you might use like other books, articles,
colleagues, web resources and so forth.

i) LECTURER NEEDS TO HAVE LECTURE NOTES

Many lecturers make the mistake of thinking that they know their content well enough
to deliver a lecture without notes to guide them. This is very difficult for most
lecturers and usually results in an unsatisfactory experience for both the lecturer and
the student. Instead, the lecturer should prepare lecture notes to serve as a script or set
of cues to follow during the lecture. Lecture notes should consist of key words,
phrases. According to Sullivan and Wircenski (1996), lecture notes help the instructor:
o Stay on topic and prevent getting lost.
o Cover the main points without forgetting anything.
o Glance at a specific point and quickly return attention to the students.
o Relax and focus on delivery instead of worrying about what point to make
next.

j) HANDOUTS FOR STUDENTS

 Provide handouts of lecture outline, diagrams and so forth which would be
difficult for students to copy in their notes.
 For complex subjects or topics unavailable to the students in textbooks or
other sources, distribute an outline and go through it on the screen while you
lecture.
 If you have a course web page, provide an outline of the lectures and have the
students print out their own copies to bring to class. Leave blank areas where
they can fill in material that you provide in your lectures.

9.6 ACTIVITY
a) How reliant are you on textbooks for the preparation of
your lecture?
b) Describe your lecture notes.
c) Do you provide students with handouts? Why? Why not?
k) OVERPLAN
Overplan, overplan, overplan! It is much easier to cut things out of a plan or continue
it the next day than trying to fill up 15-20 minutes of extra time.

l) LESSON PLAN
Following is a sample lesson plan template that you can use as a guide to creating
your own lesson plans (Melissa Kelly, How to write a lesson plan, About.com, 2008).

LESSON PLAN FOR A LECTURE

Class: ___________________________________________

Duration: ________________________________________

Materials: ________________________________________

Key Terms: _______________________________________

Learning Outcomes:________________________________

Lesson Introduction: _______________________________

Step-by-Step Procedure: ____________________________

Review Notes: ____________________________________

Homework/Assessment: ____________________________

Evaluation: _______________________________________

9.7 ACTIVITY
 a) Have you used a lesson plan like the one shown above?
 b) Do you have your own format? Elaborate
 c) Do you think lesson plans are useful?
9.7 “FIRST DAY OF CLASS”

 Arrive for class early. Write your name and the name of the course on the
board (Some students may not be sure whether they are in the right class!).
 Provide students with a handout which states the name of the course, the
building and room number, the time and your name, office location,
consultation hours, phone number, course description, learning outcomes,
course topics, method of assessment and required texts and references
(Undergraduates get confused the first week!).
 Greet students with a smile and make some comments when it feels
comfortable and natural. Your students are curious about you and what your
class will be like.
 Start class on time and introduce yourself and tell them something interesting
about yourself like your research interests, what got you interested in this
subject in the first place.
 Let students know what your personal teaching style is and how you like to be
treated. For example, let them know how to address you, whether you mind
being interrupted with questions and how you like to conduct a discussion.
 If the class is not too large, get students to introduce themselves to each other
to make them feel more comfortable in your class. They will be more likely to
talk about their ideas and opinions, to admit their confusion and ask for help,
and to use other students as resources (missed notes, help with homework
assignments, study groups).
 Give a synopsis of the course and discuss what the students will be able to do
after the course (i.e. the learning outcomes to be achieved).
 Elaborate on the due dates for different assignments and tests.
 Stress on student responsibilities, including policies that you have set for
attendance, submission of assignment, behaviour in class, plagiarism, the
grading system for the course as well as how assignments and projects will be
assessed.
 Remind them of your consultation or office hours. Emphasise that you are
available to chat with students at those times. Be available at those times. Or
make greater use of email to communicate with your students.
 If you teaching for the first time, be honest with students regarding your
inexperience as a teacher Tell your students what teaching experience you
have had but do not focus on your inexperience or they will blame your
inexperience for their own failure. Make it clear to the class that you are
committed to helping them learn and you know the material well.

9.8 ACTIVITY
 a) Briefly discuss how you start your class at the beginning
 of each semester?
 b) Which of the above suggestions have you adopted on the
 first day of class?
9.8 HOW TO DELIVER A GOOD LECTURE?

Lecturing is not simply a matter of standing in front of a class and reciting

what you know. The lecture is a special form of communication in which voice,
gesture, movement, facial expression, and eye contact can either complement or
detract from the content. No matter what your topic, your delivery and manner of
speaking immeasurably influence your students' attentiveness and learning. Use the
following suggestions to help you capture and hold students' interest and increase
their retention (Davis, 1993).

1) CATCHY INTRODUCTION
You know you have plenty of interesting and engaging (you hope!) material to
convey in the next hour or two. But the reality of facing hundreds of tired, distracted,
or possibly bored students can distress even the most energetic teacher. Let students
know that this class is going to be different. Launch into your lecture with a catchy
start. Try one of these opening strategies:
 Try a brief interactive exercise that asks students to pair with a partner for two
minutes. (Locate the light switch ahead of time so that you can blink the lights
on and off to call everyone to the plenary group.)
 Share a story or anecdote related to the lecture content.
 Ask a rhetorical question.
 Begin with a demonstration that will show students what they will be able to
do by the end of the lecture.
 Relate the topic to previously covered content.
 Use a case study or problem-solving activity.
 Show an appropriate cartoon with the overhead or slide projector.
 Make a provocative statement to encourage discussion.
 Relate the topic to future work experiences.
 Share a personal experience.
 Use an interesting or famous quotation.
 Ask for a show of hands in response to a general question.
 Relate lecture content to previous class material, homework, or current events.
 Ask students to spend two or three minutes writing about the readings,
concepts, or issues to be examined during lecture. Then ask some brave souls
(and there are always a few) to share their work.
 Put a provocative quotation on the screen or raise a question that will be
answered during the lecture. Ask them to discuss it with a partner, write about
it, or respond to it verbally.
 Open with a three-minute Q&A session. Turn to the textbook or simply ask a
question that will lead into that day's lecture topic.
 9.9 ACTIVITY
a) Discuss some of the ways you have introduced a lecture
in your course.
c) How effective have these techniques been in introducing
your lecture?

2) CREATE AN INTIMATE CLIMATE:

 Talk, don't lecture. Think about your lecture as though you were talking to one
person at a time about your subject.
 Personalise the course content as much as possible. ("This reminds of a time
when I was working for a firm that was designing a parking structure. . . ".)
 When you cover an important concept, do not ask "Any questions?" Instead,
say "O.K., someone up in the last two rows, ask me a question about this
concept." This tells your class you want questions, and you will get them one
way or another.

3) LANGUAGE, VOICE AND PACING

 Speak in a natural, „conversational voice.‟
Enunciate your words clearly. Make certain
students can hear every spoken word.
o Make sure that your voice is strong and
audible,
o Lift your chin up and keep your eyes
facing the audience.
o Be sure to stay after class for a few
minutes to answer students' questions.
 Use conversational inflections and tones,
varying your pitch just as you do in ordinary
conversation. If you focus on the meaning of
what you are saying, you will instinctively
become more expressive. Choose informal language, and try to be natural and
direct.
o Use concrete and simplified language [Remember what Einstein said:
“Simplify but not simple].
o Use first-person and second-person pronouns (I, we, you).
o Choose dramatic adjectives, for example, "vital point" rather than
"main point" or "provocative issue" rather than "next issue."
o Eliminate jargon, empty words, and unnecessary qualifiers ("little bit,"
"sort of," "kind of"). (Bernhardt, 1989).
 The pause is one of the most critical tools of public speaking. It is an
important device for gaining attention. Pauses can be used as punctuation -to
mark a thought, sentence, or paragraph - and also for emphasis, before or after
a key concept or idea. If you suddenly stop in midsentence, students will look
up from their notes to see what happened. Planned pauses also give you and
your audience a short rest. Some lecturers deliberately pause and announce,
"This is the really important consideration," and pause again before
proceeding (Davis, 1993).
  Try to avoid saying "um," "well," "you know," "OK," or "so." Silent pauses
are more effective.
 Vary the pace at which you speak. Students need time to assimilate new
information and to take notes, but if you speak too slowly, they may become
bored. Try to vary the pace to suit your own style, your message, and your
audience. For example, deliver important points more deliberately than
anecdotal examples. If you tend to speak quickly, try to repeat your major
points so that students can absorb them (Davis, 1993).

9.10 ACTIVITY
a) Discuss some of the ways you have created an intimate
climate in your course.
b) Do you find the list of suggestions on how you should use
language and your voice to enhance lecture presentation
useful? Elaborate.

4) GESTURES
A gesture is a motion of the limbs or body
made to express or help express thought or to
emphasise speech. It is the act of moving the
limbs or body as an expression of thought or
emphasis (American Heritage Dictionary). When
lecturing, an instructor makes use of both verbal
and nonverbal communication.
Lecturing involves not only the words and
sentences an instructor utters and writes on the
board during a lesson, but also all the hands and
arms gestures, body movements, and facial
expressions a lecturer performs in the classroom
or auditorium (Weimer, 1988).
When you move to the board and draw a diagram or graph and simultaenously
talk, you are linking speech and gestures and in the process creating meaning. Hand
or arm gestures and body orientations, are valuable meaning-making resources which
students potentially rely upon to understand concepts. (Pozzer-Ardenghi and Roth,
2006).

5) MAINTAIN GOOD EYE CONTACT.

As you speak, shift your gaze about the class,
pausing momentarily to meet the gaze of as many
students possible. Make the students feel what you
have to say is directed to each one personally. Use
your eyes as well as your voice to communicate to
them; and their eyes, facial expressions, and
reactions communicate to you. Watch for
indications of doubt, misunderstanding, a desire to
participate, fatigue or a lack of interest.
Look directly at your students, one at a time to give them a sense that you are
speaking to each individual. Look at a student for three to five seconds. A longer
glance will make most students uncomfortable. Beware of aimless scanning or
swinging your head back and forth.
Mentally divide the lecture hall into three to five sections, and address
comments, questions, and eye contact to each section during the course of your
lecture, beginning in the center rear of the room. Pick out friendly faces, but also try
to include non-listeners. If real eye contact upsets your concentration, look between
two students or look at foreheads (Bernhardt, 1989).

The “Doctor Fox Effect”

Some people have suggested that voice, gestures and physical movement
gives the impression that the lecturer is being theatrical or even „clownish‟.
Well, perhaps it is because a teacher has been described as an „actor‟. In a
fascinating study over 30 years ago, Ware and Williams (1975) investigated the
relationship between style of presentation and student learning as measured by
performance on an objective test. The “Doctor Fox Effect,” named after the
persona created by the researchers, demonstrates that an instructor‟s style of
presentation affects how well students remember facts.
Here‟s how it worked. A trained Hollywood actor was coached to deliver
a lecture to several groups of students. Two factors were varied: lecture content
(high, medium, low) and lecturer seduction (high or low). The authors used the
term “seduction” to refer to personal characteristics such as charisma,
enthusiasm, expressiveness, friendliness, humour and personality.
The results showed that students who heard the „high seduction‟
presentation remembered more of the lecture content. Not surprisingly, the
students who attended the „high seduction‟ lecture gave a more favourable rating
of the instructor than did the low seduction group. So the next time you hear a
colleague say, “I just present the material; it‟s up to the students to learn it,”
remind them to be enthusiastic and charming in the process.

[source: J. Ware and R. Williams. (1975). The Doctor Fox effect: a study of lecturer
effectiveness and ratings of instruction. Journal of Medical Education. 50:149-156]

9.11 ACTIVITY
a) “An instructor is an actor”. Discuss
b) Would you describe yourself as one who use a lot of gestures?
Elaborate.
c) Discuss the “Doctor Fox Effect”.
d) How important is eye contact in lecturing?

6) WATCH OUT FOR NON-VERBAL QUES:

 Watch the class for nonverbal signs of confusion (i.e., loss of eye contact,
talking, or clock watching).
  Check student comprehension carefully throughout the presentation by
watching the faces of the trainees and by questioning. Observing facial
expressions as an indication of doubt or misunderstanding is not a sure way of
checking on trainee comprehension.
 Some students may appear to be comprehending the subject matter when, in
reality, they are completely confused. Trainees who are in doubt often
hesitate to make their difficulty known. They may hesitate because of
natural timidity, fear of being classified as stupid, or failure to
understand the subject matter well enough to explain where their
difficulty lies.
 Frequently ask if the class has any questions, thus giving the students an
opportunity to express any doubts or misunderstandings on their part. Based
on your personal knowledge and past experiences, ask specific
questions about those areas which might give trainees the most trouble.
 Some instructors make the mistake of waiting until the end of the
presentation to ask questions. The best time to clear away mental fog is hen
the fog develops. Mental fog tends to create a mental block that prevents
the trainee from concentrating on the subject matter being presented.

7) CHECK FOR STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

Pause to check if students are following the main ideas of your lecture and you could
do any of the following:
 Stop and ask questions (i.e., "Who can describe in their own words the theory
of....?").
 Ask questions about each major point, first at a recall level, and then
gradually increase to more complex levels ─ comprehension, analysis,
synthesis, application, or evaluation.
 Ask students to share questions (i.e., "What questions do you have at this
point?" or "Write down what you difficulty in understanding at this point?
Then I'll collect and address your questions.)
 Present a problem (or test items), or case study which requires use of lecture
content to answer. (i.e., “Based on the content covered so far, answer this
multiple choice item...").

8) SHOW ENTHUSIASM FOR WHAT YOU TEACH

 Students tend to take greater interest in material presented by someone
genuinely committed to material taught. Try not to look or sound bored, even
if you have lectured on this topic for years, decades, or twice already today.
Use your voice, expressions, body language, and methods of audience
interaction to share your passion with your students. Not all of them will
follow your lead, but at least some of them will, simply by modelling your
obvious interest. And the sheer force of your own enthusiasm will see you
through lecturing for the first time or the umpteenth time.
 Think back to what inspired you as an undergraduate or to the reasons you
entered the field you are in. Even if you have little interest in a particular
topic, try to come up with a new way of looking at it and do what you can to
stimulate students' enthusiasm. If you appear bored with the topic, students
will quickly lose interest.
9) COMPLEMENTING YOUR LECTURE
 Provide materials such as study guides, sample test questions, lecture outlines
or even lecture notes, slides, or overheads to complement their lecture.

10) ANECDOTES AND ANALOGIES

 Incorporate anecdotes and stories into your lecture. When you are in a
storytelling mode, your voice becomes conversational and your face more
expressive and students tend to listen more closely. Use anecdotes to illustrate
your key points.
 Use analogies to illustrate concepts and principles. An analogy is a
comparison of an unfamiliar object or idea to a familiar one in an attempt to
explain or illuminate the unfamiliar. For example, the river and its tributaries
may be used as an analogy to explain the human blood circulation system.

11) EXAMPLES, EXAMPLES, EXAMPLES!

Examples are very powerful is explaining concept and principles. Often we get
students asking: “Can you give use an example of what you just said?” Usually,
students are demanding an example from the real-world or daily life that explains the
concept or principle. Oftentimes, students may remember the example but may not
sufficiently recall the concept or principle! Has this happened to you?
 Use examples to show the application of concepts in the real-world or
authentic situations and enrich understanding.
 Non-examples (though less frequently used) can explain concepts and
principles.
 Examples should be familiar to student if they are to bring the students close
to the subject.
 Examples can be entertaining and should be interesting.
 Examples can be introduced to link different parts of the lecture.

12) MAKING A POINT

In a lecture, emphasis or making a point is needed because not everything in a
lecture is of equal importance. It makes no sense if you were to present a lecture as
though every point and every example were of equal importance. Bligh (1990)
suggests the following ways of emphasising or making a point during a lecture:
 State or describe the point concisely.
 Reinforce the point by writing it on the board or projecting it on the screen.
 Say it another way. Not everyone will understand things in the same way.
 Elaborate the point. Give more details, examples, evidence and explanations
and give illustration.
 Relate the point to other parts of the lectures and to other concepts. The
connections and differences between concept should always be emphasised.
 Restate the point.

9.12 ACTIVITY
a) Describe some of the ways you have indicated to your students
your enthusiasm for your course?
b) Give some examples of non-verbal cues you have observed
in your class among your students.
c) Are anecdotes and examples useful when explaining concepts
and principles of your course? Give some specific examples.
13) COMBINING THE LECTURE WITH INTERACTION ACTIVITIES
You may combine the lecture with certain interaction activities. However,
some instructors are of the opinion that such activities distract students from the
information at hand. Others believe that well-placed and carefully designed activities
help students process lecture content by being actively involved. These lecture-
interaction activities facilitate learning in the following ways:
 First, active-learning exercises motivate students to use their notes and it may
inspire students to take more detailed notes to complete the exercises.
 Second, these short activities foster greater awareness of the lecture itself. If
students know that the pace will change often, they are much less apt to play
with their handphone, fall asleep, or even skip class.

Here are some useful active-learning exercises and strategies:

 Prepare one or two questions to follow each section of your presentation:

Put these questions on the screen, and ask students to answer them verbally or
in writing. This exercise both gauges the students' grasp of new material and
encourages extemporaneous discussion. Incorporate a version of this exercise
into the small group teaching sessions for a more comprehensive measurement
of all students' understanding of new material.

 Announce a brief open-notebook quiz on the material just presented:

This approach rewards the diligent and reminds the rest to take good (or at
least some!) notes throughout the lecture. Collect these quizzes; they can give
you a general idea of how well you are communicating your content and
achieving the goals of your lecture.

 Break into groups:

Ask students to break into groups of two or three then ask them to
demonstrate, model, apply, or practice the concept, theory, or skill they have
just learned. This approach gives students a chance to interact both with new
knowledge, with each other, and with different approaches to putting this new
knowledge into practice.

 Take a two-minute break:

Giving students a chance to stretch, take a quick walk to the hallway, or chat.
It goes far toward refocusing their attention for the rest of the lecture period.

 Ask a question of the class requiring higher

level thinking skills:
Encourage students to think about a question and
their answer for a couple of minutes. Students
then pair with a classmate to discuss answers.
Volunteer groups then share their conclusions
with the class.
  One minute paper:
As a lecture interruption or in the closing minutes of a class session, ask
students to take out a sheet of paper and for one minute, summarise main
points of lecture or note any points of the lecture they do not understand
(Magnan, 1991). Collect these and use feedback to target problem areas.

 Small problems:
Give small problems/questions related to lecture in the middle of class and ask
the students to discuss the answer(s) with their neighbours and then discuss
them as a class.

 Question box:
Use a question box to encourage students to write questions about anything
that comes to mind during the class, or as they are studying and then to put
them anonymously in the question box. Then start each class with 5 minutes of
answers to the more common questions first, and the others later.

 Post questions:
Post questions and answers on a bulletin board (or its electronic version) for
students to check outside of class.

 Lecture/rhetorical questioning:
Talk in 7 to 10 minute segments, pause, ask pre-planned rhetorical questions;
learners record their answers in their notes.

 Surveys with exemplifier: Pause, ask directly for a show of hands: „Raise
your hand if you agree…… disagree... etc.‟ or „Raise your hand if you have
encountered an example of that.‟ Ask for a volunteer to speak for the response
group whose hands are raised.

 Turn to Your Partner:

Pause, ask each to turn to the person next to them and share examples of the
point just made or complete a given phrase or sentence.

12) CONCLUDING YOUR LECTURE

 Leave your listeners with something to remember: a quotation, an on-screen
image, a call to action, a connection that reverberates back to your catchy
introduction, a curiosity-inspiring transition to the next lecture (Aronson,
1987).
 However you choose to bow out, your conclusion should be open-ended. Craft
an ending that brings closure to the topic and issues you have opened up
during this hour, leaving threads of inquiry that they can explore in smaller
discussion or lab sections.
 Bookend your presentation. That is, try concluding via the same approach you
used in the introduction. If you started with a provocative quotation or
question on the overhead, return to it: do students know its significance and
how to respond to it now?
  Close out your topic by introducing its bearing on a new idea. This approach
gives you a chance to preview (briefly, briefly!) your next lecture, lets students
begin to sense how the lecture's main points will matter to what they read next
for class, and a guiding thread around which to plan their upcoming discussion
or lab sessions.

9.13 ACTIVITY
a) Comment on the activities suggested above for making lectures
more interactive. Can they be adopted in your class?
b) What other activities you have used to make your lectures more
interactive?
c) How important is a forceful conclusion of a lecture?

9.9 EVALUATING LECTURE PEFORMANCE

There are many ways of evaluating your lecture performance. The following
are some strategies you may consider:

1) MAKE NOTES TO YOURSELF AFTER EACH LECTURE.

Consider the timing, the effectiveness of your examples, the clarity of your
explanations, and the like. Jot down questions students asked or any comments they
made. These notes will help you be more effective the next time you give that lecture.

2) AUDIO TAPE YOURSELF

Record a practice session or an actual
lecture. Listen to your pacing, inflection, tone
emphasis, and use of pauses. Is your tone
conversational? Are the transitions clear? Are
the vocalised pauses ("um," "well," "you
know") at a minimum? Lowman (1984)
describes the following procedure for
comparing your conversational style and your
lecturing style.
Ask a friend to meet you in a moderate-sized room. Sit down, start the
recorder, and begin a conversation by stating your name, age, and birthplace. Then
talk for four or five minutes about a favourite book, movie, restaurant, exhibit, or
hobby. Have your friend ask you some questions. Now move to a classroom, stand up,
and give a short lecture (five to eight minutes) to your friend. Several days later listen
to the recordings.
 Listen first straight through, without stopping the tape or taking notes.
What is your overall impression of the voice you are hearing?
 Replay the recording of the conversation, and jot down words that best
describe your voice.
 Replay the conversation again, this time focusing on the use of extraneous
words, the level of relaxation and fluency in the voice, patterns of
breathing, pitch and pace, emphasis and articulation.
  The next day replay the recording of the lecture and make a set of notes on
it.
 Review your notes to identify the differences between the two recorded
segments. Consider style, use of language, pacing, volume, fluency,
expressiveness, and soon. Any differences you note will help you decide
how to improve

3) VIDEO TAPE YOUR LECTURE

When reviewing a videotape of yourself lecturing, you
can watch the entire tape, watch the tape with the sound
turned off, or listen to the tape without watching it.
Adopt the procedures outlined above for reviewing and
analyzing your videotape. Most of the time you will be
pleasantly surprised: you may have felt nervous during
the lecture, but the videotape will show you that your nervousness was not apparent to
your class. Seeing yourself on tape can be a good confidence builder.

4) GET STUDENTS TO EVALUTE YOUR LECTURE

Instructions: Observe the lecture and consider each of the presentation skills listed
below. For each skill, use the following rating scale to indicate the level of
performance:

Preparation Skills 1 2 3
Used many examples
Provided praise and reinforcement
Accepted student ideas and suggestions
Used appropriate humour.
Nonverbal Presentation Skills
Maintained eye contact.
Maintained positive facial expressions.
Gestured with hands and arms.
Maintained good posture.
Moved around the room with energy
Followed lecture notes.
Questioning Skills
Asked questions at varying levels of difficulty
Asked questions to group.
Asked questions to individual students
Involved all students (if possible).
Repeated student responses and questions.
Provided positive reinforcement.
Audiovisual Skills
Used presentation media correctly.
Summarising Skills
Asked for questions.
Asked questions.
Used media to review main points.
 1: Cannot perform this skill and requires extensive practice

2: Can perform this skill but requires additional practice

3: Is competent at performing this skill and requires no additional

practice

NA: Skill not applicable to this lecture presentation

NO: Skill not observed during this lecture presentation

SUMMARY

 The lecture method is the most common form of teaching in institutions of

higher education throughout the world, and is likely to continue to be so.

 The lecture is an oral presentation, intended to present information or teach

people about a particular subject by a university or college teacher.

 The lecture appears easy to prepare and present, and furthermore lectures are
widely accepted by students and peers.

 The lecture method is a cost effective method for teaching large student
numbers with minimal administrative resources.

 Three general types of lecture: expository lecture, lecture-recitation,

interactive-lecture.

 The lecture is not appropriate for teaching abstract information, higher order
thinking skills and development of attitudes and values.

 An effective lecture is one-way, students are passive, excessive note-taking

and no questions are asked.

 Lecturing is not simply a matter of standing in front of a class and reciting

what you know. It is a special form of communication in which voice, gesture,
movement, facial expression, and eye contact can either complement or detract
from the content.

 Some of the ways a lecture may be organised: topical, pro-con, problem-

based, cause-effect and ascending-descending.

 When planning a lecture begin with the end, have handouts for students,
lecture notes, overplan and a lesson plan.
  Language, voice and gesture play an important role in the delivery of a lecture.

 Mentally divide the lecture hall into five sections and keep eye contact with
each of the sections.

 Show enthusiasm of the subject you teach.

 Combine a lecture with appropriate interaction activities to enhance

understanding of lecture content.

 Ensure that you have an effective way of concluding a lecture.

 Evaluate your performance as a lecturer by audio-taping and video-taping your

presentation and reviewing it.

 Using a checklist, you can get students to evaluate your lecture.

KEY TERMS
Lecture Gestures development Language in delivery
Interactive lecture Planning a lecture Pacing
Expository lecture Organisation of material Evaluation of lecture
Effective lecture Non-verbal cues Eye contact
Delivery of lecture Interaction activities Concluding the lecture

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