The Second International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure and Built

Environment – Bandung 19-20 November 2013

A Review of Rainwater Harvesting System for

Stormwater Management

Imroatul C. Juliana1, M. Syahril Badri Kusuma2, M. Cahyono2

1
Student Doctoral Program, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institut
Teknologi Bandung
Email : [email protected]
2
Lecturer, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Institut Teknologi Bandung

Abstract

Increasing population growth led to an increase in housing needs. Rapid urbanization leads
to a gap between the needs of the housing and the limited supplies of land and the
provision of infrastructure. Housing take the largest space in the region and closely linked
to the concept of environment and spatial planning. Urban sprawling and unsustainable
land conversion resulting the development of the cities has exceeded the carrying capacity
of the region. It is often forgotten that the carrying capacity of the natural resources will be
reduced, so that the exploitation of the environment that is based solely on economic
interests would lead to the disruption of the ecological balance. If the landscape
development do not laid out well and give attention to all aspects, especially the balance
between the levels of development and carrying capacity of the environment as well as the
balance between the development of the region such development will not achieve
optimum and sustainable results. Housing development due to population growth that not
accompanied by water preservation efforts will obviously cause problems inundated.

Such problems can be avoided if the available water resources optimally utilized. One of
the potential water resource that is often overlooked is the rain. Potential rainfall is often
left wasted. Though it can be harvested and used to meet the need for clean water. The
concept of rainwater harvesting is a concept that focuses on sustainability. Several previous
studies have shown that the utilization of rainwater provide economic and environmental
benefits.

Keywords: rainwater harvesting, environment, housing, rainfall, sustainability

1 Introduction
Rainwater is a source of high quality water that is available every rainy season and
has the potential to reduce the pressure on the use of fresh water resources . The
concept of rainwater harvesting (RWH) is a technology that has been long enough
and can be used to supply water, reducing the burden of the aquifer and surface
water and prevent flooding. Several years ago, RWH is only used as an alternative
to compliance in areas of water shortage. Along with technological advances and
increasing environmental awareness of the human will, RWH concept began to be
used as an alternative source of water to meet the needs of either the main or
additional source of water. The concept of RWH can be applied to large or small
2 Imroatul , Syahril, Cahyono

catchment area scale. According to Meera and Mansoor Ahammed, 2006,

rainwater harvested from roofs can still be used for drink, cook and bath since has
a quality that is not much different than the water coming from the taps.

RWH system is a method that can be used to prevent flooding and reduce the use
of groundwater. Many studies were conducted related to the implementation and
development of RWH systems in commercial buildings and households in urban
areas (Appan et al., 1997, Terry Thomas, 1998, Marcel Marcelo et al., 2011, B.
alawneh et al 2011, A. Jabelamar and G. Ravikumar, 2011, Enedir Ghisi et al.,
2012 Aftab Bin Tallal et al. 2012, Otti VI et al 2013). Research on hydrological
analysis models for calculating the RWH system also performed well for many
computer programs and formulas formulations (Fewkes and Butler, 1999, RM
Roebuck and Ashley 2006, S. Ward et al., 2008, A. Gerolin et al. 2010, Monzur
Alam Imteaz et al. 2011, TD Fletcher et al. 2012)

2 RWH System Development

Appan (1997), in his research stated that in the cities of developing countries, the
need for clean water is required. Shortage of clean water can be replaced by rain
water. There are two methods that can be used to catch rain water, by capture
runoff in the catchment area larger and smaller catches empowering as the roof and
gutters.

A. Fewkes (2000) tried to generalize the variability of water savings that can be
produced by RWH system based on different spatial and temporal scales. Fewkes
evaluate how the spatial and temporal scale precipitation associated with the
behavior of RWH systems. Water balance simulation algorithms are used to
explain the operation of the storage tank. Temporal scale is divided into 2
variations time, daily and monthly. Spatial scale is divided into 5 geographical
locations. In general, the performance of the storage tank resulting from the
monthly models correlate well with the performance of the daily model. Monthly
models much simpler and versatile for modeling the performance of storage tanks.

In 2006, Roebuck and Ashley through his research find a RainCycle model which
is a model that integrated the hydrological model to analyze the performance of
RWH in school buildings in urban areas in Australia. RainCycle is a computer
model based on yield after spillage concept. This study simulated the operational
design for 100 years with the output result is a long-term financial savings,
payback period and the percentage of water needs are met by the RWH system

Yan Zhang, Donghui Chen et al. (2009) assessed the feasibility of RWH systems in
high rise buildings for household and commercial purposes in several different
cities in Australia. RWH system was tested in 4 cities, namely Melbourne, Sydney,
Perth, and Darwin. The buildings is a 10 storeys building, with 600 m 2 roof area.
Optimization of RWH tank and the volume of water that can be accommodated is
calculated based on the daily water balance. Economic analysis conducted by the
method of NPV and payback period. From the results it can be seen that the large
water requirements can be met by the use of rain water. This can be seen from the
Comprehensive Water Management Model With Rainwater Harvesting
- A Literature Review 3

efficiency of economic, and better environmental impacts. For each city, the
effective tank sizes are vary, depending on rainfall and the condition of the city.
Small size tank is more appropriate for Melbourne, Sydney for the medium size
and large size tank are appropriate for Darwin and Perth. The tank size difference
will affect the results of the RWH economic analysis for each city. Economically,
RWH system in Perth has the best economic performance.

Erhan Aatur Eroksuz and Rahman (2010), conducted an evaluation of RWH tank
systems on multi-unit buildings on urban areas in Australia. Rainwater is used for
potable water use. The method that used in the studied is the daily water balance
method with daily rainfall data. Evaluation results show that an increase in the size
of RWH tank for a small catchment area does not much affect the efficient use of
water compared with the larger catchment area. Large tank size is more suitable for
multi-unit buildings. Saving water has a direct relationship with rainfall produced
in the same year. Evaluation also generate an equation to predict the net water
savings based on annual average roof area, tank size and rainfall.

Angrill Sara et al. (2011) made a study that aims to investigate the impact of RWH
systems to surrounding environment. RWH system applied to two types of housing
that is compact and diffuse in urban areas. There are three locations where the
storage tanks and 8 scenarios are created. RWH designs are made using the concept
of eco housing. The environmental impact of the terms is the potential abiotic
reduction, acid potential, eutrophication, global warming, human toxicity, ozone
function reduction, and photochemical ozone effect. The method used in the study
is the life cycle analysis (LCA). The results obtained that a compact model provide
a lower environmental impact

In terms of groundwater, N. Nagaraj et al. (2011) conducted a study to evaluate the

effect of RWH structures in the process of groundwater recharge. Selected study
sites in Kolar district, Karnataka India where there is exploitation of the excessive
use of ground water. RWH system was built on a site in the village. From the
results, it can be seen that after RWH systems implemented, groundwater in has
increased. B. Alawneh et al. (2011) also conducted a study on the ground water
RWH system and get similar results.

Aftab Bin Tallal et al. (2012), examines the quality of rainwater that is used as a
potable water use in Pakistan. From the research, in some cases, the quality of
harvested rainwater is still not good (turbidity, pH, chemistry, biology) but can be
improved with the filter, chlorine provision and maintenance of catchment area
(roof). Quality of harvested rainwater average is still above the limit value of clean
water standards issued by WHO.

M. Vargas-Violeta Parra et al. (2012) evaluated the RWH system based on exergy
consumption. The analysis is based on the consumption of materials and energy
required by the system using multiple strategies (scenarios). RWH system applied
to residential buildings with 2 levels of density, high-density and low-density in
urban areas in Barcelona. Harvested rainwater is used for non-potable water use
and the location of the storage tanks are divided into 3 locations: below the surface,
4 Imroatul , Syahril, Cahyono

under the roof, and distributed on the roof. Exergy assessment system using life
cycle approach. Calculated parameters consist of exergy consumption and exergy
efficiency. The results showed that the model with a high density with a tank that
placed on the roof provide the best exergy efficiency.

Adapted : Roebuck, 2007

Figure 1. Fundamental rainwater harvesting processes

3 Application of Rainwater Harvesting

RWH concept has traditionally been long applied to aridareas. During this period,
due to the difficulty to get clean water, people harvested rainwater to meet water
needs. RWH system is done simply by using pans, jugs and jars. In India, RWH
system has done more than hundred years ago. At a very dry area in India known
as Desert Gold, residents made a simple system to harvested rainwater (Anupam
Mishra, 2009). In Taiwan, a lot of traditional rain water harvesting system has been
practices in an area that has a limited water supply or underground water (Chao-
Hsien Liaw & Yao-Lung Tsai, 2004). Likewise in the eastern Africa region, the
condition of the region that partially arid with lack of water resources as well as
economic constraints cause the population hard to find a way to get water (Terry
Thomas, 1998)

In Japan, the culture of the people, causing RWH practices has been widely
applied. The rain water used for washing cars, watering gardens, and other
ancillary purposes. In The building regulations, the Japanese government made it
compulsory for RWH system built inside the new building. In fact, the
government provide incentives in the form of property tax reduction up to two
thirds for the building that have implemented RWH system.

In Banda Aceh, after tsunami in 2004, the availability of clean water become one
of the big problems at the moment. This is further aggravated by the costs to be
incurred by the public to get clean water, which is 30% of their total income. For
families who can not afford, they are forced to use polluted river water for daily
use. To overcome these problems, the Government of South Korea through Seoul
National University, led by Professor Han Mooyoung and 12 students, made a
simple RWH systems in some villages and public facilities. Consideration of
making RWH system because this system is one of the simplest systems of
alternative water sources. RWH system consists of a storage tank, collector pipes
and filters. Rainwater captured from the roof, filtered, and collected in a storage
tank. For only $ 300, residents are able to enjoy clean water facilities. With the
RWH system, clean water needs of the population will be fullfill and it is been
prove that rainwater has the potential to meet the needs of clean water during
disaster recovery (Jaemin Song, Mooyoung Han, 2008).
Comprehensive Water Management Model With Rainwater Harvesting
- A Literature Review 5

In 2013, the condition of the capital Jakarta is getting worse due to flooding in the
rainy season and clean water shortages in the dry season push the government of
DKI collaboration with the Government of West Java and the Minister of Public
Works city declared Water Harvesting Program for Jakarta on May 30, 2013.
Within the declaration included several measures to encourage water harvesting
such as reforestation, making absorption wells, water reservoir beneath the soil
surface and revitalizing it.

In the UK, the concept of RWH has been stated in the Building Research
Establishment's Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM, 2007) and the
Code for Sustainable Homes (DBERR, 2007). In UK’s water structuring strategy,
has stated that RWH has an important role in water management strategies.

Singapore is one of the country where the average population stay in the apartment.
Climatic conditions and rainfall spread support for the use of RWH systems.
Caused by a form of high-rise buildings, rainwater that can be catched from the
roof will be reduced (Terry Thomas, 1998). Appan et al. (1997) found an
economical tank system that placed on the roof of the building. The system can
economically meet the needs of water for flushing toilets. Based on these studies, it
was stated that 4% of the total consumption is filled with RWH system with lower
cost. Moreover, according to Appan (1999) on the campus of Nanyang
Technological University Singapore, the use of clean water can be reduced by
12.4% for toilet flushing because the function is replaced by rain water.

In Australia, the application of RWH systems in the scope of households has

increased from 17.2% in 2004 to 19.3% or more than 1.5 million households in
2007 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010). According to Zang et.al (2009) in
several cities in Australia, the use of rainwater can save water usage up 29.9% in
Perth, and 32.3% in Sydney. Ghisi et al. (2009) stated that the use of rain water at
several gas station in Brazil, conserve the use of water (potable water) of 32.7 to
70%.

4 RWH System Review

RWH system is a method that can be used to prevent flooding and reduce the use
of groundwater. The system has been widely applied in several countries in the
world. Many studies were conducted related to the implementation and
development of RWH systems in commercial buildings and households in urban
areas (Appan et al., 1997, Terry Thomas, 1998, Marcel Marcelo et al. 2011, B.
alawneh et al 2011, A. Jabelamar and G. Ravikumar, 2011, Enedir Ghisi et al.,
2012 Aftab Bin Tallal et al. 2012, Otti VI et al 2013). Research on hydrological
analysis model to calculate the RWH system also performed well for many
computer programs and formulations (Fewkes and Butler, 1999, RM Roebuck and
Ashley 2006, S. Ward et al., 2008, A. Gerolin et al., 2010, Monzur Alam Imteaz et
al. 2011, TD Fletcher et al. 2012)

RWH systems are economically feasible to apply because in some cases, provides
financial benefits. Research on the economic feasibility analysis with various
6 Imroatul , Syahril, Cahyono

existing economic methods have been performed to prove the economic value of
RWH systems to be accepted by society (Yan Zhang et al., 2009, Vivian WY Tam
et al., 2009, Anthony M. Ryan et al., 2009, M. Maharjan et al ., 2009 A. Rahman et
al. 2010, Aatur Rahman et al. 2011 Farreny R. et al. 2011 Campisano Alberto et al.,
2012). Some research of the RWH system in terms of the social aspects has been
conducted by several researchers (N. Nagaraj et al. 2011). In the environmental
side, RWH systems support environmental sustainability by reducing water usage
and indirectly help the process of ground water recharge

There are several obstacles that must be faced in RWH application. The frequency
and rain water potential sometimes does not meet the required minimum amount of
water needs. Rain water quality also has not met the prevailing standard of clean
water. Rain water can be contaminated by impurities that exist in the catchment
area. In addition, insects can also breed in stagnant water. This requires several
treatments to maintain the quality of rain water in order to meet clean water
standards before use. One way is to create a filter on a scale wastewater treatment
plant or a house on a residential scale.

There are some issues emerged from RWH system. The slow progress in
implementation and widely use of RWH caused by the uncertainties of economic
benefits, the lack of experience and the lack of evidences that such a system can be
implemented. Although in some countries have issued regulations or guidelines on
the implementation of RWH systems, but the developers and development
practitioners are still reluctant to implement the concept. In general, those who
manage water more interested in programs that are general rather than domestic.
Calculation of the economic feasibility of RWH systems needed at the system
design stage. In addition to the economic aspects, social aspects of the users also
need to be evaluated so that the application of the system in accordance with the
needs of the user. An socio-economic feasibility study of the RWH systems have
been carried out and has been applied to several sectors of water resources. The
approach includes the cost benefit analysis, cost effevtiveness, net present value,
internal rate of return, payback period and life cycle cost analysis.

Previous studies focused more on RWH system reliability whether hydrologic and
economic for certain conditions.In those studies, few studies look at a RWH system
that integrated with the region. An application of large-scale rainwater harvesting is
considered as an adaptive strategy in the face of climate change-related water
shortages (Trenberth et al., 2007)

In addition, previous studies have not been focus on standard model of RWH
implementation for certain social conditions of the region and especially to areas in
Indonesia. Therefore, for purposes planning in the future, it is need to made a
typological model of RWH implementation for domestic purposes in urban areas in
accordance with the socio-economic conditions of the region and its inhabitants.
The development of the model based on water and soil conservation, rain water
harvesting, and a good drainage system planning in a residential area. From the
studies, a standardization for the application of RWH can be made.
Comprehensive Water Management Model With Rainwater Harvesting
- A Literature Review 7

Typology model of RWH implementation models could be distinguished by the

condition of hydrology and topography of the residential area or the social and
economic condition of the occupants or users of RWH systems.

Figure 2. Rainwater harvesting proposed research mindset

5 References
1) Angrill, Sara, Farreny, Ramon, dan Gasol, Environmental Analysis of
Rainwater Infrastructures in Diffuse and Compact Urban Models in
Mediterranean Climate, International Journal of Life Cycle Assess, Germany,
2011
2) Appan, A., Trends in Water Demands and The Role of Rainwater Catchment
Systems in The Next Millennium, 1997
3) Appan, A, A dual-mode system for harnessing roofwater for non-potable uses,
Urban Water Journal volume 1 pp317-321, Singapore, 1999
4) Ashley, R.M., Blackwood, D., Butler, D., dan Jowitt, P., Sustainable Water
Services: a procedural guide. IWA Publishing. London, 2004
5) Cheng, C.L., Liao, M.C., Reional Rainfall Level Zoning for Rainwater
Harvesting Systems in Northern Taiwan, Journal of Resources, Conservation
and Recycling 53 (421-428), Netherlands, 2009
6) D., Fletcher, Andriue, H. , dan Hamel, P., Understanding, Management and
Modelling of urban Hydrology and Its Consequences for receiving Waters ; A
State of The Art, Advances in Water Resources Journal 51 (261-279), UK,
2013
8 Imroatul , Syahril, Cahyono

7) Eroksuz, Erhan, Rahman, Ataur, Rainwater Tanks in Multi-unit Buildings : a

case study for three Australian Cities, Journal of Resources, Conservation and
Recycling 54 (1449 - 1452), Netherlands, 2010
8) Fewkes, A., Butler, D., The Sizing of Rainwater Stores Using Behavioural
Models, Proceedings of the 9th International Rainwater Catchment Systems
Conference, Brazil, 1999
9) Fewkes, A., Modelling the performance of rainwater collection systems:
towards a generalised approach, Urban Water Journal Vol 4 (323-333), UK,
2000
10) Fewkes, A., The technology, design and utility of rainwater catchment
systems, IWA Publishing. pp27-61., London, 2006
11) Gerolin, A., Kellagher, R.B., dan Faram, M.G., Rainwater Harvesting for
Stormwater Management : Feasibility and Sizing Considerations for The UK,
Novatech, UK, 2010
12) Ghisi, E., Cardoso, K.A., dan Rupp, R.F., Short-term versus Long-term
Rainfall Time Series in The Assessmentt of Potable Water Savings by Using
Rainwater in Houses, Journal of Environmental Management 100 (109 – 119),
United States, 2012
13) Imteaz, M.A., Ahsan, A., Naser, J., dan Rahman, A., Reliability Analysis of
Rainwater Tanks in Melbourne Using Daily Water Balance Model, Journal of
Resources, Conservation and Recycling 56 (80-86), Netherlands, 2011
14) Nagaraj, N., Pradhani, U., Chengappa, P.G., Cost Effectiveness of Rainwater
Harvesting for Groundwater Recharge in Micro Watersheds of Kolar District
India, Agricultural Economics Research Review vo. 24 (217-223), India, 2011
15) Morales, Tito, Luruena, R. Financial Feasibility and Environmental Analysis
of Potential Rainwater Harvesting Systems : A case study, Journal of
Resources, Conservation and Recycling 69 (130-140), Netherlands, 2012
16) Rahman, A., Keane, J., dan Imteaz M.A., Rainwater Harvesting in Greater
Sydney : Water savings, reability and economic benefits, Journal of
Resources, Conservation and Recycling 61 (16 - 21), Netherlands, 2012
17) Roebuck, R.M., dan Ashley, Predicting The Hydraulic and Life Cycle Cost
Performance of Rainwater Harvesting System Using a Computer Based
Modelling Tool, Proceeding 7th International Conference of Urban Drainage
Modelling, Australia, 2006
18) Song, Jaemin, Han, Mooyoung, Rainwater Harvesting as a Sustainable Water
Supply Option in Banda Aceh, Journal Desalination 248 (233-240), 2009
19) Tallal, Hasnain, Ali, dan Iqbal, R., Save and Safe Water : Evaluation Design
and storage period on water quality of rainwater harvesting system, Journal of
environment and Earth Science vol 2, No. 10, 2012
20) Thomas, Terry, Domestic Water Supply Using Rainwater Harvesting,
Building Research and Information, UK, 1998
21) Trenberth, K.E., P.D. Jones, P. Ambenje, R. Bojariu, D. Easterling, A. Klein
Tank, D. Parker, F. Rahimzadeh, J.A. Renwick, M. Rusticucci, B. Soden, and
P. Zhai, Observations: Surface and atmospheric climate change. Chapter 3 in
S. Solomon, Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007
Comprehensive Water Management Model With Rainwater Harvesting
- A Literature Review 9

22) Ward, S., Memon, F.A., dan Butler, D., Rainwater Harvesting : model based
design evaluation, Proceeding 11th International Conference of Urban
Drainage, UK, 2008
23) Ward, S., Memon, F.A., dan Butler, D, Performance of a Large Building
Rainwater Harvesting System, Water Research Journal 46 (5127-5134), 2012
24) Zhang, Y., Chen, D., Chen, L., dan Ashbolt, S., Potential for Rainwater Use
in High Rise Buildings in Australian Cities, Journal of Environmental
Management, United States 91 (222-226), 2009
25) -----------, Rainwater’s Recovery Role in Banda Aceh, Water 21, Magazine of
International Water Association (47-49) June 2007m