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PROTOTYPING AND TESTING

• Prototypes are physical models of the product that
are tested in some way to validate the design
decisions that have been made up to that point in
Module 3 the design process.

• Prototypes come in various forms and are used in

different ways throughout the design process.

• A prototype is a physical model of the product, as

opposed to a computer model (CAD model) of the
product or other simulation of the design

Prototype and Model Testing Throughout

the Design Process 2. Embodiment Design: Alpha-Prototype Testing .
1. Conceptual Design: Proof-of-Concept Prototype . • The end of the embodiment design phase is usually capped
off by testing product prototypes.
• This is a physical model to show whether the concept
performs the functions that satisfy the customer’s • These are called alpha- prototypes because while the parts
needs and corresponding engineering specifications. are made to the final design drawings with the same
materials as the product, they are not made using the same
manufacturing processes as the production–run parts.
• No attempt is made to make the proof-of-concept
model look like the product as far as size, materials, or
manufacturing methods are concerned. • For example, parts that might be made as castings or
forgings in the production run will be machined from plates
or bar stock because the tooling for the production parts is
• The emphasis is on showing that the concept will still being designed.
deliver the needed functions.

3. Detail Design: Beta-Prototype Testing.

4.Manufacturing : Preproduction Prototype Testing .
• This involves full-size functional part or product
• This represents the first several thousand of units of
testing using the materials and processes that production from the actual production line using the
will be used in production. assigned production workers.

• Therefore, the output from the line represents the

• This is a proof-of-process prototype. product that will shortly be shipped and sold to the
customer.
• The results of the beta-prototype tests are used • The tests on these products are made to verify and
to make any remaining changes in the product, document the quality of the design and production and
complete the production planning, and try out assembly processes.
the production tooling

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• There is a trade-off between the number of prototypes that will

be built for a product design and tested and the cost and length
of the product development cycle.
Rapid Prototyping
• Prototypes help to verify the product but they have a high cost in • Rapid prototyping (RP) is a technology that produces
money and time. prototypes directly from computer-aided design (CAD) models
in a fraction of the time required to make them by machining
or molding methods.
• As a result, there is a strong trend, particularly in large
companies, to replace physical prototypes with computer models
(virtual prototypes) because simulation is cheaper and faster. • Another name for RP is solid freeform fabrication.

• A significant counter example to this trend is Toyota, which sticks • RP is used for producing the final proof-of-concept model and is
by its longstanding practice of using extensive physical used extensively in embodiment design to check form, fit, and
prototypes in component design. function

• Toyota also is known as a quality car producer that can assemble • RP objects are often used to check the function of kinematic
a near–defect-free car in less time and at less cost than its motion, but they are not generally strong enough to be used as
competitors. prototypes where strength issues are important.

2. Convert the CAD model to the STL file format.

Steps in rapid prototyping
• The CAD model must be converted to the STL format.
1. Create a CAD model

• Any RP process starts with a three-dimensional CAD • In this format the surfaces of the component are
model, which can be considered a virtual prototype of the converted to very small, triangular facets by a process
part. called tessellation.

• The only requirement on the model for using a RP • When taken together, this network of triangles
process is that the model must be a fully closed volume. represents a polyhedral approximation of the surfaces of
the component.
• Thus, if we were to pour water into the model it would
not leak. • CAD software has the capability to convert a CAD file to
STL.

3. Slice the STL file into thin layers. 4. Make the prototype
• The tessellated STL fi le is moved to the RP machine, and its controlling • Once the sliced computer model is in the computer of the RP machine it
software slices the model into many thin layers. runs without much attention until the part is completely built up.

• This is required because most RP processes build up the solid body layer
by layer. 5. Post-processing

• For example, if a part is to be 2 inches high, and each layer is 0.005 • All objects removed from RP machines need processing.
inches thick, it requires the addition of material by a buildup of 400
layers. • This consists of cleaning, removal of any support structures, and light
sanding of the surfaces to remove the edges from the layering process.
• Thus, most RP processes are slow, taking hours to build out a part.
• Depending on the material used in the RP process, the object may need
• They gain speed over numerically controlled machining as NC machining curing, sintering, or infiltration of a polymer to give it strength.
often takes many more hours of process planning and computer
programming before metal cutting can start

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• Rapid prototyping technologies include stereo-lithography

and selective laser sintering, which involve using a laser to
harden either a resin bath or a polymer powder in a
particular configuration to build each layer.

• Stereolithography is a technique or process

 for creating three-dimensional objects,
 in which a computer-controlled moving laser beam is
used to build up the required structure, layer by
layer,
 from a liquid polymer that hardens on contact with
laser light.

Flower model made with a 3D printer

Miniature face models produced using several colored
plastics on a 3D Printer

Testing and Evaluation

• Prototype tests are used to verify the design decisions
that are made along the way to launching a product

• One of the important documents that is developed at

the start of a major design program is the test plan .

• The test plan gives a description of the types of tests

to be performed, when the test will be made in the
design process, and the cost of the tests.

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There are many kinds of tests that may be needed in a design

project. Some examples are 6. Testing at the environmental limits - Testing at
specification extremes of temperature, pressure,
humidity, etc.
1. Modeling and simulations
7. Safety and risk test- Determine likelihood of injury to
users -Check for compliance with safety codes and
2. Testing for all mechanical and electrical modes of failure. standards in all countries where product will be sold.
3. Specialized tests on seals, or for thermal shock, vibration, 8. Manufacturing supplier qualification- Determine the
acceleration, or moisture resistance, as design dictates.
capability of suppliers with regard to quality, on-time
delivery, and cost.
4. Accelerated life testing - Evaluating the useful life of the
critical-to-quality components.
9. Packaging- Evaluate the ability of the packaging to
protect the product.

Impact Testing Techniques

• Charpy and Izod Impact test , were designed and are still used to measure
the impact energy

• The Charpy V-notch (CVN) technique is most commonly used in the United
States

• For both Charpy and Izod, the specimen is in the shape of a bar of square
cross section, into which a V-notch is machined

• The load is applied as an impact blow from a weighted pendulum hammer

that is released from a locked position at a fixed height

• The energy absorption, computed from the difference between height

difference after striking specimen and is a measure of the impact energy.

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Modifying and Freezing the Design

• Any drawback seen in the design is used to improve

the design.
• These modified designs are again tested till
satisfactory results are seen.
• Then the design is frozen and it is handed over for
production.
• Frozen design are improved further, based on
customer feed back.

Cost Analysis
• Cost estimation is a complex business that requires skill and
• “Design freeze” describes the end point of the experience.
design phase at which a technical product
description is handed over to production. • However, there are several ways that we can break out the
cost structure of a device that we are designing.

• The simplest is to estimate labor, materials, and overhead

costs.

• “low cost” is very likely to be among the objectives of a

designed artifact.

Labour cost Material cost

• Labor costs include payments to the employees, support
personnel who perform tasks such as taking and filling orders, • Materials include those items and inputs directly used in
packaging, and shipping the device. building the device, along with intermediate materials and
inventories that are consumed in the manufacturing
• Labor costs also include a variety of indirect costs that are less process.
evident because they are generally not paid directly to
employees.
• A key tool for estimating the materials cost of an artifact is
the bill-of-materials (BOM), the list of all of the parts in our
• These indirect costs include health and life insurance, retirement design, including the quantities of each part required for
benefits, etc. complete assembly.

• A simple starting point for estimating costs is to keep good

records or the activities needed to build our design’s prototype.

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Material cost Overhead cost

• The BOM lists all the materials used to make the device. • The costs incurred by a manufacturer that cannot be
directly assigned to a single product are termed
• As such, it matters greatly whether our design starts with overhead.
raw materials or with materials that have already been
worked by our suppliers. • If, for example, a company makes a product in a factory
that also produces 20 other products, the cost of the
• In the case of the screwdriver, we might decide to building, the machines, the electricity, and so on, must
“outsource” the handle, in which case our BOM would somehow be shared or distributed among all of the 21
include a prepared handle rather than a stock piece of cast items.
acrylic that must be machined.

Overhead cost
• If the company ignored these overhead costs in setting its
product’s prices, it would soon find itself unable to pay
for the building and the services necessary to maintain it.
Engineering the Design: Prototype to
• Overhead costs include the costs of needed business
functions such as accounting, billing, advertising, etc..
Product

Engineering the Design Engineering the Design

• Design is significantly responsible for the cost of its There are many M’ s in manufacturing a product.
realization.
Proper management of these M’ s are essential for
• A good design always brings down the cost. reducing the cost.
• Cost estimates are to be worked out at every stage and  Men
suitable changes made to contain the cost.
 Machines
• Production costs can be further reduced by adopting
the best practices used in industries.  Methods
 Materials

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Engineering the Design Engineering the Design

• “Men” refers to the human element in operating • The production manager must also choose the machines
systems. and methods of the company.

• Since the vast majority of manufacturing personnel work • The flexibility of the production process and the ability of
workers to adapt to equipment and schedules are
in the physical production of goods, “people important issues in this phase of production
management” is one of the production manager’s most management.
important responsibilities.
• The production manager’s responsibility for materials
includes the management of flow processes—both
physical (raw materials) and information (paperwork).

Production Planning & Control Functions of PPC

• The principle of production planning and control lies in the statement ‘First 1.Planning
Plan Your Work and then Work on Your Plan’.  Is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it
and who is to do it.
• Is the process of
– planning the production in advance,
2.Routing
– setting the exact route of each item,
– fixing the starting and finishing dates for each item,  Is the selection of path which each part of the product will
– to give production orders to shops follow, which being transformed from raw material to finished
– to follow up the progress of products according to orders.
products.

• Main functions of production planning and control includes planning, routing, 3.Scheduling
scheduling, dispatching and follow-up.
 Scheduling may be defined as the fixation of time and date for
each operations as well as it determines the sequence of
operations to be followed.

Decision levels in Production Planning

4.Dispatching 1. Strategic decision
 It gives necessary authority so as to start a particular work,
which has already been planned under ‘Routing’ and  These decisions are taken by top level management
‘Scheduling’.  Some common examples are
 Ware house location
 It is the release of orders and instruction for the starting of  Distribution system
production for any item  Building a new plant
 New product planning
 R & D Planning
5.Follow-up  Forming new technology department
 Is to report daily the progress of work in each shop in a  Dropping a product from existing product mix
prescribed Performa and to investigate the causes of
 These type of decisions are taken to achieve long term goals
deviations from the planned performance
 These types of decision are highly un-structured in nature

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2. Operational Decision
2. Tactical Decision  Tactical decisions support tactical decisions
 Tactical decisions support strategic decisions  They are taken by bottom level management
 They are taken by middle level management  Some examples include
 Some examples include  Daily operator schedule
 Preventive maintenance policy  Production schedule
 Plant layout
 Project scheduling  Inventory schedule
 Buying new equipments
 Sampling plan to inspect raw materials at store while receiving
 Budget analysis
from vendor
 Short term forecasting
 These types of decision are structured in nature
 These types of decision are semi – structured in nature

Scheduling Sequencing Methods

• Scheduling provides a calendar for processing a • Sequencing is the process of arranging operations on
set of jobs in a shop floor machines such that there is less idle time for machines

• Various Sequencing Methods are

• It is a process of allocating the start and finish
time for each particular order 1. Shortest Processing Time(SPT)
2. Weighted Shortest Processing Time(WSPT)
3. Earliest Due Date (EDD)
• Types of Scheduling include 4. First Come First Serve (FCFS)
– Single Machine Scheduling 5. Longest Processing Time (LPT)
– Job Shop Scheduling 6. Critical Ratio Method (CR)

1.Shortest Processing Time(SPT)

• Jobs are arranged in increasing order of their

processing time • Arrange jobs in increasing order of Processing
• Jobs with shortest processing time are time
Job 2 3 5 4 1
scheduled first Process 4 5 8 14 15
Time
• SPT rule minimizes the mean flow time
• Calculate the flow time for each job and find
Example 1: Find the optimal sequence using SPT and also find the mean flow time
the mean flow time Job 2 3 5 4 1
Job 1 2 3 4 5 Process 4 5 8 14 15
Process 15 4 5 14 8 Time
Time Flow 4 9 17 31 46
Time

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2. Weighted Shortest Processing Time(WSPT)

• Example 2: Find the optimal sequence using • Some times all jobs will not have equal
SPT and also find the mean flow time importance
• In such situation each jobs are assigned a
Job 1 2 3 4 5 particular weight
Process 28 8 10 32 16
• Processing time is divided by weight to obtain
Time weighted processing time
• Sequencing is done in increasing order of
weighted processing time

3. Earliest Due Date (EDD)

• Sequencing is done in the increasing order of due Sequencing of Two Machines and n Jobs
date of products
Q1 Five jobs are performed on machine M1 and then on machine M2 . Hours
taken by each job on each machine is given below. Determine optimum
4. First Come First Serve sequence and minimum time to complete the job

• Job arriving at work station first has the highest

priority Machine
Jobs

• Here each job is treated equally A B C D E

M1 5 1 9 3 10
5. Longest Processing Time
• Jobs having the longest processing time have the M2 2 6 7 8 4

highest priority

Johnson’s rule (N job 2 machine) Q2 Six jobs are performed on machine M1 and then on machine M2 . Hours
taken by each job on each machine is given below. Determine optimum
sequence and minimum time to complete the job
I. Find the job having smallest processing time
II. If the job corresponds to Machine M1 , Jobs
assign the job as first job. If the job Machine
corresponds to machine M2 , assign job as A B C D E F
last job
M1 5 3 2 10 12 6
III. Repeat this steps to the remaining jobs to
obtain the optimum sequence
M2 3 2 5 11 10 7
IV. Determine total minimum time for job
completion , idle time for machine 1 & 2

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Inventory control
• Inventory control is another important phase of
production management.
Rule 2
• If there are equal smallest processing times for • Inventory may be defined as any resource that has
each machine, place the job on M1 first in the certain value and which can be used at a later time,
sequence and one in M2 last in the sequence when the demand for the item will arise.

• Inventories include raw materials, component parts,

work in process, finished goods, etc.

• The trend today is to go for minimum inventory.

• Successful inventory management, which involves the

solution of the problem of which items and how much to Supply chain
carry in inventory in various locations, is critical to a
company’s competitive success. • Supply chain consists of the network of organizations
that connects supplier and end-users.
• Not carrying an item can result in delays in getting
needed parts or supplies, but carrying every item at • It provides the route through which raw material is
every location can tie up huge amounts of capital and converted into finished goods/services into the hands of
result in an accumulation of obsolete, unusable stock consumers.

• Managers generally rely on mathematical models and • Supply chain management encompasses management of
computer systems developed by industrial engineers and all the elements and activities of the supply chain.
operations researchers to handle the problems
of inventory control.

• All flows of information, product or funds generates costs Material Handling

within the supply chain.
• Supply chain management involves the management of • It is the art and science involving movement, packaging,
flows between and among stages in a supply chain to and storing of materials in any form by means of gravity,
maximize total supply chain profitability. manual effort or power activated machinery.

• Manual or powered
Supplier

Supplier
}
Storage Mfg. Storage Dist. Retailer Customer
• Fixed path or variable path - conveyors, trolley, trucks,
etc.

Supplier

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Principles of material handling

• Reduce unnecessary movement
• Reduce congestion
• Scientific factory layout

Activity 3
1. Design a machine to wash and Iron clothes

2. Pens are used for writing . Can they be used

for any additional purposes ?

3. Chairs with one leg saves material. Can such

designs be used for auditorium?

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Activity 4
1. List out the standard organizations ?
2. Prepare the list of standard items used in any
engineering specialization ?
3. Develop any engineering design with over
50% items as parts ?

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